Chapter 23 The Age of Nation-States Chapter 23 The Age of Nation-States Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights

Chapter 23The Age of Nation-States

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.


Background to the Crimean War

Ottoman Empire granted Catholic France rather than Orthodox Russia oversight of the Christian shrines in the Holy Land

Russia wanted to extend its control over the Ottoman provinces of Moldavia & Walachia

The Crimean WarWar erupts between Russia and Ottoman Empire when Russia attempts to extend its influence into Ottoman territoryFrance and Britain join the Ottomans; to Russia’s surprise and displeasure, the Austrians and Prussians remain neutralPoorly equipped and commanded troops lead to massive suffering on both sidesHelped by French and British forces, the Ottomans defeat the Russians



Role of Napoleon III

Napoleon III engaged in the Crimean War because he thought that an activist foreign policy would win domestic support for his regime.

He also had little respect for the Congress of Vienna and favored redrawing the map of Europe along lines of nationality.

Napoleon III’s involvement of France in this war and in other wars eventually leads to his overthrow.

Results of WarRussia gives up land around Danube River and Black SeaRussia renounces its claims to protect Orthodox Christians in Ottoman EmpireImage of invincible Russia crushedConcert of Europe dissolved

Austria tries to assert a large role in Germany

Prussia resents Austria and wants leading role in Germany

Adventurism in foreign policy takes over Europe where countries believe that only the limits of its military power and its diplomatic influence should constrain its international ambitions

The Ottomans’ Reforms Make Empire More “European”

Tanzimat – reorganization of the empireLiberalized economyEnded tax farmingFreedom of religion

Hatti-i-Humayun – spelled out rights of non-MuslimsEqual chances in the military, state employment, and admission to state schoolsAbolished tortureGave property rights

In some regions of the empire, local rulers made reforms hard to enforceReforms an attempt to modernize and secularize the empire



Italian Unification1858-1871

ItalyMetternich: Italy a “mere geographic expression”

Difficulties to unification– Risorgimento

Marked differences:North wealthy, sophisticated, industrialized, largely dominated by Habsburgs

Central/Rome remains a papal secular holding

South poor, backward, dominated by local strong families

Lacks tradition of centralized rule

Monarchy? Republic? Papal rule?

Nonetheless -- Liberal elites dream of unification

Carbonari- secret society established after Congress of Vienna

Newspapers and flyers call for one Italy

Common hatred for Austria

Piedmont-SardiniaBy far most prosperous region of Italy

Retains liberal constitution of 1848

Savoy dynasty only Italian rulers on peninsula

King Victor Immanuel II (r. 1849-1878)

Loved hunting, horses, and 16 year-old mistress

Count Camillo di Cavour

Young liberal who traveled to France and Britain

Named minister for commerce and finance

Premier in 1852

Aim to unite N Italy under Savoy

Reforms currency, finances, promotes economic and industrial development

Cavour’s Foreign PolicyAustria main obstacle

Piedmont not strong enoughCavour seeks French alliance

Sends troops to support France and UK in Crimea

Cavour meets with Napoleon III (Jul 1858)

France promises support v. Austria

France to receive Savoy and Nice

Piedmont to receive Lombardy and Venetia

Two trouncing French/Piedmont victories at Magenta and Solferino (June 1859)

Napoleon III betrays, asks for separate peace with Austria (July 1859) - Austria cedes Lombardy to Piedmont; retains Venetia

August-Sept 1859: Revolutionary parliaments in Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Romagna ask to be annexed

Napoleon recognizes in return for Savoy and Nice

Italian Unification: The SouthRevolution in Sicily against reactionary Bourbon Francis II (Apr 1860)

Garibaldi sails with the “Red Shirts” (1,000 volunteers)

Population joins

Take Palermo in August, Naples in September

Fearing Red Shirts’ seizure of Rome, Cavour sends Piedmont troops

Take papal states- France is the protector of Rome

Garibaldi hands the two Sicilies to Victor Emmanuel II

Kingdom of Italy proclaimed on 17 March 1861

Liberal constitution

Capitals at Turin, then Florence

Italy allies with Prussia in 1866, receives Venetia

French withdraw troops from Rome in 1870

Italians take, make capital

German Unification1st movements for unification done by a conservative army, the monarchy (Frederick William IV), and the prime minister of Prussia

Frederick wanted to end the stalemate between him and the liberal Parliament

Initially unsuccessful in unifying Germany

King William I (Wilhelm I) appointed Otto von Bismarck as Prime Minister of Prussia



Otto von Bismarck

Would be more responsible for reshaping European history than anybody else for the next 30 years (1860s–1890s)Because of the idea of German unification, helped William outflank the Prussian liberals of the ParliamentLed Prussia into three wars, then spent nineteen years fighting for peace


Bismarck’s Wars and Government

The Danish War (1864) – Prussia together with Austria easily defeats Denmark to take over northern states of Schleswig (Prussia) and Holstein (Austria)

Diplomacy

Gained Russian sympathy by supporting the suppression of Poland

Persuaded Napoleon III to stay neutral in Austrian-Prussian conflicts

Promised Italy, Venetia if they supported Prussia



The Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Austria defeated – Italy gets Venetia and Austrian Hapsburgs excluded from German affairs

The North German Confederation – Prussia now a federation with two houses

Bundesrat – federal council composed of members appointed by governments of the states

Reichtag – chosen by universal male suffrage; had very little power

Nationalism overtakes the concerns of liberalism and Germany, in effect, becomes a military monarchy


The Franco-Prussian War – France declares war on Prussia when Bismarck makes it appear that William I of Prussia had insulted France

