CHAPTER 13 (GOODWIN) –

PSYCHOLOGY’S

PRACTITIONERS

Dr. Nancy Alvarado

Research vs Practice

Psychology

Experimental

Psychology

Clinical

Psychology

Psychonomic Society

APS (Association for

Psychological Science)

Ph.D.

APA (American

Psychological Association)

Ph.D. or Psy.D

Ph.D vs Psy.D vs MD

Clinical Practice

Psychiatry Clinical Psychology

Clinical Research

Mental Health Care

M.D. with

Internship in

Psychiatry & board

certification +

Psychoanalytic

Training (optional) Ph.D. with research

dissertation + clinical

internship & licensure

Psy.D with supervised

practice instead of

dissertation + clinical

internship & licensure Work in university Work in clinic

Work in hospital or

clinic

What About Counseling?

Psychiatry

Problems with Living and

Personality Disorders

Major Axis disorders

(mental illness)

Clinical Psychology

Mental Health Care

•Counseling (MFT &

school)

•Social work and

social service

agencies

•Pastoral counseling

•Therapy for adjust-

ment problems

Therapy, diagnosis

and testing,

coordination of care in

agencies/institutions

Management of drug and

other medical treatment,

evaluation of organic

factors, institutional care

Researchers vs Practitioners

Prior to WWII, academic psychology dominated the

APA but that gradually changed.

First, clinical psychologists formed other organizations.

The balance shifted in 1962 when those in

nonacademic (clinical) jobs outnumbered academics.

The APA was restructured in 1982 to include divisions to

restore the status of experimental psychology.

Experimental psychologists formed the Psychonomic

Society (1960) and later, the APS (1988).

The split represents different values & interests.

The Limited Role of Psychologists

Before the war, psychologists worked under

psychiatrists (who had medical training) and

psychologists were limited to administering tests.

There was little formal training except on-the-job.

During the war psychologists began providing

therapeutic services because the need was so great.

The govt NIMH funded training of clinical psychologists.

Psychologists were recognized as expert diagnosticians

and therapists, no longer restricted to a clinic setting or

supervised by a psychiatrist.

Deaths in WWI

Deaths in WWII

Psychological Effects of WWII

40% of casualties of the Battle of Guadalcanal

(1942) requiring evacuation were psychological

‘breakdowns.’

Of the first 1.5 million medical discharges, 45%

were for psychiatric reasons.

At the end of the war, 44,000 people were

hospitalized at the VA for mental disorders,

compared to 30,000 for physical wounds.

Psychiatry could not meet the need for treatment.

Battle Stresses

Trying to understand what had contributed to the tremendous

psychiatric casualty levels of this prolonged battle, Lidz (1946,

p. 194) concluded that: “…there were many factors preying on the emotional stability of the men. The tension of

suspense in one form or another was among the most serious; waiting to be killed, for death had

begun to seem inevitable to many, and some walked out to meet it rather than continue to

endure the unbearable waiting; waiting for the next air raid and the minutes of trembling after

the final warning; waiting for the relief ships; waiting without acting through the jungle nights,

listening for the sounds of Japs crawling, or for the sudden noise that might herald an attack;

waiting even in sleep for the many warning sounds. The fears were numerous: of death, of

permanent crippling, of capture and torture, of ultimate defeat in a war that was starting so

badly . . . [as well as] fear of cowardice . . . and of madness.”

“In this first offensive battle of the war it became clear that the

incapacitating wound could arrive with the mail from home . . .

the loss of a girlfriend, the fight with parents” (Lidz, 1946, p. 195).

Examples of Shell Shock

Films of Shell Shock in WWI:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IWHbF5jGJY0

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nsSkL3Yl0rA&featur

e=related

US Army documentary on battle stress (1947):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3orbgyCiasM

General Patton slapping incident (from the movie

Patton (1970)

The Boulder Model

David Shakow headed the APA’s Committee on

Training in Clinical Psychology (CTCP) in 1947.

71 professionals met at the Univ. of Colorado in

Boulder to create a blueprint for training.

3 forms of expertise were needed:

Diagnosis – training in assessment was provided.

Therapy – a year-long internship was required.

Empirical research – a dissertation was required.

This “scientist-practitioner” approach was known as

the Boulder Model

The Eysenck Study

In 1952, Hans Eysenck published “The Effects of

Psychotherapy: An Evaluation” suggesting that

traditional psychotherapy was ineffective.

He compared 5 psychoanalytic studies and 14 eclectic

therapies with a control group of 2 studies of

“neurotics” without treatment (from insurance records).

Improvement was 72% for controls compared to 44%

for psychoanalysis and 64% for the eclectic therapies.

The methods were flawed but the study damaged

the reputation of psychotherapy in the 50’s & 60’s.

Behavior Therapy

Behaviorists challenged psychoanalytic approaches

by developing alternative therapies applying the

results of their studies.

Hobart & Mowrer developed a treatment for bed-

wetting involving a bell ringing when a sheet was wet,

attacking deep-seated psychoanalytic explanations.

Eysenck developed “behavior therapy” & a journal.

Wolpe developed systematic desensitization, a

behavior modification technique to treat phobias

(irrational fears) based on learning theory.

Systematic Desensitization

He applied Mary Cover Jones’s approach of

pairing a fear response with a pleasure response

(counter-conditioning).

Cats were shocked when they approached food, then

the fear response was replaced with food in rooms

gradually changed to resemble the original room.

He used progressive relaxation to replace food when

working with humans.

People develop an anxiety hierarchy then pair an

imagined scene with relaxation until anxiety fades.

Other Behavioral Approaches

Token economies -- Skinner

Cognitive-behavior therapy

Ellis – rational emotive therapy

Beck – treatment for depression based on Seligman’s

Learned Helplessness

Behavior modification – based on analysis of behavior

and changing rewards.

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology rejected psychoanalysis and

behaviorism.

Human behavior cannot be reduced to repressed

biological instincts (Freud) or simple conditioning.

The past does not inevitably limit the future.

People are characterized by free will, a sense of

responsibility and purpose, and a search for

meaning in one’s life.

There is an innate tendency toward growth called self-

actualization

Two Important Humanists

Abraham

Maslow

Carl

Rogers

Abraham Maslow

Maslow trained as an experimental psychologist

studying dominance behavior in primates.

He was hired as faculty at Brooklyn College then

moved to Brandeis University in 1951.

He focused on the nature of psychological health

not disorders, examining the lives of self-actualized

people (e.g., Ruth Benedict, Max Wertheimer).

He said self-actualizers see reality accurately, are

independent and creative, have a strong moral

code and see their work as more than a job.

Carl Rogers

After a very strict Protestant upbringing, Rogers

studied theology at Union Seminary but switched to

Columbia Teacher’s College and psychology.

Leta Hollingsworth encouraged his interest in child

guidance.

He disliked psychoanalysis during his training.

He spent 12 years as staff psychologist at a child

guidance clinic in Rochester NY, developing his own

therapeutic approach.

Rogers in Academia

In 1940 Rogers was hired at Ohio State University

where he wrote “Counseling & Psychotherapy” in

1942. Then he moved to the Univ. of Chicago.

He was elected president of the APA in 1946 signaling

the shift from research to clinical psychology.

After 12 years in Chicago, he moved to the Univ. of

Wisconsin, where his work was attacked.

In 1961 he moved to California, originally at the

Western Behavioral Sciences Institute, then he

founded the Center for the Study of the Person.

Client-Centered Therapy

Rogers rejected the need to delve into the client’s

past but instead focused on creating a therapeutic

relationship supporting growth.

The therapist must be honest with the client.

The therapist must be unconditionally accepting of the

client’s worth (by virtue of being a human being).

The therapist must have empathy (understanding of the

client’s viewpoint) modeled using reflective listening.

Rogers conducted research to test the effectiveness

of his approach. The approach was popular.

The Vail Conference

The Boulder Model had difficulties:

Practitioners outside academia found little use for their

research skills and felt they had insufficient clinical

training.

Grad students weren’t getting good clinical training

because academics had no time for practice.

Crane proposed a new degree – Doctor of

Psychology (Psy.D.), emphasizing clinical training.

The Vail Conference (1973) set standards for new

programs, legitimizing the degree.

Recent Changes in the Field

Clinical psychology has gained respect and

distinguished itself from psychiatry.

After legal battles, clinical psychologist now have

the right to:

Admit & release patients from mental hospitals.

Serve as expert witnesses in court.

Receive payments from insurance companies.

Disputes over prescription privileges continue – a

few states allow it.

Remainder of Chapter

The remainder of this chapter will be discussed

during lectures later in the quarter when the

Hothersall chapters focus on testing and people

such as Cattell.

The remainder of this Goodwin chapter will not be

on Midterm 2, but may be on the Final exam.