Chapter 22: Overseas Expansion, 1865-1917...638 CHAPTER 22 Overseas Expansion In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Americans looked beyond their borders and yearned for an empire. Merchants

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OverseasExpansion

1865–1917Why It Matters

International power came to the United States with political strength and industrialgrowth. As its power increased, the United States moved beyond its territorial limits

in search of new markets and colonies.

The Impact Today The United States began to compete with other nations for more trade and more land.

From this rivalry, the United States rose to take a major role in shaping world affairs.

The American Journey Video The chapter 22 video, “Bring Me the Pictures and I’ll Bring You the War,” discusses the rise of yellow journalism and its role in the Spanish-American War.

1867• Alaska purchased

from Russia

CHAPTER 22 Overseas Expansion

1865 1875 1885

Grant1869–1877

1887• U.S. establishes naval

base at Pearl Harbor

1889• Pan-American

Union established

Hayes1877–1881

Arthur1881–1885

Cleveland1885–1889

B. Harrison1889–1893

Garfield1881

Johnson1865–1869

1867• Japan ends 675-year

shogun rule

1875• Suez Canal comes

under British control

1883• Vietnam becomes

French protectorate

637

1914• Panama

Canalopens

1895• José Martí leads

revolt in Cuba

1910• British form Union of

South Africa

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit taj.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 22—Chapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information.


1895 19151905

1898• Spanish-

American War

1900• Hawaii becomes

U.S. territory

1901• Cuba granted

independence

1904• Roosevelt

Corollaryissued

1911• Qing dynasty

overthrown in China

Cleveland1893–1897

McKinley1897–1901

Roosevelt1901–1909

Taft1909–1913

Wilson1913–1921

San Juan Hill Theodore Roosevelt, who later became the twenty-sixth presi-dent of the United States, leads the Rough Riders cavalry regiment during theSpanish-American War, July 1898.

PROS ofOverseasExpansion

CONS ofOverseasExpansion

Step 1 Fold one sheet of paper in half from topto bottom.

Step 2 Fold it in half again, from side to side.

Step 3 Unfold the paper once. Cut up the foldof the top flap only.

Step 4 Label the foldable as shown.

This cut willmake two tabs.

Drawing Conclusions Study FoldableInvestigate the pros, or positive outcomes, and thecons, or negative outcomes, of overseas expansionby making this foldable.

Reading and Writing As you read, write whatyou learn about the positive and negative effectsof United States overseas expansion under theappropriate tabs of your foldable.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/taj2003/content.php4/281/1

1853Matthew Perry sailsinto Tokyo Bay

1854Japan signs Treaty of Kanagawa

1867William Seward signstreaty to buy Alaska

1889Pan-AmericanUnion established

Main IdeaIn the late 1800s the United Statesacquired lands overseas.

Key Termsisolationism, expansionism,imperialism

Reading StrategyAnalyzing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and explain how the UnitedStates made its presence felt in eachcountry or region.

Read to Learn• what factors contributed to the

growth of American imperialism.• how the United States expanded its

economic and political influence inthe late 1800s.

Section ThemeEconomic Factors Americansexpanded trade with other countriesand competed for political influence.

ExpandingHorizons

638 CHAPTER 22 Overseas Expansion

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Americans looked beyond their borders andyearned for an empire. Merchants desired overseas markets, and adventurers wantedanother frontier to conquer. Senator Albert Beveridge voiced the feelings of many whenhe proclaimed in 1900: “The Philippines are ours forever. . . . And just beyond thePhilippines are China’s illimitable markets. We will not retreat from either. . . . ThePacific is our ocean.”

American Foreign PolicyWhen President George Washington published his Farewell Address in 1796,

he advised Americans to increase trade with other countries but to have “aslittle political connection as possible.” Above all else, he warned Americans to“steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.”These principles guided American foreign policy for about 100 years. However,various people interpreted Washington’s words in different ways. Some

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1850 ✦ 1870 ✦ 1890

U.S. role

Japan

Latin America

Russia

Patriotic song sheet, 1898

639CHAPTER 22 Overseas Expansion

believed he meant that the United States shouldfollow a policy of isolationism, or noninvolve-ment, in world affairs. Others pointed out thatWashington supported trade with other coun-tries and was not calling for complete isolationfrom the world.

American ExpansionismFor many years some Americans dreamed of

expanding their territory from ocean to ocean.Seeking land and better opportunities, manyAmericans moved to territories in the West andthe South. This expansionism was a drivingforce in American history. During the Civil War,while the nation was torn apart, expansion cameto a halt. After the war the United States beganrebuilding and expanding again.

Americans settled the vast Great Plains, builtrailroads, and created large cities booming withpeople and busy factories. In 1890, when thenation spanned the North American continentfrom the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, thegovernment issued a report announcing the endof the “frontier.” Although areas ofunsettled land remained, settlementscould now be found from coast to coast.

To many Americans the frontiermeant growth and opportunity. The ideathat the frontier no longer existed wasalarming. Americans began to lookbeyond the nation’s borders to frontiersoverseas where they could expand tradeand compete for political influence.

Foreign TradeIn the mid-1800s, American merchants

carried on a profitable trade with Chinaand hoped to expand trade in other areasof the world. Many wanted to open trad-ing relations with Japan, which had longbeen isolated from the West.

In 1853 President Millard Fillmore sent Com-modore Matthew Perry on a mission to Japan.After steaming into Tokyo Bay with four war-ships, Perry asked the Japanese to open up theirports to U.S. ships. He told them he wouldreturn in several months for their answer.

The American show of force alarmed theJapanese. When Perry returned in 1854, theJapanese signed the Treaty of Kanagawa andopened two ports to American ships. Perry’ssuccessful mission began a period of tradebetween Japan and the United States. It alsomarked the start of greater American involve-ment in Asia.

Explaining What did Washingtonsay about alliances in his Farewell Address?

An Age of ImperialismThe United States was not the only Western

nation expanding its trade and influence in Asiaand other parts of the world. The late 1800s and

Perry’s First Landing in Japan at Kurihama byGessan Ogata A Japanese artist depicts Com-modore Matthew Perry’s 1853 arrival in Japan.Why was Perry sent on a mission to Japan?

History Through Art

the early 1900s were called an age of imperialism,a time when powerful European nations createdlarge empires by exercising economic and polit-ical control over weaker regions.

The search for materials and markets droveimperialism. The industrial nations of Europeneeded raw materials from Asia and Africa. TheEuropeans also sought new markets for thegoods they manufactured. In their drive for rawmaterials and new markets, European powerscompeted with one another for power and influ-ence in Asia and Africa.

Toward an EmpireAmerican interest in political as well as eco-

nomic expansion developed after the Civil War.Some Americans wanted the nation to build anempire. By annexing new lands, they argued,the United States would join the ranks of theworld’s great powers and take its rightful placeat the center of power.

Secretary of State William H. Seward,appointed by Abraham Lincoln, supported thisview. Seward pictured an American empire thatdominated the Caribbean, Central America, andthe Pacific. Holding this empire together wouldbe a canal across Central America linking theAtlantic and Pacific Oceans, a thriving transcon-tinental railroad system, and rapid communica-tion by means of the telegraph.

The Purchase of AlaskaSeward took a major step toward making his

vision a reality with the purchase of Alaska. In1867 Seward signed a treaty with Russia to buythe Russian colony for $7.2 million—an extraor-dinary bargain for a territory that was twice thesize of Texas.

At the time many people ridiculed Seward’spurchase. They regarded Alaska as a barren, ice-bound land. Newspapers mocked the purchaseas “Seward’s Ice Box” and a “polar bear gar-den.” After gold was discovered in Alaska in the1890s, however, Seward’s “folly” began to seemmore like a wise purchase. In 1912 Alaskabecame a territory of the United States.

A Sense of MissionSome Americans had another reason for impe-

rialist expansion. They had a sense of mission—a belief that they could “lift up” people theyconsidered “uncivilized” by sharing Christianityand Western civilization with the rest of theworld. Josiah Strong, a Congregational minister,proposed an “imperialism of righteousness,”with Americans bringing their religion and theirculture to the peoples of Africa, Asia, and theUnited States’s closest neighbor, Latin America.


Secretary of State William H. Seward (second from left) oversees the signingof the Alaska Purchase Treaty on March30, 1867. An abundance of gold andother minerals encouraged migrationto Alaska (below). What countrysold Alaska to the United States?

History Through Art

American Interest in Latin AmericaSince colonial times, the United States had

carried on a flourishing trade with Latin Amer-ica, including the Caribbean region. Fear ofEuropean influence in the region was a factorthat led to the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, whenPresident James Monroe warned Europeannations not to attempt to establish new coloniesin North or South America.

United States merchants used the MonroeDoctrine to their advantage. In 1884 James G.Blaine, then the Republican nominee for presi-dent, declared:

“While the great powers of Europe aresteadily enlarging their colonial domination inAsia and Africa, it is the [particular] province ofthis country to improve and expand its tradewith the nations of America.”

Meanwhile, the United States signed treatieswith a number of Latin American countries,allowing American businesses to influence thosenations’ economies.

As secretary of state in 1889, Blaine invitedLatin American countries to attend a Pan-American Conference held in Washington, D.C.Blaine hoped to develop economic and politicalties among the nations of the region. Althoughmany Latin American countries worried about

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use the following terms

to create a newspaper article aboutUnited States expansion during thelate 1800s: isolationism, expansion-ism, imperialism.

2. Reviewing Facts Discuss the mainpoints of the Monroe Doctrine.

Reviewing Themes3. Economic Factors What price did

the United States pay for Alaska?Why was the purchase of this terri-tory ridiculed?

Critical Thinking4. Determining Cause and Effect

What did Alfred Thayer Mahan saywould result from American seapower?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and list two eco-nomic reasons for United Statesexpansion.

Analyzing Visuals6. Picturing History Study the painting

on the chapter opening page onpage 637. What does it show? Whatidea do you think the artist isexpressing?

CHAPTER 22 Overseas Expansion 641

Geography Research the naturalresources of Alaska. Draw a map ofthe state and use symbols to repre-sent each resource and show itslocation in the state.

Reasons for expansion

American domination, they decided to attendthe meeting. The conference established thePan-American Union to share informationamong member nations.

Building Sea PowerAs the United States looked to expand its

horizons, Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, president of the Naval War College, called for improving and enlarging the navy. Mahanargued that sea power would protect shippingand provide access to world markets:

“Sea power is essential to the greatness ofevery splendid people.”

To maintain a powerful navy, the United Stateswould need overseas colonies where shipscould be refueled.

Transforming and expanding the navy beganin 1883, when Congress authorized constructionof the first steel-hulled warships. In the follow-ing years, the navy gradually shifted from sailsto steam power and from wood to steel hulls. Bythe early 1900s, the United States had the navalpower it needed to back up an expanded role inforeign affairs.

Explaining Why did many peoplecriticize the purchase of Alaska?

Profile

WHAT PEOPLE ARE SAYING

“ If you pick up a starving dog

and make him prosperous,

he will not bite you. This

is the principal difference

between a dog and a

man.” MARK TWAIN,author of

The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

“ Speak softly and carry a big

stick; you will go far.”PRESIDENT TEDDY ROOSEVELT,proposing action when asked

how the United States will deal with its new far-flung colonies in 1901

“ Give me your tired, your poor,

your huddled masses yearning to

breathe free.”WORDS BY EMMA LAZARUS,engraved on the

Statue of Liberty in 1903

“ Mountains! Look at

them!” EDWARD CORSI,10-year-old Italian immi-

grant on spotting thehigh-rise buildings inNew York City for the

first time in 1907

V E R B A T I MV E R B A T I M

It’s The LawTwo laws were passed in 1902 to deal with the automobile.

1 Tennessee demands all drivers give the public a week’s notice before they start any trip.

2 Vermont states an adult waving a red flag has to walk in front of any moving automobile.

Booker T. WashingtonH

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S T E P B A C K I N T I M EWhat—and who—were people talking about? What did they eat?

What did they do for fun? These two pages will give you some clues to

everyday life in the U.S. as you step back in time with TIME Notebook.

N O T E B O O K

BOOKER T. WASHINGTON Teaching industrial training as a means to success, in 1881 Washington founded the Tuskegee Institute inAlabama. Here is an excerpt from his autobiography, Up From Slavery.

FROM THE VERY BEGINNING, AT TUSKEGEE, I was determined to have the students do not only the agricultural and domestic work, but to have them erect their own buildings. My plan was to have them, while performing this service, taught the latest and best methods of labour, so that the school would not only get the benefit of their efforts, but the students themselves would be taught to see not only utility in labour, but beauty and dignity. … My plan was not to teach them to work in the old way, but to show them how to make the forces of nature—air, water, steam, electricity, horse-power—assist them in their labour.

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R E S H A P I N G T H E N A T I O N : 1 8 8 5 – 1 9 1 5

N U M B E R S N U M B E R SU.S. AT THE T IME

0 2010 30 40 50 years

EVENTS AND PEOPLE OF THE TIME

M I L E S T O N E SM I L E S T O N E S

12¢ Price of a dozen eggs in 1910

$12 Price of a sewing machine in 1900

$12Lowest price for a steamshipticket from Italy to America in 1905

$12 Average weekly salary(seven-day weeks/12-hour days)for arriving immigrants in 1907

12 seconds Air time of Wright brothers’ first flight in 1903

1.2 millionApproximate number of immigrants who entered the U.S. in 1907

395,000 Approximatenumber of immigrants in 1908who gave up on America andreturned home

50¢ Price of cheapest seat at baseball’s first World Series in 1903

SIGNED UP. Sharpshooter ANNIE OAKLEY to Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show in 1885.

FLEW. 19-year-old Cromwell Dixon over the Continental Divide in 1911 in a biplane. At age 14, Dixon wasbuilding DIRIGIBLES (sausage-shaped balloons), including a model that could be pedaledthrough the air like a bicycle.Dixon later traveled around the country, flying at state fairs.

AMERICAN SCENE

Average Lifespans in 1900Average life expectancy: 47.3 years

Male life expectancy: 46.3 years

Female life expectancy: 48.3 years

White life expectancy: 47.6 years

Nonwhite life expectancy: 33.0 years

TRANSPORTATION

Take a Ride in My Car!Here’s what one magazine from the early 1900s recommends you carry in your car at all times:

1 Efficient tire pump

1 Strong two-gallon can extra gasoline

1 Sheet fine sandpaper

1 Small, short-handled axe

1 Ball asbestos cord

4 Half-pound cans of meat or fish

2 Pounds sweet chocolate

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Annie Oakley

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1893American planters overthrowQueen Liliuokalani

1899U.S., Britain, and Germanydivide Samoa

1900Hawaii becomes aU.S. territory

1907The Great White Fleetbegins its voyage

Main IdeaThe United States expanded into thePacific Ocean region to set up tradingbases.

Key Termsannexation, spheres of influence,Open Door policy

Reading StrategySequencing Information As youread the section, complete a time linelike the one shown with importantevents in Hawaii’s history.

Read to Learn• how the United States gained con-

trol of Hawaii and Samoa.• how competition for influence in

China and the Pacific region led tonew foreign policies.

Section ThemeGeography and History The UnitedStates exercised its influence in Chinaand the Pacific region.

Imperialism inthe Pacific

As more Americans arrived in Honolulu, many Hawaiians feared that time was run-ning out for their people. Kaona, a local judge in Honolulu, had visions that the end ofthe world was near. When volcanoes erupted and earth tremors plagued the island, hisvisions seemed to be coming true. Kaona and his followers prepared for the end. Theydressed in flowing white robes and prayed loudly. Kaona had indeed been correct. Theworld that he and native Hawaiians had known would soon end.

Geography

HawaiiSecretary of State William H. Seward believed the United States could build

its empire in Hawaii and other regions through trade. The Pacific regionplayed a key part in Seward’s plan. In 1867 Seward acquired the two smallPacific islands of Midway. He thought that these islands, more than 3,000miles (4,800 km) west of California, would serve as an important stopping


1820 1842 1875 1887 1891 1898 1900

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Hawaiian stamp


place for American ships en route to China.American merchants and the United StatesNavy would need more than two small islands,however, to establish a secure foothold in thevast stretches of the Pacific.

The lush Hawaiian Islands, a chain of 8 largeand 100 or so smaller islands, lay about 2,000miles (3,200 km) west of California. The Hawai-ian people dwelled in independent communi-ties, each with its own chieftain, and lived byfarming and fishing. American trading shipsand whalers often stopped at the islands to takeon supplies and fresh water.

In the 1790s Americans began trading with theHawaiians for local resources. About that sametime, King Kamehameha I unified the islands.Villages with good ports such as Honolulu andLahaina (luh•HY•nuh) began to grow in impor-tance, and trade increased. However, Americanand European ships also brought infectious dis-eases to the islands. These diseases devastatedthe island population just as they had once dev-astated the Native Americans.

Missionaries and Sugar GrowersIn 1820 Christian missionaries from the

United States began arriving in Hawaii. Theyestablished schools, created a written Hawaiian alphabet, and translated the Bible into Hawai-ian. Increasing numbers of American merchantsin the whaling trade came to settle there, too.

An American firm introduced sugarcane inHawaii in the 1830s, and the missionaries andtraders began buying land and establishing sugarplantations. The sugar industry grew quickly,and plantation owners brought in thousands ofimmigrants from Japan, China, and other Pacificlands to work in the fields. Gradually the Ameri-cans took control of most of the land and busi-nesses. They also influenced Hawaiian politics,serving as advisers to the Hawaiian ruling family.Although the United States recognized Hawaiianindependence in 1842, the islands came increas-ingly under American influence.

In 1875 the United States agreed to allowHawaiian sugar to enter the country without tar-iffs. As sugar exports to the United States soared,American planters in Hawaii reaped enormous

profits. In 1887, in return for renewal of the tradeagreement, the United States pressured KingKalakaua (kah•LAH•KAH•u•ah) to allow it toestablish a naval base at Pearl Harbor, the bestseaport in the islands.

In the early 1890s, under pressure from Amer-ican sugar producers, Congress revised the tarifflaws and eliminated the exemption for Hawai-ian sugar. As a result, Hawaiian sugar plantershad to drop their prices drastically in order tosell any sugar. Sugar exports to the United Statesdropped sharply. Facing ruin, the planters plot-ted a way to avoid the new tariff. They decidedto make Hawaii a territory of the United States.

American Planters’ RevoltThe Hawaiians, meanwhile, had begun to resist

the growing influence of Americans. In 1891Queen Liliuokalani (lih•LEE•uh•woh•kuh•LAH•nee) came to the throne. The new rulerwanted Hawaiians to regain economic control oftheir islands, and she took away powers that the American sugar plantershad held. In response, thewhite planters overthrewLiliuokalani and set uptheir own provisional,or temporary, govern-ment in 1893. The queenleft under protest:

“Now, to avoid any col-lision of armed forces andperhaps the loss of life, I . . .yield my authority.”

AnnexationThe success of the planters’ revolt stemmed in

part from the support of the chief Americandiplomat in Hawaii, John Stevens, who arrangedfor marines from the warship Boston to assist inthe uprising. Stevens immediately recognized thenew government, which sent a delegation toWashington to seek a treaty of annexation thatwould add Hawaii to the United States. PresidentBenjamin Harrison signed the treaty during thefinal days of his administration and forwarded itto the Senate for approval.

Queen Liliuokalani

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Philippines(1898)

Guam(1898)

Wake I.(1899)

Midway Islands(1867)

Alaska(1867)

Hawaiian Islands(1898)

PuertoRico(1898)

Kingman Reef (1858)Palmyra Atoll (1898)Jarvis I. (1857)

Johnston I.(1858)

Howland I.(1857)

Baker I.(1857) American

Samoa(1899)

PacifIC

OCEaNAtlantIC

OCEaN

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF CANCER

ASIA

AUSTRALIA

SOUTHAMERICA

NORTHAMERICA

AFRICA

EUROPE

RUSSIA

CHINA JAPAN UNITED STATESNagasaki

Canton

Shanghai

The Islands of SamoaAbout 3,000 miles (4,800 km) south of Hawaii

lay the Samoa Islands, directly on the traderoute linking Australia and the United States. Asearly as the 1830s, missionaries from the UnitedStates landed in Samoa and began convertingthe people to Christianity.

In 1878 Samoa agreed to give Americans spe-cial trading rights and permission to build anaval station at the port of Pago Pago. GreatBritain and Germany also secured trading rights.During the 1880s, tensions mounted as the threerivals competed for power in Samoa.

In 1899 the United States, Great Britain, andGermany met in Berlin and—without consultingthe Samoans—decided to divide up the islands.The United States and Germany split Samoabetween them, while Great Britain agreed towithdraw from the area in return for rights onother Pacific islands. The Americans annexedtheir portion of Samoa the same year.

Explaining Why did some Americanplanters want to make Hawaii a territory of the United States?

646

1. Location Locate Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.Which of these is the farthest from the continental UnitedStates?

2. Analyzing Information When were the HawaiianIslands acquired?


However, the Senate did not act quicklyenough. It failed to ratify the treaty before Har-rison left office. The new president, GroverCleveland, opposed annexation and withdrewthe treaty from the Senate after discovering thatHawaiians did not support the revolt. Clevelandcalled American interference in the Hawaiianrevolution “disgraceful.”

Although most of the Hawaiians and the Asian immigrants in Hawaii opposed annex-ation, their opposition made no difference. Asmall, powerful group of American sugar grow-ers, traders, and missionaries—and their Hawai-ian allies, along with influential people in theUnited States—had the final word. Congressapproved the annexation of Hawaii in 1898, afterWilliam McKinley became president. In 1900Hawaii became a territory of the United States.

U.S. possessionswith date acquiredPorts open to U.S. trade

United States Overseas Possessions, 1900


China and the Open DoorFor Americans the island territories in the

Pacific, while important in themselves, repre-sented stepping-stones to a larger prize—China.Torn apart by warring factions and lackingindustry, China was too weak to resist the effortsof foreign powers that wanted to exploit its vastresources and markets.

Rivalries in ChinaBy the late 1890s, Japan and the leading Euro-

pean powers had carved out spheres of influ-ence in China—sections of the country whereeach of the foreign nations enjoyed special rightsand powers. Japan held the island of Formosaand parts of the Chinese mainland. Germanycontrolled the Shandong area in east-centralChina. Great Britain and France held a numberof Chinese provinces, and Russia moved intoManchuria and other areas in northern China.

An Open Door to ChinaIn the United States, some government and

business leaders worried about being squeezedout of the profitable China trade. Although theUnited States could not force the other foreignpowers out of China, Secretary of State JohnHay wanted to protect and expand American

trading interests in the country. Hay proposedan Open Door policy under which each foreignnation in China could trade freely in the othernations’ spheres of influence.

The Boxer RebellionThe other major powers were reluctant to

accept a policy that would benefit the UnitedStates most of all. The situation soon changed,however. Beginning in late 1899 a secret Chi-nese martial arts society, known as the Boxers,led a violent uprising against the “foreign dev-ils” in China. Many died and for nearly twomonths, hundreds more were trapped in thebesieged capital city of Beijing. Finally, inAugust 1900, foreign troops broke the siegeand defeated the Boxers.

Out of the Boxer Rebellion came a secondOpen Door proposal, which stressed the impor-tance of maintaining China’s independence andrespecting its borders. Alarmed by the rebellion,the other foreign powers accepted Hay’s policy.

Analyzing What was the purposeof the Open Door policy?

View of Peking After the Boxer Rebellionby Yoshikazu Ichikawa American soldiersmarch through the Chinese capital after theBoxer Rebellion. What policy did theUnited States want for China?

History Through Art

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use each of these terms

in a complete sentence that will helpexplain its meaning: annexation,spheres of influence, Open Door policy.

2. Reviewing Facts Name three PacificIslands that the United States acquiredin the late 1800s and early 1900s.

Reviewing Themes3. Geography and History Why were

American political leaders interestedin the Pacific islands in the 1800s?

Critical Thinking4. Making Inferences Why do you

think Roosevelt considered the cruiseof the Great White Fleet to be “themost important service [he] renderedfor peace”?

5. Determining Cause and EffectRe-create the diagram below and listthe cause and effects of the BoxerRebellion.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Study the map on

page 646. What particular geographicregion of the world is the focus ofthe map? Which location is farthestwest—Hawaii, Baker Island, or WakeIsland?

JapanEager to expand its power in Asia, Japan

began to ignore the Open Door policy. Japan’sactions led to war with Russia and conflict withthe United States.

In the early 1900s, Japan and Russia clashedover Manchuria, a Chinese province rich in nat-ural resources. On February 8, 1904, Japanlaunched an attack on the Russian fleet at PortArthur in southern Manchuria, starting theRusso-Japanese War. By the spring of 1905, bothJapan’s and Russia’s resources were nearlyexhausted, and both countries were eager tomake peace.

Treaty of PortsmouthPresident Theodore Roosevelt offered to meet

with their leaders in Portsmouth, New Hamp-shire, to help settle the conflict. In September1905, Japan and Russia signed the Treaty ofPortsmouth, which recognized Japan’s controlof Korea in return for a pledge by Japan to haltits expansion.

Roosevelt hoped the treaty would preserve abalance of power in Asia, but it failed to do so.Japan emerged as the strongest naval power inthe Pacific, and it challenged the United Statesfor influence in the region. Relations betweenthe two nations deteriorated steadily.

Strained RelationsDuring the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese

immigration to the United States—especially toCalifornia—increased. Many Americans resentedthe Japanese newcomers, claiming that they took jobs from Americans.

As you read in Chapter 21, in 1906 the SanFrancisco Board of Education ordered that allAsian students attend separate schools. TheJapanese government protested. An 1894 treatyhad guaranteed that Japanese living in theUnited States would be treated well. The Japa-nese felt that the treaty had been broken.

President Roosevelt forced the San Franciscoschool board to change its policies. In return, hepersuaded Japan to consent to an agreement,promising to restrict emigration. The Japaneseresented the agreement and relations betweenthe two nations worsened. Some Americanscalled for war.

Although President Roosevelt had no plan forwar, in 1907 he sent 16 gleaming white battle-ships on a cruise around the world to displaythe nation’s naval power. The “Great WhiteFleet” greatly impressed the Japanese. By 1909the United States and Japan had resolved manyof their differences.

Identifying Who offered to helpsettle the Russo-Japanese War?


Science Research the process ofturning sugarcane into the refinedsugar available in supermarkets.Draw a diagram showing the stepsinvolved.

Effect:

Effect:

BoxerRebellionCause:

649

1895José Martí leads revolt in Cuba

1897William McKinleybecomes president

1898The Maine explodes; the Spanish-American War takes place

1900Foraker Act sets up new government in Puerto Rico

Main IdeaThe Spanish-American War emergedout of events in Cuba, where theCuban people were resisting Spanish rule.

Key Termsyellow journalism, armistice, protectorate

Reading StrategyAnalyzing Information As you readthe section, complete a diagram likethe one shown by listing two reasonsthe United States went to war overCuba.

Read to Learn• why the Spanish-American War

began.• how the United States’s role in

global affairs grew after the war.

Section ThemeContinuity and Change Through theSpanish-American War, the UnitedStates took control of new territory.

Spanish-American War


African Americans had fought in military conflicts since colonial times. The BuffaloSoldiers—named for their bravery and fighting ability by their Apache and Cheyennefoes—also answered the nation’s call to arms during the Spanish-American War. Onthe front lines of the Spanish-American War, the 9th and 10th Cavalry, with valiant soldiers like Charles Young, led the charge up San Juan Hill with Colonel Teddy Roosevelt and his Rough Riders.

The Cuban RebellionThe people of Cuba had lived under Spanish rule for centuries. The Cubans

rebelled several times in the late 1800s, but each time the Spanish overpoweredthem and smashed their dreams of independence. José Martí, one of theheroes of the Cuban independence movement, fled to the United States togather money, arms, and troops. In 1895, as economic conditions in Cuba wors-ened, Martí returned to Cuba to lead his people in a new revolt.

War

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Guide to Reading

✦ 1894 ✦ 1896 ✦ 1898 ✦ 1900

Charles M. Young

Martí’s revolution led to terrible losses inhuman life and property. The rebels burned sug-arcane fields and destroyed buildings in hopesof forcing the Spaniards to leave. In retaliationSpanish troops herded Cuban people intocamps to separate them from the rebels and tobreak their morale. Thousands of Cubans diedof starvation and disease.

War FeverThe Cuban people’s struggle against Spain

attracted much sympathy in the United States.Businesspeople worried about the destructionof trade and their loss of investments in Cuba.Government leaders were concerned about arebellion so close to the United States. ManyAmericans were horrified by the atrocitiesagainst Cuban citizens and called for the gov-ernment to do something about it.

President Grover Cleveland opposed anyAmerican involvement in Cuba. In March 1897,William McKinley became president. He, too,hoped the conflict could be settled peacefully.

The American press reported the unfoldingtragedy in Cuba in graphic detail, and its cover-age intensified the debate over America’s role inthe crisis. Newspapers, including JosephPulitzer’s World and William Randolph Hearst’sJournal, tried to outdo each other with shockingreports on the revolution. Hearst supposedly toldan artist who was illustrating a story on Cuba,“You furnish the pictures, and I’ll furnish thewar.” This type of sensational, biased, and often

false reporting—known as yellow journalism—played a major role in fanning the flames of pro-war sentiment in the United States. ; (See page 973

for one newspaper’s account of Cuba’s struggle.)

“Remember the Maine”The pressure on President McKinley to take

action seemed to grow by the hour. After riotingbroke out in the Cuban capital of Havana in Jan-uary 1898, McKinley sent the battleship Maine toprotect American citizens and property.

The ship remained quietly at anchor in Havana Harbor for three weeks. Then, on thenight of February 15, 1898, an enormous explo-sion shattered the Maine, killing 260 officers and crew members. American newspapers immediately blamed the Spanish, and the slogan“Remember the Maine” became a rallying cryfor revenge. Spain denied responsibility for theexplosion. Much later, evidence indicated that theexplosion may have been accidental, but at thetime, Americans clamored for war with Spain.

After the Maine incident, President McKinleysent the Spanish a strong note demanding atruce and an end to brutality against theCubans. The Spanish agreed to some Americandemands, but not enough to satisfy McKinley orCongress. On April 19 Congress recognizedCuban independence. It also demanded thewithdrawal of Spanish forces and authorizedthe president to use the army and navy toenforce American aims. On April 25, 1898, Con-gress declared war on Spain.

650

Yellow Journalism Cartoonist Leon Barrittmakes fun of newspaper publishers JosephPulitzer (left) and William Randolph Hearstcalling for war in this 1898 cartoon. Why do you think thecartoonist showedHearst and Pulitzerplaying with blocks?

Analyzing Political Cartoons


War in the PhilippinesAlthough events in Cuba triggered the

Spanish-American War, the war’s first military actions happened thousands of miles away inthe Spanish colony of the Philippines. Theseislands served as a base for part of the Spanishfleet. In late February 1898, Assistant Secretaryof the Navy Theodore Roosevelt had wiredCommodore George Dewey and his squadronof navy vessels to prepare for action in thePhilippines “in the event of declaration of war.”In the early morning hours of May 1, Deweylaunched a surprise attack on the Spanish fleetin Manila Bay, destroying most of the ships.

American troops arrived in July. With the helpof Filipino rebels led by Emilio Aguinaldo(AH•gee•NAHL•doh), the Americans capturedthe city of Manila. As in Cuba, the Filipino rebelshad struggled for years to win independencefrom Spain. Using American-supplied arms,they seized the main island of Luzon, declaredindependence, and created a democratic repub-lic. The rebels expected the United States to sup-port their independence. However, the UnitedStates debated what to do with the islands.

Fighting in CubaMeanwhile in the Caribbean, a Spanish fleet

entered the harbor of Santiago on the southeast-ern shore of Cuba on May 19. Several days later,an American naval force blockaded the coast,trapping the Spanish in the harbor.

An American land force of about 17,000—nearly a quarter of them African American—landed near the city of Santiago. Theinexperienced, ill-equipped Americans disem-barked while forces under Cuban general CalixtoGarcía drove off the Spanish soldiers. When theCuban and American forces advanced, SergeantMajor Frank W. Pullen, Jr., wrote that they faced“a perfect hailstorm of bullets, which, thanks tothe poor marksmanship of the Spaniards, ‘wenthigh.’” Heavy fighting followed.

American troops sailed from Tampa, Florida, to the south coastof Cuba in June 1898. Admiral Dewey had already sailed fromHong Kong to Manila.1. Movement According to the two maps, in which area

did more of the fighting take place?2. Analyzing Information On what two Caribbean

islands did United States forces land?

U.K.

U.K.

San Juan HillEl Caney

The Caribbean

TROPIC OF CANCERAtlantic

Ocean

Caribb

ean

Sea

Gulf of

Mexico

CERVERA

(FRO

MSPAIN)

FLA.

CUBA

UNITEDSTATES

JAMAICA

HAITIDOMINICANREPUBLIC

PUERTORICO

Tampa

Havana

Santiago de Cuba

Gu´anica

San Juan

BAHAMAS

The Philippines

Pacific

Ocean

Philippine

Sea

South

China

Sea

Celebes

Sea

LuzonIsland

Formosa

Manila

Hong Kong

CHINA

PHILIPPINES

Jap.

DEW

EY

U.S. naval blockade

U.S. forces

Spanish forces

Battle

The Spanish-American War


Theodore Rooseveltwas not only the twenty-sixth president of theUnited States—he wasalso a writer, historian,explorer, soldier, conser-vationist, and rancher. Hislife was one of constantactivity, great energy, andmany accomplishments.

Struggling with poorhealth as a child,Theodore Rooseveltbegan to exercise vigor-ously, gaining strengthand a love of the outdoors

that lasted throughout hislife. After serving in theNew York State Assembly,Roosevelt headed west in1883, where he huntedand also operated a cattleranch. He drew on theseexperiences to write sev-eral books about life inthe West.

Roosevelt gained politi-cal experience workingfor reform at the local andnational levels. In 1897he was appointed assis-tant secretary of the navy

and helped prepare thenavy for war with Spain.When the war broke outin 1898, he resigned fromhis post and helped organ-ize the “Rough Riders.”Roosevelt came home awar hero and was electedgovernor of New York in1898. Two years later hewas elected vice presidenton the McKinley ticket.With the assassination ofPresident McKinley in1901, Roosevelt becamepresident.

The Rough RidersTheodore Roosevelt resigned his position as

assistant secretary of the navy to join the fight-ing in Cuba. He led the First Regiment of U.S.Cavalry Volunteers, an assorted group of for-mer cowhands and college students, popularlyknown as the Rough Riders. On July 1 theRough Riders, with African American soldiersof the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries, joined theBattle of San Juan Hill. “I waved my hat andwe went up the hill with a rush,” Rooseveltwrote later.

The Americans captured San Juan Hill afterintense fighting. Two days later the Spanish fleetattempted to break out of Santiago. In a battlethat lasted about four hours, the Spanish fleetwas completely destroyed. This defeat endedSpanish resistance in Cuba.

The United States then turned its attention tothe Spanish colony of Puerto Rico, east of Cuba.American troops landed on Puerto Rico in lateJuly and quickly took control of the island. OnAugust 12 the Spanish signed an armistice—apeace agreement—ending the war.

“A Splendid Little War”Secretary of State John Hay called the Spanish-

American War “a splendid little war.” The warlasted fewer than four months, and about 400Americans were killed in battle or died fromwounds received in the fighting.

Yet the war had other aspects that were not atall “splendid.” More than 2,000 Americans diedof diseases such as yellow fever, malaria, andother diseases contracted in the tropical climate.The African Americans who served faced theadditional burden of discrimination. Serving insegregated units, African Americans battledalongside the Cuban rebel army, in which blackand white troops fought as equals.

Explaining Why did Filipino rebelshelp the United States fight against Spain?

AcquisitionsThe United States and Spain signed the Treaty

of Paris on December 10, 1898, marking the offi-cial end of the war. The treaty dissolved most of

Should the United StatesTake the Philippines?

In the late 1800s, the United States stretched its power by acquiring Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and many Pacificislands, including the Philippines. While someAmericans applauded the additions to theirnation, others condemned its ideals.

the Spanish empire. Cuba became anAmerican protectorate, a country thatis technically independent but actu-ally under the control of anothercountry. Puerto Rico and the Pacificisland of Guam became territories ofthe United States. Spain also surren-dered the Philippines to the UnitedStates in exchange for $20 million. TheAmerican empire had become a real-ity, and with the empire came newresponsibilities.

Cuban ProtectorateAmericans debated what to do

about Cuba. Many congressionalleaders believed that the Cubanswere not ready for complete self-government. American businessleaders feared that leaving Cubamight weaken the political stabilityof Cuba and jeopardize Americaninterests there.

While Congress considered thematter, American troops remained inCuba. Finally, in 1901, the UnitedStates agreed to grant Cubans fullindependence, but only if their newconstitution included clauses givingthe United States certain rights.Known as the Platt Amendment,these clauses prohibited Cuba frommaking treaties with other nationsand gave America control of a navalbase at Guantanamo Bay. The PlattAmendment also gave the UnitedStates the right to intervene in Cubanaffairs if the country’s independencewas threatened.

New Government for Puerto RicoAfter the war, Puerto Rico

remained under direct military rule.In 1900 the United States set up anew Puerto Rican government underthe Foraker Act. The American gov-ernment controlled the new adminis-tration. In 1917 the Jones Act madePuerto Rico a territory of the United

653

President William McKinley Relates His Decision to

Annex the Philippines, 1899

I walked the floor of the White House night after

night until midnight; and I am not ashamed to

tell you, gentlemen, that I went down on my

knees and prayed Almighty God for light and

guidance more than one night. And one night

late it came to me this way—I don’t know

how it was, but it came. . . . [T]hat there was

nothing left for us to do but to take them all,

and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and

civilize and Christianize them, and by God’s

grace do the very best we could by them, as our

fellow-men for whom Christ also died. And then I

went to bed, and went to sleep, and slept soundly, and

the next morning I sent for the chief engineer of the War

Department (our map-maker), and I told him to put the

Philippines on the map of the United States [pointing to

a large map on the wall of his office], and there they are,

and there they will stay while I am President!

PresidentMcKinley

The Platform of the Anti-Imperialist League, 1900We hold that the policy known as imperialism ishostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evilfrom which it has been our glory to be free. We regretthat it has become necessary in the land of Washingtonand Lincoln to reaffirm that all men, of whatever raceand color, are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit ofhappiness. We maintain that governments derive their

just powers from theconsent of the gov-erned. We insist thatthe subjugation [con-quer and control] ofany people is “crimi-nal aggression.” . . .

1. Why did President McKinley decideto take over the Philippines?

2. Why did members of the Anti-Imperialist League condemn McKinley’s action?

3. What do you think each sidebelieved the mission of the UnitedStates was at this time?

Learning From History

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a one-page news-

paper article about events during theSpanish-American War. Use theseterms in your article: yellow jour-nalism, armistice, protectorate.

2. Reviewing Facts Summarize howyellow journalism influenced Ameri-cans’ views of going to war withSpain.

Reviewing Themes3. Continuity and Change How did

the United States govern Puerto Ricoand the Philippines?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions Do you think

the United States should have takenpermanent control of Cuba andmade it part of its empire? Why orwhy not?

5. Analyzing Information Re-createthe diagram below and list the rea-sons some Americans opposed mak-ing the Philippines a United Statespossession.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Study the maps of

the war on page 651. Near whatCuban city was the Battle of San JuanHill fought?

States and granted American citizenship to allPuerto Ricans. However, many Puerto Ricansstill wanted independence.

Acquiring the PhilippinesThe United States had gained possession of

the Philippines in the treaty that ended theSpanish-American War. But acquisition of thePhilippines aroused fierce debate.

During the 1890s some people—anti-imperi-alists—opposed the American enthusiasm forforeign expansion and the Spanish-AmericanWar. After the war the anti-imperialists foughtapproval of the treaty. Some argued that Amer-ican rule of the Philippines contradicted theprinciples on which the United States wasfounded. Others opposed the large standingarmy that would be necessary to control thePhilippines. Still others feared competitionfrom Filipino laborers.

Many Americans—including Carl Schurz,Andrew Carnegie, and Mark Twain—joined theanti-imperialist campaign. The imperialists, how-ever, led by Senators Henry Cabot Lodge andAlbert Beveridge, eventually won out. The Senateratified the Treaty of Paris on February 6, 1899.

In February 1899, Emilio Aguinaldo’s forcesbegan a fight for independence. This conflictbecame a mammoth undertaking for the United


Expository Writing Write a 45-second news report to convinceviewers that they should pressurethe United States to get involved ina war with Spain over Cuba. Be aspersuasive as possible. Presentyour report to the class.

Puerto Rico has its own constitution. Puerto Rico wasgranted status as a commonwealth in 1952. This meansthat it is a territory of the United States but governs itselfunder its own constitution. Even though they are citizens,Puerto Ricans pay no federal income tax and they can-not vote for president. Many Puerto Ricans have immi-grated to the United States mainland, which as citizensthey can do freely.

Puerto Rico

Opposition

States. More than 4,000 Americans died. Fil-ipinos suffered far greater casualties—at least200,000 soldiers and civilians died.

When Aguinaldo was captured in March 1901,many Filipino military officers and soldiers sur-rendered. Others refused to give up even afterAguinaldo urged them to stop fighting.

In the summer of 1901, the United States trans-ferred authority in the Philippines from the mili-tary to a civilian government headed by WilliamHoward Taft. Taft set out to prepare the islandsfor eventual self-rule. However, the Philippinesdid not gain full independence until 1946.

Describing What is a protectorate?


Developing Multimedia PresentationsWhy Learn This Skill?

You want to present a research report to therest of your class, and you want to really holdtheir attention. How do you do it? Your presen-tation can be exciting if you use various media.

Learning the SkillAt its most basic, a multimedia presentation

involves using several types of media. To dis-cuss life in the Philippines, for example, youmight show photographs of the country. Youcould also play a recording of the country’s lan-guage and music, or present a video showingthe Filipino people at work and at play.

You can also develop a multimedia presenta-tion on a computer. Multimedia, as it relates tocomputer technology, is the combination oftext, video, audio, and animation in a computerprogram.

In order to create multimedia productions orpresentations on a computer, you need to have certaintools. These may include traditional computer graphictools and drawing programs, animation programs thatmake still images move, and authoring systems that tieeverything together. Your computer manual will tellyou which tools your computer can use.

Practicing the SkillThis chapter focuses on the overseas expansion ofthe United States in the late 1800s and early1900s. Ask yourself questions like the following todevelop a multimedia presentation on the people,politics, and industries of that era:

• Which forms of media do I want to include?Video? Sound? Animation? Photographs? Graphics? Other?

• Which of these media forms does my computersupport?

• What kind of software programs or systems do Ineed? A paint program? A drawing program? Ananimation program? A program to create interac-tive, or two-way, communication? An authoringsystem that will allow me to change images,sound, and motion?

• Is there a “do-it-all” program I can use todevelop the kind of presentation I want?

Developing Multimedia PresentationsKeeping in mind the four guidelines given above,write a plan describing a multimedia presentationyou would like to develop. Indicate what tools youwill need and what steps you must take to makethe presentation a reality.

TechnologyTechnology

1904Roosevelt Corollary isissued

1911Revolution occurs in Mexico

1914Panama Canal opens

1916Francisco “Pancho” Villalaunches uprising in Mexico

Main IdeaAfter the Spanish-American War, theUnited States attempted to extend itspolitical and economic influence inLatin America.

Key Termsisthmus, anarchy, dollar diplomacy

Reading StrategyAnalyzing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and describe these policies.

Read to Learn• what shaped the policies the United

States followed in Latin America.• where and how the United States

intervened in Latin America.

Section ThemeGlobal Connections Americaninvestments in Latin America grew in the early 1900s.

Latin AmericanPolicies

On August 15, 1914, something described as the “greatest liberty that Man hastaken with Nature” occurred. On that day, the first ship, the Ancon, traveled throughthe newly built Panama Canal. The world barely noticed, however. Most eyes werewatching Europe, where World War I was beginning. As the ship passed the words onthe great seal of the Panama Canal Zone—THE LAND DIVIDED, THE WORLDUNITED—the world was setting out to tear itself to pieces.

PanamaAmericans and Europeans had dreamed of building a canal across Central

America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and to eliminate the longand dangerous sea voyage around South America. Now that the United Statescontrolled territory in both oceans, a canal that would allow easier access toAmerican overseas territory became increasingly important.

In 1879 a French company had acquired a lease from the government ofColombia to construct a canal across its province of Panama. Panama was an


Description

Roosevelt Corollary

Dollar Diplomacy

Moral Diplomacy

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1900 ✦ 1910 ✦ 1920

Canal brochure


isthmus—a narrow strip of land connecting twolarger bodies of land—about 50 miles (80 km)wide. Wedged between the Caribbean Sea andthe Pacific Ocean, Panama seemed like the per-fect site for the canal.

French efforts to build a canal failed, and in1901 the United States bought the lease from theFrench for $40 million. In 1903 Secretary of StateJohn Hay negotiated a treaty with Colombiathat granted the United States a 99-year lease ona strip of land across Panama in return for apayment of $10 million and an annual rent of$250,000.

In Colombia, opposition to the low priceoffered by the Americans led the Colombiansenate to reject the treaty. In a fit of anger, Presi-dent Roosevelt referred to the Colombians whorejected the treaty as “bandits.” He believed thecanal was vital to America’s national defense.

Revolution in PanamaRoosevelt began looking for other ways to get

land for the canal, and he wrote that he would“be delighted if Panama were an independentstate.” The Panamanians had staged revoltsagainst Colombia in the past, but never with suc-cess. This time, however, the Panamanians hadreason to believe that the Americans would sup-port them in a revolt against Colombia.

On November 2, 1903, the American warshipNashville steamed into the port of Colón on theCaribbean coast of Panama. Encouraged by thisshow of support, the Panamanians revolted thenext day and declared their independence.When Colombia sent forces to stop the revolt, theUnited States intervened and turned them back.

The Panama CanalOn November 6, the United States recognized

Panama’s independence. Less than two weekslater, Hay signed a treaty with the new nation ofPanama. It gave the United States a 10-mile (16-km) strip of land across the country for the sameamount offered earlier to Colombia. The UnitedStates now had land to build a canal. Roosevelt’sactions in Panama angered many Latin Ameri-cans and some members of Congress and otherAmericans. The president, however, took greatpride in his accomplishment. “I took the canalzone and let Congress debate,” he said later, “andwhile the debate goes on, the canal does also.”

The United States could now start work onthe canal—not an easy undertaking. Diseasestruck the workers. An English writerdescribed Panama as “a damp, tropical jungle,intensely hot, swarming with mosquitoes.”These mosquitoes carried two deadly dis-eases—yellow fever and malaria.

657

Work Trains, Miraflores by Alson Skinner Clark Thebuilding of the Panama Canal was a tribute to the skill ofAmerican engineers. The stamp commemorates thecanal’s 25th anniversary. What challenges did Ameri-can engineers face in building the canal?

History Through Art

Colonel William Gorgas, an army doctor whohad helped eliminate yellow fever in Cuba,went to Panama to fight the diseases. Gorgasinstructed workers to drain swamps, sprayinsecticides, spread oil on stagnant pools ofwater, and cut grassy marshes in order todestroy mosquito breeding places. By 1906 thesemeasures had eliminated yellow fever andgreatly reduced the number of malaria cases.Without controlling disease, the United Statescould not have built the canal.

The Panama Canal was regarded as one of thegreat engineering feats of the time. Thousands ofworkers struggled to carve a path through thedense jungle and over mountains. They dug outhuge amounts of earth and rock and used themto build a dam. They created a large lake andconstructed giant locks to raise and lower shipsfrom sea level over the mountains and then backto sea level again on the other side of the isthmus.

The Grand OpeningThe Panama Canal opened on August 15,

1914, and a cargo ship, the Ancon, made the firsttrip through the canal. A great success from thestart, the canal reduced shipping costs by cut-ting more than 7,000 miles off the voyage fromNew York City to San Francisco. The canal alsohelped extend American naval power by allow-ing the United States fleet to move freelybetween the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

In the long run, the canal guaranteed astrong American presence in Latin America,where the United States now had a valuable

property it intended to protect. Yet many LatinAmericans remained bitter over how the CanalZone was acquired. This resentment souredrelations between the United States and LatinAmerica for years.

Analyzing Why was Panama chosen as the site for a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans?

Policing the Western Hemisphere

President Roosevelt often quoted an Africanproverb, “Speak softly and carry a big stick.” Hebelieved the United States should respond toforeign crises not by threats but by militaryaction. Roosevelt became known for his “bigstick” approach to foreign affairs. America mustexercise “an international police power,” hemaintained, to preserve order and prevent theworld from falling into anarchy—disorder andlawlessness.

Roosevelt CorollaryRoosevelt worried that instability in the

Caribbean region would lead European powersto intervene. Two incidents confirmed his fears.In 1902, when Venezuela failed to meet pay-ments on its loans, European nations imposed ablockade. The following year a revolution in theDominican Republic toppled the government,causing concern that European powers wouldstep in to protect their financial interests there.


This cartoon shows President TheodoreRoosevelt in the role of the world’spoliceman. Roosevelt was given the titlebecause of his “big stick” diplomacy. Do you think the cartoonist agreeswith Roosevelt acting as an interna-tional policeman? Why or why not?


The president responded to these incidentsin 1904 by asserting America’s right to act asa “policeman” in Latin America, intervening“however reluctantly . . . in cases of wrongdo-ing.” This policy, known as the Roosevelt Corol-lary, was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine.Up to that time, the United States had used theMonroe Doctrine only to prevent Europeanintervention in Latin America. Under the Roo-sevelt Corollary, the United States now claimedthe right to intervene in the affairs of LatinAmerican nations whenever those nationsseemed unstable.

The United States first applied the RooseveltCorollary in 1905, when it took control of theDominican Republic’s finances. This arrangementcontinued for more than 30 years. The UnitedStates used the policy again in 1906, when troopswere sent to Cuba to stop a revolution there.

Dollar DiplomacyTheodore Roosevelt thought of American

power mostly in military terms. His successor inthe White House, William Howard Taft, took a dif-ferent view. Taft hoped to modify American for-eign policy by “substituting dollars for bullets.”

President Taft was willing to intervene inother nations whenever American businessinterests were threatened. He believed thatAmerican investments would bring stability totroubled areas of the world, as well as profit andpower to the United States, without the need forforce. Taft’s policy of linking American businessinterests to diplomatic interests abroad wasknown as dollar diplomacy. This policy set inmotion some positive effects.

Encouraged by dollar diplomacy, Americaninvestments in Latin America grew in the early1900s. American investments helped buildroads, railroads, and harbors, which stimulatedtrade and brought benefits to both Latin Ameri-can countries and the United States.

Uncle Sam is the nickname of the character often usedto represent the United States in political cartoons. Inthis cartoon, Uncle Sam uses the Monroe Doctrine towarn the leaders of Europe not to interfere in the affairsof Latin America. How are the European leadersreacting to Uncle Sam?


AB

CA B CEuropean Leaders Latin AmericaUncle Sam



In 1911 a popular Mexican reformer namedFrancisco Madero (muh•DEHR•oh) led a revo-lution to overthrow Mexico’s brutal dictator Porfirio Díaz (DEE•ahs). Although foreign busi-ness and some Mexican politicians and landown-ers had prospered under the rule of Díaz, thelives of most Mexicans had grown worse.

Two years after taking power, Madero wasoverthrown and killed by General VictorianoHuerta (WEHR•tuh), who—like Díaz—favoredthe wealthy and foreign interests. PresidentWoodrow Wilson, who had just taken office,refused to recognize Huerta’s “government ofbutchers.”

Wilson’s “Moral Diplomacy”A sincere believer in the ideals of democ-

racy, Wilson thought the United States had aduty “to teach the South American republicsto elect good men.” Like Roosevelt and Taft,Wilson recognized the importance of militarypower and economic interests. Yet Wilson alsoattempted to follow a foreign policy based onmoral principles.

Dollar diplomacy also resulted in a strongerrole for the United States overseas. LargeAmerican companies gained great power inLatin America and controlled the politics ofsome nations in the region. Furthermore, whenAmerican business interests were endangered,military intervention often followed. In 1912,when a revolution in Nicaragua threatenedAmerican business interests, the United Statesquickly sent marines to restore peace. Suchinterference led to increased anti-U.S. feelingsthroughout Latin America.

Relations with MexicoIn the early 1900s, Mexico was a poor country

controlled by a tiny group of rich landholders.Investors in the United States poured millions ofdollars into Mexican oil wells and other busi-nesses. Then, in 1910, Mexico entered a turbu-lent period in its history—one that threatenedAmerican investments, revealed the weaknessesof dollar diplomacy, and led to military inter-vention by the United States.

Through her work as a teacher and newspaperwriter, Jovita Idar champi-oned the cause of equalrights for Mexican Ameri-cans. Born in Laredo,Texas, Jovita Idar grewup in a family thatdevoted its skills to the cause. Her father,Clemente Idar, formedunions and spoke outagainst injustice in hisnewspaper, La Crónica.

In 1910 and 1911,Jovita, along with her

father, wrote a series ofarticles about the discrim-ination and violenceagainst Mexican Ameri-cans in South Texas.Calling on both the U.S.and Mexican governmentsfor help, the Idar news-paper demanded equaltreatment for MexicanAmerican students andfor Mexican Americans inthe justice system.

During the MexicanRevolution of 1910, Jovitahelped organize the

White Cross to care forthe wounded on bothsides of the battle.

She was also instru-mental in forming theLeague of MexicanWomen. Jovita became its first president andworked hard to provideeducation for MexicanAmerican students. Theorganization also pro-vided free food and cloth-ing for the needy in thecommunity.

Wilson’s “moral diplo-macy” faced a seriouschallenge in Mexico.After Huerta tookpower, a civi l warbroke out in Mexico.Wilson hoped that theHuerta government,without American sup-

port, would fall. When that did not happen, Wilson authorized arms sales to Huerta’s rival,Venustiano Carranza (kuh•RAN•ZUH).

In April 1914, after Huerta’s troops arrestedsome American sailors, Wilson ordered UnitedStates troops to seize the port of Veracruz. Thisshow of force strengthened Carranza’s positionand forced Huerta to flee in August. Carranzatook power, and American troops withdrew.

Francisco “Pancho” VillaHuerta’s resignation did not end civil war in

Mexico. Rebel leader Francisco “Pancho”Villa launched an uprising against Carranza.In January 1916, Villa seized and shot 16Americans because of United States supportfor the Carranza government. Villa hoped hisaction would damage relations between theUnited States and the Carranza government,but the United States did not take steps

against Mexico. Then Villa and his rebelscrossed the border into New Mexico andburned the town of Columbus, killing 18Americans there.

Villa’s actions outraged the American public.The president sent General John J. Pershingwith a large force of troops across the borderinto Mexico to capture Pancho Villa. For almosta year, Pershing’s troops pursued Villa acrossMexico, but the Mexican people protected Villa.

In 1917, when America’s attention turned tothe war raging in Europe, President Wilsonwithdrew the troops from Mexico. Mexico andthe United States had come close to war, andAmerican actions hadcaused great resentmentin Mexico. America’sexperience in Mexico,like its policies in theCaribbean, showed thatit would willingly use itspower when it believedits interests or honor wasthreatened.

Explaining On what princi-ples did Wilson base his foreign policy?

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use each of these terms

in a sentence that helps explain itsmeaning: isthmus, anarchy, dollar diplomacy.

2. Reviewing Facts Describe how theUnited States used Panama’s desirefor independence to its advantage.

Reviewing Themes3. Global Connections Compare the

different diplomacy styles of Presi-dents Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson.

Critical Thinking4. Making Generalizations Do you

think our government today followsRoosevelt’s, Taft’s, or Wilson’s diplo-matic ideas in setting foreign policy?Explain.

5. Compare and Contrast Re-createthe diagram below and list the differ-ences between the Roosevelt Corol-lary and the Monroe Doctrine.

Analyzing Visuals6. Analyzing Political Cartoons Exam-

ine the cartoon on page 659. Whomdo the figures on the left represent?Who is stopping them from crossingto the other side?


Economics Use a reference suchas Historical Abstract of the UnitedStates to find the value of theUnited States’s imports and exportsto a Latin American country from1890 to 1910. Create a double-linegraph showing this information.

Monroe Doctrine Roosevelt Corollary

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit taj.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 22—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on foreignpolicy.

Pancho Villa

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe37.php?&st=281&pt=2&bk=13

662

Reviewing Key TermsFor each of the pairs of terms below, write a sentence orshort paragraph showing how the two are related.1. expansionism, imperialism2. spheres of influence, dollar diplomacy3. annexation, protectorate

Reviewing Key Facts4. Why did many Americans oppose the purchase of

Alaska?5. How did the United States gain access to trade in

China?6. Who were the Rough Riders?7. Why did the United States encounter difficult problems

in trying to govern the Philippines?8. What was the purpose of the Roosevelt Corollary?

Critical Thinking9. Analyzing Themes: Economic Factors What eco-

nomic reasons did the United States have for expand-ing its foreign interests?

10. Drawing Conclusions Re-create the diagram belowand list the three types of diplomacy. Underline whichtype was the most effective during this period. Explainwhy you think so.

Practicing Skills11. Developing Multimedia Presentations Study the list

of topics below. Choose one of the topics and explainhow you would use at least three types of media in apresentation to best teach the topic to your class.• Matthew Perry’s mission to Japan• The development of the American navy• How the United States changed Hawaii forever• The Battle of San Juan Hill• Building the Panama Canal

Overseas ExpansionExpansion• Acquisition of Alaska, new trading ties with Hawaii

and Latin America, and a strong stand against European interventionin the Americas raise thestature of the United States.

Spanish-American War• In fighting the Spanish-American War, the United States

establishes its willingness to become involved in conflict to help oppressed people and to protect its

own interests.

Building an Empire• As a result of the war, the United States gains

a colonial empire and with it the challengeof governing overseas possessions.

Diplomacy• United States intervention in foreign

countries is accomplished with the use or show of force—sanctioned by Roosevelt’s Big Stick diplomacy.Later, in the Pacific and East Asia, acombination of diplomacy and dol-lars helps the United States engagein trade and spread its influence.

Type of Diplomacy

Self-Check QuizVisit The American Journey Web site at taj.glencoe.com and click on Chapter XX—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

HISTORY


Directions: Choose the bestanswer to the following question.

The manner in which President Roosevelt acquiredthe Panama Canal Zone

A angered some members of Congress.B led to better relations with Latin America.C ended the Spanish-American War.D led to McKinley’s election.

Test-Taking Tip.

Be aware of the order of events asked about in a ques-tion. This question specifically asks about the takeoverof the Panama Canal Zone. Both choices C and D are

events that occurred before the events in Panama.Therefore, answers C and D are incorrect.

Standardized Test Practice

Self-Check QuizVisit taj.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 22—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

HISTORY

Geography and History ActivityThe building of the Panama Canal was regarded as a greatengineering feat. Study the map of the canal below; thenanswer the questions that follow.

12. Location What bodies of water are shown on the map ofthe Panama Canal?

13. Human-Environment Interaction What is the approxi-mate length of the Panama Canal? How did you deter-mine your answer?

14. Location What cities are located near the path of thecanal?

15. Movement In which direction would a ship en route toCristobal from Balboa travel?

16. Human-Environment Interaction What does the loca-tion of Panama tell you about the climatic conditions thecanal workers faced?

Citizenship Cooperative Activity17. Community Service Working in groups of three, inter-

view one of your community’s officials to learn how youcan begin taking an active role in the community. Mem-bers of your group may wish to volunteer for some sortof community service, then perform the service andreport your experiences to your classmates.

Economics Activity18. Work with a partner to create a map showing all of the

areas acquired by the United States during the late 1800sand early 1900s. Research to find out about the naturalresources that existed in each area and the importance ofthe area’s location in world trade. Then, starting withthese two factors, rank each of the areas on your map asto its economic value to the United States. The arearanked number “1” should be the most valuable. Com-pare your maps and rankings with other members of theclass and create a chart of the overall ratings.

Alternative Assessment 19. Portfolio Writing Activity Review the chapter for infor-

mation about treaties and agreements between variousnations during this period. Make a list of the agreementsand draw a picture or symbol next to each that will helpyou recall its terms.

10 kilometers0Lambert AzimuthalEqual-Area projection

10 miles0

N

S

EW

80°W

9°N

GAILLARDCUT

PEDRO MIGUELLOCKS

MIRAFLORESLOCKS

GATUNLOCKS

Caribbean

Sea

Gatun

Lake

Madden

Lake

Bay of Panama

PANAMA

Col´onCristobal

Balboa

PanamaCanal Zone

Canal route

Railroad

Locks

The Panama Canal

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Documents

Chapter 22: Overseas Expansion, 1865-1917...638 CHAPTER 22 Overseas Expansion In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Americans looked beyond their borders and yearned for an empire. Merchants