Prussia crushes France and captures Napoleon III

William becomes emperor of united Germany

German unification a blow to liberalism, France, and the Hapsburg empire


France

From second Republic to second empire to third republic

Louis-Napoleon BonapartePresident Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (r. 1848-1852) consolidates power

Army

Middle classes

Peasants

Catholic Church

Sends troops to protect Pope Pius IX (1849), increases Catholic influence on education

Proclaims himself president for life (Dec 1851)

Creates a dictatorship with democratic facade

Napoleon III (r. 1852-1870)

Plebiscite calls for reestablishment of Empire

Declared Emperor on 2 Dec 1852

Marries Eugenie

Two Sides of EmpirePaternalistic Empire 1852-1860

Aggressive Empire (1860-1870)

Strict censorship, political limitations

Economic programsPromote expansion to minimize discontent

Establish two investment banks

Aid to Workers and PeasantsImprove housing, hospitals, elderly homes

Private social insurance encouraged

Build infrastructure,

Public works -Especially rebuilding of Paris

Free trade with England floods markets with English goods

Inept interventions in Italy in 1859Loosens censorship, more financial power to Assembly

Intervention in Mexico (1863-1866)

Archduke Maximilian as Emperor—Executed in 1867

Weakened Napoleon IIIMakes concessions to Senate and Legislative Assembly, ends press censorship, permit political meetings

End of the Second Empire, the Paris Commune, and Third RepublicNapoleon declares war on Prussia

Captured at Sedan (1871)

Radicals declare Third Republic

Paris CommuneMonarchist candidates win majority (Feb 1871)

Adolphe Thiers orders disillusion of Paris National Guard

Radicals elect Paris Commune

Thiers crushes commune• Army bombards Paris May 1871• Government regains control• 20,000 dead

Constitutional Laws (1875)Weak government centered on parliament

Univ. manhood suffrage elects Chamber of Deputies

Appointed Senate

Weak executive, PM, president

AnticlericalismRepublicans push anticlerical campaign against monarchists

Free, secular elementary schools

Jesuits expelled

“God” removed from oaths

Boulanger Affair (late 1880s)Possible coup

Discredits monarchists

The Dreyfuss Affair (1890s)Captain Alfred Dreyfuss convicted of spying for Germans in 1894

Dreyfuss a Jewish officer

Sentenced to Devil’s Island

Col. Picquart finds evidence that Maj. Esterhazy was guilty (acquitted)Key documents had been forged

DreyfusardsInsist on innocence

Support republic and anticlericalism

Anti-DreyfusardsInsist on guilt

Support monarchists, the army, and the church

Often Openly anti-Semetic

Zola’s J’Accuse Charges army with forging and suppressing evidence (Zola convicted of libel)

New court martial finds Dreyfuss guilty w. “extenuating circumstances”

President pardons Dreyfuss, conviction invalidated

Stunning defeat for conservatives, the army and, especially, the ChurchRenews anticlerical campaign

Concordat of 1801 abrogated

The Hapsburg Empire

The empire in the 1840s–1860s remained dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian as compared with the rest of Europe

Austria’s defeat by France in 1859 and Prussia in 1866 confirms that a new government is needed


The Hapsburg Dual Monarchy

Francis Joseph issues February Patent, which sets up a bicameral imperial government or Reichsrat

Francis Joseph and the Magyars come up with Compromise or Ausgleich of 1867, setting up a dual monarchy known as Austria-Hungary to replace Hapsburg empire



Nationalism and UnrestThe Magyars now had nationality as they basically controlled the Hungary part of Austria-HungaryThe Ruthenians, Romanians, Croatians, and especially the Czechs, oppose the Compromise of 1867Francis Joseph in response makes German and Czech equal languages and enacts universal male suffrage in Austria, but not Hungary, throwing the Reichsrat into chaos


Nationalism and Unrest

Wanting to be linked by a common race and language, Croats, Poles, Ukrainians, Romanians, Italians, Bosnians, and Serbs all look towards nationalismConsequences of nationalism are two World Wars and unrest today


Russian Reforms under Alexander II

Serfdom abolished Positives – serfs gain rights to marry without permission, to buy and sell land, to sue in court and to pursue tradesNegatives – over a forty-nine year period, serfs have to pay back, including interest, their landlords in order to receive their land

Local government reform – local government run by zemstvos, a system of provincial and county councils, which proved to be largely ineffective


Russian Reforms under Alexander II

Judicial reform – included equality before the law, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by juryMilitary reform – service requirements lowered from twenty-five to fifteen years and discipline is relaxed slightlyRepression in Poland – Poland basically becomes a Russian province under Russian laws and language

Russian Revolutionaries – people or groups not satisfied by Alexander’s reforms

Alexander Herzen – started a movement called populism, based on the communal life of peasants

Vera Zasulich – attempted to assassinate the military governor of St. Petersburg

The People’s Will – terrorist group that assassinated Alexander II



Alexander III

Autocratic and repressive

Rolled back his father’s reforms

Strengthened secret police and censorship of the press


Great Britain – The Second Reform Act (1867)

Surprisingly, the Conservatives in the House of Commons, led by Benjamin Disraeli, allow a large number of working class males to vote

The new prime minister elected, however, is a liberal, William Gladstone


The Great Ministry of Gladstone

Freedom of religion and class

Competitive exams replace patronage for civil service

Voting by secret ballot

The Education Act of 1870 – established that the government, not the church, would run the elementary schools



Disraeli as Prime Minister

Public Health Act of 1875 – reaffirmed duty of the state to interfere with private property to protect health and physical well-being

Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875 – government becomes actively involved in providing housing for the working class

Protection of trade unions and the allowance of picket lines



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Chapter 23 The Age of Nation-States Chapter 23 The Age of Nation-States Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights