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Review of Literature
Chapter - II
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
To get deep insight on conceptual framework, it is very much essentials to
get adequate information on subject knowledge. For this purpose various research
works undertaken by different authors helps the scholar to understand the focal
theme of the research work. To avoid duplication in research work, it is mandatory
to review various literature works contributed by different pioneers in this field.
This review of literature helps to identify the research gap.
1. Venkatram. and Deodhar (1999)1
in their study entitled ―Dynamic
Demand Analysis of India's Domestic Coffee Market‖ highlights that
coffee, although an important commodity in India's agricultural exports,
has faced fluctuating international prices and decreasing unit value
realisation, especially in the post-reform period .Hence, domestic market
for coffee cannot be neglected altogether. This suggests that Coffee Board
may focus efforts on non-price factors rather than price incentives in their
generic coffee promotional campaign.
2. Dorsey (1999)2 in his study entitled ―Agricultural Intensification,
Diversification, and Commercial Production among Smallholder Coffee
Growers in Central Kenya‖ highlights that the research summarized in
this article establishes direct links between the scale, process, and output
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of agricultural production by examining the dynamics of intensification,
crop diversification, and commercialization. Small farm survey results
from Kirinyaga District, Kenya, show that diversified production provides
smallholders with the opportunity to select a particular crop or crops for
commercial production (such as coffee, French beans, or tomatoes) in
order to increase farm-generated income while meeting increasing
demands for local farm produce and export crops. The study shows that
income per hectare (acre) does not consistently increase with increasing
farm size, regardless of the level of commercialization. Smallholders
operating at the 1.2 to 1.6 hectare (3-4 acre) scale appear to engage in
higher-risk, more diversified, commercial production strategies than those
with less area under production.
3. Carneiro (1999)3 in his study entitled ―Advances in coffee biotechnology‖
highlights that in the last 28 years, important advances have been made in
vitro coffee culture techniques, putting the crop in a position to benefit
from biotechnology. Some systems of plant regeneration have already
been optimised in coffee.
4. Ramirez and Sosa (2000)4
in their study entitled ―Assessing the Financial
Risks of Diversified Coffee Production Systems: An Alternative Non normal
CDF Estimation Approach‖ highlights that recently developed techniques
are adapted and combined for the modeling and simulation of crop yields
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and prices that can be mutually correlated, exhibit heteroskedasticity or
autocorrelation, and follow non normal probability density functions.
5. Bodein (2001)5 in his study entitled ―Knowledge management, learning and
communication in value chains – A case analysis of the speciality coffee
value chain of FAPECAFES, Ecuador‖ highlights on the theoretical
background of knowledge management in value chains and the application
of the concepts on the case of FAPECAFES (Ecuador).The purpose was to
formulate a better understanding of the role and costs of knowledge
management, learning and communication in value chains and their impact
on farmers‘ ability to integrate successfully into high value markets.
6. Angkasith (2001)6
in his study entitled ―Coffee Production Status and
Potential of Organic Arabica Coffee in Thailand ―highlights that Arabica
coffee is mainly grown in the highlands at approx. 800 m asl. It is wet
processed to give high quality green bean. The Catimor cultivar is
recommended as it is rust resistant. Growing arabica coffee provides cash
income for hill-tribe farmers and reduces the problem of traditional slash-
and-burn shifting agriculture. Both shaded and full sun coffees are grown.
Limiting the use of chemical inputs, including fertilizers and pesticides,
is aimed at reducing water and soil contamination and improved
ecological conditions as well as the health of the farmers.
7. Ngowi (2003)7 in his study entitled ―A study of farmers‘ knowledge,
attitude and experience in the use of pesticides in coffee farming‖
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highlights that pesticides are commonly used to control coffee pests
despite the fact that they have been implicated in a number of poisoning
incidences and ill health. Agricultural extension workers in Tanzania are
unable to provide an adequate service to farmers with regard to safe use of
pesticides because they are not adequately trained in handling, application
(1,2) and health aspects of pesticides (3). Agricultural development policies
in many developing countries emphasize external inputs as means of
increasing food production. This has led to a growth in the use of pesticides,
inorganic fertilizers, etc. and hence a substitution for natural processes and
resources. Usages of synthetic agrochemicals have replaced biological,
cultural, and mechanical methods for controlling pests, weeds and diseases.
It is therefore necessary to make better use of indigenous resources in
sustainable agricultural production and for health maintenance.
8. Mekuria T. et al (2004)8
in their study entitled ―The Status Of Coffee
Production And The Potential For Organic Conversion In Ethiopia
―highlights in an international conference that the collapse of world coffee
prices is contributing to a socio-economic decline affecting an estimate of
125 million people world-wide. The conclusion was drawn that Ethiopia
has the potentials to produce certified organic high quality coffee due to
favourable growing conditions and the high diversity of genetic resources
in Coffee arabica. Conversion to organic coffee production may, however,
result in a significant decrease of crop productivity. A key focal point is
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efficient nutrient management by composting coffee husks/pulps, and
green manuring by mixed planting of suitable legumes.
9. Millardin (2004)9 in his study entitled ―Increasing Profitability for
Farmers Supplying to the International Coffee Market by Improving
Supply Chain Management, including Traceability‖ highlights how coffee
farmers in southern Mexico have achieved increased earnings through
partnership with conservation International, Starbucks Coffee Company
and the United States Agency for International Development. The project
introduced a set of best practices for the farm, post-harvest processing and
the wider landscape to improve coffee quality and environmental
management. Farmers can sell their coffee at premium prices to Starbucks
if they adopt the specified practices. Their earnings have increased, while
project subsidies for providing services have decreased, enabling CI to
plan an exit strategy. The project‘s learning is that five principal factors
sustained increased farmer earnings:(1) Creating brand value from
product attributes that belong to the origin; (2) Building trust and
knowledge by initially providing services directly; (3) Facilitating
efficient inter-firm transactions in the value chain; (4) Stimulating
supporting markets to take over services; (5)Building understanding of
the natural environment‘s value.
10. Segura et al (2004)10
in their study entitled “Farmers‘ Perceptions,
Knowledge, and Management of Coffee Pests and Diseases and Their
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Natural Enemies in Chiapas, Mexico‖ highlights that the Small farmers
perceptions of coffee Coffea arabica L. herbivores and their natural
enemies, how those perceptions relate to held infestation levels, and pest
management practices being implemented by members from two organic
and nonorganic coffee grower organizations in the Soconusco region.
However, a low effectiveness for pest control was commonly perceived,
probably due to a feeling, among the organic farmers, of a low impact of
their pest management extension service, whereas a lack of motivation
was prevalent among the nonorganic farmers, shown by a concern with
their low coffee yields and the emigration of youth.
11. Madhusudan (2005)11
in his study entitled ―The Global Village: Linkages
between International Coffee Markets and Grazing by Livestock in a
South Indian Wildlife Reserve‖ highlights that India's heritage of natural
habitats and wild species is under growing threat from its biomass-
dependent rural peoples and its consumerist urban economy. It has also
been suggested that subsistence use must be accommodated within Indian
wildlife reserves because it caters exclusively to local consumption for
livelihood, whereas commercial use warrants greater restriction because it
furthers profit-based goals of distant interests.
12. Subedi (2005)12
in his study entitled ―Comparative Analysis Of Dry And
Wet Processing Of Coffee With Respect To Quality In Kavre District,
Nepal‖ highlights that coffee is a high value and relatively new cash crop
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grown in the mid-hills of Nepal with an altitude range of 800-1600 m
above sea level providing on-farm employment and income generating
activities for rural poor smallholder farmers. The problem of this research
study was variation in quality of coffee obtained from two processing
method that has affected export market.
13. Rutherford (2006)13
in his study entitled ―Current Knowledge of Coffee
Wilt Disease, a Major Constraint to Coffee Production in Africa‖
highlights that the Coffee is vital to the economy of East and Central
Africa, providing a major source of foreign exchange earnings and, as a
cash crop, supporting the livelihoods of millions involved in cultivation,
processing, marketing, and export.
14. Hartwich et al ( 2007)14
in their study entitled ―Knowledge management
for agricultural innovation: Lessons from networking efforts in the
Bolivian Agricultural Technology System.‖ highlights that the results of
an analysis of adoption of innovations among farmers affiliated to four
agricultural innovation projects in Bolivia that promote different
modalities of knowledge management. In two of the cases, regional
foundations of the Bolivian Agricultural Technology System (SIBTA)
fostered knowledge management and exchange involving multiple-agents
and results show that these are relatively more successful than traditional
technology transfer projects. Results of the analysis at the individual
farmers‘ level demonstrate that the adoption of innovations is determined
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by the knowledge management modalities of the project to which they were
affiliated to as well as by the degree of embededness of the farmer in local
innovation and learning networks.
15. Muleta (2007)15
in his study entitled ―Microbial Inputs in Coffee (Coffea
arabica L.) Production Systems, Southwestern Ethiopia‖ highlights that
arabica coffee is the key cash crop and top mainstay of the Ethiopian
economy and requires sustainable production methods. Southwestern
natural forests, the site of this study, are believed to be the centre of origin
and diversity for Coffea arabica and still harbour wild Arabica coffee that
may serve as an important gene pool for future breeding. Cost reductions,
sustainability and quality improvement are now the major priorities in
coffee production systems and require organic growing of coffee.
16. Mhando et al. (2007)16
in their study entitled ―farmers‘ coping strategies
to a changed coffee market after economic liberalization: the case of
mbinga district in Tanzania‖ highlights that the Mbinga District of
Tanzania is a major coffee production area occupied by the Matengo, who
cultivate food and cash crops. In 1986, the Tanzanian government
introduced Structural Adjustment Programmes, and in 1993, liberalized
the coffee market. As a result, subsidies to agricultural inputs were
abandoned, and the cooperative union that had been responsible for coffee
production and marketing in Mbinga collapsed. At the same time,
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improvements to growing and processing technologies and the entry of
new coffee-producing countries caused overproduction in the global
coffee market; thus, the price of coffee decreased to an unprecedented
level. With the excessive supply, prices remain in stagnation, but the costs
of agricultural inputs continue to rise.
17. DaMatta et al. (2007)17
in their study entitled ―Ecophysiology of coffee
growth and production‖ highlights that after oil, coffee is the most
valuable traded commodity worldwide. In this review some aspects of
coffee growth and development in addition to focusing our attention on
recent advances on the (eco) physiology of production in both Coffea
Arabica and C. canephora, which together account for 99% of the world
coffee bean production.
18. Devi and Kumar (2008)18
in their study entitled ―Remote sensing and
GIS application for land quality assessment for coffee growing areas of
Karnataka‖ highlights the assessment of land quality was carried out for
coffee-growing areas of Karnataka using satellite image, toposheets and
soil studies. The investigation focused on monitoring soil processes that
control the land quality using satellite data in order to identify the land
qualities that are ideal for coffee-growing; to identify the status of land
qualities of coffee-growing areas using satellite imageries, toposheets and
soil resource maps and to characterise land quality using soil studies in
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selected areas. For optimum utilization of available natural resources on a
sustainable basis, timely and reliable information on soils regarding their
nature, extent and spatial distribution along with their potential and
limitations is very important. The efficiency and accuracy of data are
improved when remote sensing data products such as aerial photographs
and satellite image are used.
19. Neilson (2008)19
in his study entitled ―Environmental Governance in the
Coffee Forests of Kodagu, South India‖ highlights the Place-specific
cultural institutions regulate the relationship between coffee planters and
the natural world in the Kodagu district of the Western Ghats, a global
biodiversity hotspot in South India. Many planters have retained native
trees for shade on their plantations, such that these cultivated areas,
together with formal protected areas and community-managed sacred
groves, constitute a mostly contiguous forested landscape across the
district. The integrity of this broader landscape, and the enrolment of
coffee planters as environmental stewards, is essential if conservation
efforts are to be effective.
20. samba (2009)20
in his study entitled ―Local knowledge about trees and
ecosystem services in coffee plantations in Rubavu and Rutsiro districts,
Rwanda‖ highlights that the research was to gather farmers‘ agro-
ecological knowledge, about trees, their interactions with coffee and other
components of the shaded coffee systems, farming practices and how they
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impacted on coffee production and ecosystem services provision as well
as the surrounding environment. Major findings were; coffee (C. Arabica)
was the main cash crop grown in the study area as well as the country, no
intercropping (food crops) was permitted on coffee farms. Planting trees
on coffee farms was a usual practice for it was inevitable because the area
was hilly; the majority of farmers operated on a small scale and would
hardly afford intensive management of full-sun coffee. Farmers had
detailed knowledge about trees and ecosystems services from the coffee
agro forestry system. Ecosystem services provision largely depended on
the system‘s components. Farmers‘ rationale for selecting coffee shade
trees was mainly based on the tree attributes and their preference differed
between locations.
21. Valkila (2009)21
in his study entitled ―Fair Trade organic coffee
production in Nicaragua — Sustainable development or a poverty trap?‖
highlights the impact of Fair Trade organic coffee production on the
well-being of small-scale farmers in Nicaragu. Fair Trade organic
production raises farmer income when low intensity organic farming is an
alternative to low-intensity conventional farming. However, low-intensity
farming produces very little coffee in the case of the most marginalized
farmers, keeping these farmers in poverty. With higher intensities of
management, the economic advantages of Fair Trade organic production
largely depend on prices in the mainstream market.
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22. ForeroAlvarez and Furio (2010)22
in their study entitled ―Colombian
Farmers ‗Adaptations to New Condition in the World Coffee Market‖
highlights that the recent evolution of Colombian coffee production and a
look at the family farms that currently represent the majority of coffee
grown in Colombia highlights the institutional adjustments that have
optimized benefits from marketing phases controlled by the country and
passed them on to the producers. It also reveals the strategies by which
coffee growers have adjusted their production systems, including
technical and the pursuit of sustainability. As a result of these
adjustments, family farmers have made their production systems
economically viable, although for most the income from them has been
insufficient to raise them above the poverty line.
23. Hartwich, et al. (2010)23
in their study entitled ―Innovation Trajectories in
Honduras‘ Coffee Value Chain. Public and Private Influence on the Use
of New Knowledge and Technology among Coffee Growers‖ highlights
the use of improved coffee production technology schemes among
smallholder coffee producers in three prominent coffee producing regions
in Honduras are presented. The results suggest that there are significant
differences in the way that various providers of knowledge and
technology, especially private buyers and development agencies,
influence the farmers‘ behaviour towards innovation. The influence of
buyers, according to the data, is focused on certification and quality
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aspects, whereas development agents focus on improved agronomic
practices. Farmers who communicate with the extension branch of input
providers tend to be more innovative. These results suggest that
development programs should take more seriously into account the role of
private actors in innovation among agricultural producers and, hence,
design development programs in such a way to allow for collaboration
with these agents.Caleb Gordon et al. (2007)19
in their study entitled
―Biodiversity, profitability, and vegetation structure in a Mexican coffee
agro-ecosystem‖ highlights that the relationships of bird and small
mammal species richness, composition, and abundance to vegetation
structure and economic profitability across a coffee intensification
gradient in central Veracruz, Mexico. The results demonstrate that high-
biodiversity coffee cultivation can be compatible with high profitability, and
has significant potential for conserving biodiversity in coffee-growing
regions, but only as a substitute for low biodiversity coffee cultivation,
not forest.
24. Sereke-Brhan (2010)24
in his study entitled ―Lessons for Africa from the
Ethiopian Fine Coffee Initiative‖ highlights that the initiative to register
trademark for Ethiopia‘s fine coffees was launched in2004. What seemed
a quiet progression of actions by the Ethiopian Intellectual Property
Office quickly grew to command international media attention? Opinions
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differed as to whether rightful claim could be exercised over an
agricultural product that happened to be growing in a particular location.
25. Tiwari (2010)25
in his study entitled ―Agricultural Policy Review For
Coffee Promotion In Nepal‖ highlights that coffee is one of the important
cash generative crops in the mid hills of Nepal. Coffee, being an
important high value crops, is mostly grown in marginal areas with
minimum use of improved technologies. In line with the focus of
agricultural policies, the concerned organizations have not taken adequate
initiatives for the promotion of coffee cultivation. In Nepal majority of
coffee is wet processed, which is considered best method for good quality
coffee. However, there is lack of updated manpower and improved
technologies towork in this regard. As a result of which, quality of
Nepalese coffee is below international standard. Around 65 percent of
Nepalese coffee is exported and the rest amount is processed and supplied
in the domestic market. Majority of coffee is exported through personal
contact of traders rather than institutionalized marketing channel.
Therefore, there is gap between what policies have stated and what
actually implemented in the real fields for the promotion of coffee.
26. Smith (2010)26
in his study entitled ―The Evolution Of Coffee Markets For
Sustainable Development: A Honduran Cooperative‘s Experience With Fair
Trade‖ explores the barriers coffee farmers of Cooperativa Copan in
Western Honduras face in effectively participating in the Fair Trade
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market, as well as the opportunities Fair Trade offers in improving the
conditions of these farmers and the environment. It also highlights the
political and economic relationships that constitute the global coffee
industry and the many links between points of production and
consumption along the coffee value chain. Fair Trade has become an
important alternative trade strategy in the world economy as it confronts the
power inequalities and exploitations within the North-South trade relations.
27. Ambinakudige (2011)27
in his study entitled ―National Parks, coffee and
NTFPs: the livelihood capabilities of Adivasis in Kodagu, India‖
highlights how a small farmer faces the difficulties of her lively hood.
Her husband goes for daily wages in the estate like pruning. The only
problem being they do not own land.
28. Frascareli et al. (2011)28
in their study entitled ―Effect of process conditions
on the microencapsulation of coffee oil by spray drying ―highlights that
Microencapsulation is a good alternative to transform liquid food
flavorings‘, such as coffee oil, into stable and free-flowing powders.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of process conditions
on the microencapsulation of coffee oil by spray drying, using gum
Arabic as encapsulating agent. At this temperature, pure oil presented
higher lipid oxidation than encapsulated, confirming the protective effect
of microencapsulation on the oxidative stability of this product.
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29. Duku et al (2011)29
in their study entitled ―Bio-char production potential
in Ghana—A review ―highlights that Bio-char is being promoted for its
potential to improve soil properties, crop productivity and carbon
sequestration in soil. Obstacles that may hinder rapid adoption of bio-char
production systems include technology and production costs, and
feedstock availability. It is concluded that the large availability of
biomass resources in Ghana gives a great potential for bio-char
production in the country.
30. Munyuli (2011)30
in his study entitled ―Farmers perceptions of
pollinators‘ importance in coffee production in Uganda‖ highlights that
Coffee (Coffea canephora) is the principal cash crop and the country‘s
largest agricultural foreign revenue earner in Uganda. Previous surveys
confirmed that coffee grown in central Uganda was largely depending on
bee pollination to set fruit set. Despite its high contribution to the
economics of agricultural sector in Uganda and despite its great
dependency to bees for fruit set, it is not clear if small-scale farmers are
aware of the importance of managing farm- landscapes for pollination
services conservation to increase coffee yield. The main hypothesis was
that small-scale coffee growers were not aware of the relevance of
pollination services for coffee production. Farmers‘ surveys were
conducted in coffee-banana farming systems in central Uganda. It was
found in this study that more than 90% of interviewed farmers were not
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aware of the role played by bees in coffee yield increase. Farmers were
not willing to manage their lands to protect pollination services,
particularly because they considered pollination service as an unsolicited
―free service‖, or as a ―public good‖.
31. Murthy and Naidu (2011)31
in their study entitled ―Improvement of
Robusta Coffee Fermentation with Microbial Enzymes‖ highlights that
Pectinase was produced by solid- state fermentation utilizing coffee pulp
with Aspergillus niger CFR 305. This is the first report on treatment of
the pectinase produced by coffee pulp and application of the same on
demucilage of coffee pulp indicating waste recycle with value addition
and is also economical for coffee industry.
32. Cerdán (2011)32
in his study entitled ―Local knowledge about how
ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation are related top
productivity in coffee agro forestry‖ highlights that the potential for tree
components of coffee agro forestry systems to provide ecosystem services
is increasingly recognized in certification schemes and direct payments
for environmental services. Management practices are a key factor in the
amount and quality of ecosystem services provided.
33. Anteneh et al. (2011)33
in their study entitled ―Factors Affecting Coffee
Farmers Market Outlet Choice. The Case of Sidama Zone, Ethiopia‖
highlights that Access to market in the form of different channels for
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coffee farmers is crucial for exploiting the potential of coffee production
to contribute to increased cash income of rural households.
34. Ponte (2011)34
in his study entitled ―Behind the Coffee Crisis‖ highlights
that the complex web of factors that are behind the current crisis in the
global coffee market. Although there has been wide coverage in the press
of tumbling prices for 'green' coffee and their repercussions on rural
livelihoods in producing countries, not much has been said on the
long-term changes that have taken place in the global coffee marketing
chain. This has resulted in the widespread belief that the coffee crisis is
simply about oversupply.
35. Cerdán (2011)35
in his study entitled ―Local knowledge about how
ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation are related top
productivity in coffee agro forestry ―highlights in his research paper that
the potential for tree components of coffee agro forestry systems to
provide ecosystem services is increasingly recognized in certification
schemes and direct payments for environmental services. There is
relatively abundant information about ecosystem services provision
within coffee agro forestry systems, but comparatively scant information
about how farmers manage their plantations, the factors influencing their
farming practices and the extent to which farmers' local knowledge - as
opposed to global scientific understanding.
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36. Mugo et al. (2011)36
in their study entitled ―The insect pests of coffee and
their distribution in Kenya‖ highlights that Coffee insect pests constrain
the production of anticipated high coffee yield and quality.
37. Donovan and Jason (2011)37
in their study entitled‖ Value chain
development for addressing rural poverty: asset building by smallholder
coffee producers and cooperatives in Nicaragua‖ showed that how large
pre-existing endowments of human and social capital provided a solid
foundation for rapid asset accumulation during the assessment period.
However, longer-term interventions that focused on building Soppexcca‘s
physical and financial capitals and improving Soppexcca‘s service offer
for its members were carried out exclusively by NGOs. NGO support
allowed Soppexcca to build infrastructure for coffee processing, build its
technical assistance program for quality enhancement, and expand its
credit services for members. Despite major gains in assets during the
assessment period, however, Soppexcca remained highly vulnerable to
asset erosion from both internal and external shocks.
38. Thangaswamy et al. (2011)38
in their study entitled ―Endoglucanase
Production By Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Using Coffee Pulp As Substrate
In Solid State Fermentat ion‖ highlights that, endoglucanase was produced
from coffee pulp waste by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens MTCC610.
From this findings coffee pulp waste is an abundant solid waste at coffee
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processing industries, it has the potential substrate for endoglucanase
production.
39. Dowdall (2012)39
in his study entitled ―Small Farmer Market Knowledge
and Specialty Coffee Commodity Chains in Western Highlands
Guatemala‖ highlights that for producers motivated by their new status as
self-employed, landowning, capitalist coffee growers, specialty coffee
presents an opportunity to proactively change the way they participate in
the international market. Now responsible for determining their own path,
many producers have jumped at the chance to enhance the value of their
product and participate in the new ―fair trade‖ market. But recent trends
in the international coffee price have led many producers to wonder why
their efforts to produce a certified Fair Trade and organic product are not
generating the price advantage they had anticipated.
40. Alejandra et al. (2012)40
in their study entitled ―Cooperation in coffee
markets: the case of Vietnam and Colombia ―highlights the purpose of
presenting a cross-country study comparing Colombia and Vietnam, two
of the major coffee exporting countries in the world, in terms of their
infrastructures, the roles of external shocks, technology adoption at
different stages of production, added value, positioning in both domestic
and global markets, internationalization patterns, marketing and branding
innovations, regulatory frameworks, and policy environments .This also
explores other aspects linked to production, and marketing strategies that
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open niche markets such as specialty coffees, and socially, labour and
environmentally-responsible trade. Furthermore, it identifies opportunities
of cooperation and competition between these two countries.
41. Harris et al. (2012)41
in their study entitled ― Modeling Annual Coffee .
42. Avelino et al. (2012)42
in their study entitled ―Landscape context and
scale differentially impact coffee leaf rust, coffee berry borer, and coffee
root-knot nematodes‖ highlights that crop pest and disease incidences at
plot scale vary as a result of landscape effects. Two main effects can be
distinguished. First, landscape context provides habitats of variable
quality for pests, pathogens, and beneficial and vector organisms. Second,
the movements of these organisms are dependent on the connectivity
status of the landscape. It was propose to fragmenting coffee plots with
forest corridors to control coffee berry borer movements between coffee
plots without favouring coffee leaf rust dispersal.
43. Megerssa et al. (2012)43
in their study entitled ―Knowledge and Attitude
of Small holder Coffee Producing Farmers to Coffee Quality:
The Case of Oromiya and South Nations Nationalities and Peoples
Regional States, Ethiopia ―highlights that in time bound when nobody
was sure how Coffee arabica is originally discovered, farmers in Ethiopia
have been growing quality coffee in the untamed forests of Kaffa and
Buno areas. Variables like, market distance, distance to washing stations,
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frequency of training and actors‘ efforts to improve quality were
important to influence coffee quality. Similarly of the 12 items selected
items for comparison in attitude scale, primary actors involved in quality
improvement, awareness of quality trend, skill and knowledge of farmers
were important items that affected coffee quality.The finding has also
indicated farmers had virtually low information regarding quality beans they
produced and their social, institutional, economical and psychological factors
differ across the study areas and among respondents. These necessitated
strengthening linkages among institutions so as to popularize the already
available technologies.
44. Syariefet et al. (2012)44
in their study entitled ―Smallholder Coffee
Processing Design Using Wet Technology Based On Clean Production‖
highlights that wet processing for red coffee berry is intended to improve
smallholder coffee quality despite produce wastewater that can pollute the
environment. In order to minimize and prevent wastewater generated
from processing, then it should be designed coffee processing based on
water minimization as part of clean production.
45. Darvishi and Indira (2013)45
in their study entitled ―An Analysis Of
Changing Pattern In Area, Production And Productivity Of Coffee And
Tea In India‖ highlights that the plantation crops are high value
commercial crops with greater economic importance and play a vital role
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in Indian economy. It is the source of livelihood for millions of small and
marginal farmers and provides employment for millions of plantation
workers. The export earnings from plantation crops like coffee and tea
played a significant role in financing Indian development. Plantation
sector has plays an important role in the socio-economic development of
the Indian regions. Being export oriented crops; changes in the trade
policies affect the production of these crops much more than any other
crops. Trade liberalization polices adopted in India with the introduction
of New Economic Policies has greater impact on the area, production and
productivity of these crops.
46. Gathura (2013)46
in his study entitled ― Factors affecting Small-Scale
Coffee Production in Githunguri District, Kenya‖ highlights that to
determine the factors affecting small scale coffee production in Kenya.
The establishments under study were small-scale coffee farms in
Githunguri District. It was to determine whether marketing factors,
finances, government policies and physical and human resources affect
coffee production in Githunguri District. The research established that
marketing factors, finances, government policies and physical and human
resources greatly affected coffee production. The study recommended that
the government should encourage coffee production by formulating
favorable marketing factors and other policies and provide finances to
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40
small scale coffee producers. Producers on the other hand should strive to
provide conducive working environment to their workers so as to sustain
them in their farms. This will help to improve coffee yields and quality.
47. Kucel et al. (2013)47
in their study entitled ―Status and Current Research
Strategies for Management of the Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus
hampei Ferr) in Africa‖ highlights that Coffee production in Africa has
largely stagnated over the past two decades. While the continent had
attained a production level of 19.5 million 60kg bags of coffee in 1997,
production in 2008 was only 17.5 million 60kg. This stagnation has been
attributed to a number of factors including poor management practices and
losses due to damage by insect pests and diseases (Musoli et al., 2001).
While considerable efforts have been made by research institutions in many
African countries to address the problem, control recommendations have
principally relied on cultural methods that are on their own inadequate and
cumbersome for peasant farmers to apply with due diligence.
48. Karthigaiselvan and Maran (2013)48
in their study entitled ―Production
And Marketing Of Coffee In TamilNadu ―highlights that the research
study was conducted with an objective to understand the related issues of
cultivation and marketing of coffee in TamilNadu. TamilNadu has a great
potential of coffee production and coffee drinker/addicted. In our
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41
TamilNadu state most of peoples are used in variety of coffee, Instant
Coffee, and piece of leaf.
49. Thang et al. (2013)49
in their study entitled ―Knowledge Creation And
Green Entrepreneurship: A Study Of Two Vietnamese Green Firms‖
highlights that to understanding and practice of knowledge-based
management in Vietnam by studying two Vietnamese agricultural
companies. It provides illustrative examples of how knowledge-based
management, pursuing a vision that fosters creativity and innovation by
employees, could ultimately fulfill the profitability objective of the business
and at the same time add value to the community‘s quality of life. Using the
SECI model as the parameter for analysis it is found that knowledge creation
processes were affected by a combination of leadership, teamwork and
corporate culture, and human resource management.
50. Akinbamowo (2013)50
in his study entitled ―A review of government
policy on agricultural mechanization in Nigeria‖ highlights that
performance of the previous Nigerian Government policy on agriculture
with specific consideration for components of the policies that concern
the agricultural mechanization subsector. Available secondary data
indicated that the existing policy framework have hitherto not adequately
supported the growth of the sector. The paper concluded by providing fresh
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42
focus areas that will make a new policy to be more vibrant and supportive of
an efficient multi-spectral agricultural production in the country.
51. Drunday and Pacin (2013)51
in their study entitled ―Occurrence of
Ochratoxin A in coffee beans, ground roasted coffee and soluble coffee
and method validation ―highlights that to determine the occurrence of
Ochratoxin A (OTA) in coffee beans, ground roasted coffee and soluble
coffee, which is imported by Argentina and manufactured in this country
and also to perform a single laboratory validation for the analysis of OTA.
Validation was done with certified reference material and with spiked
samples. Certified material showed 104% of toxin recovery in the case of
roasted coffee and 100% for green coffee. Spiked samples with levels from
1.98 to 10.18 mg/kg for soluble coffee had an average recovery rate of
79.4%. The limits of detection and quantification in coffee were 0.02 mg/kg
and 0.05 mg/kg respectively. A good correlation (r ¼ 0.9989) was found
for this method. The results showed that a high percentage (69%) of the
coffee was contaminated with OTA at different levels. The median
obtained for green coffee was 2.7 mg/kg, for ground roasted coffee was
0.24 mg/kg and 0.43 mg/kg for soluble coffee. A possible exposure
assessment was evaluated.
52. Indira (2014)52
in his study entitled ―Impact of Trade Liberalization on
Indian Coffee Exports‖ highlights that the decade of 1990‘s has opened
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43
the door in India for Liberalization. The dilemma of India to become
liberalized in external trade in 1980 was clarified when India got
liberalized in 1991. Today India has crossed two decades of accelerating
liberalization. Though the wind of liberalization brought many reforms,
the agriculture sector remained quiet untouched for a very long time.
The irony was that the reform failed to glance, that sector of workforce
which supported as the largest share in the country. But the increasing
economic integration of Indian economy with the global process has
brought significant challenges and changes at the door of the agriculture
sector. The reform dragged out most of the restriction on both import and
export of agriculture products. The quantitative restrictions on agriculture
import were removed, import licensing for all product were abolished
(but with certain criteria), the canalising agencies was greatly reduced.
By getting certain changes a strong feeling was emerged in the country
not to keep the agriculture sector outside the purview of direct reform.
Quantitative restrictions on imports are being phased out and exports are
also being liberalized. Both agricultural exports as well as imports are
now permitted through private trade, except for a few commodities. There
is lot of anxiety, interest and apprehension about the impact that the trade
liberalization may have on producers, consumers and the economy.
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44
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It has been noticed that the review of literature on knowledge management
in coffee cultivation gives an idea on extensive and diverse works on coffee
cultivation. It facilitates the understanding of various structural and non structural
variables that determine the cultivation of coffee among small growers.
The survey of the existing literature indicates that so far no specific work has been
carried out to evaluate the knowledge management of coffee growers among small
growers. Hence, this was identified as research gap in this area. In order to fulfil
the research gap, the researcher has chosen this particular area as his research topic
and hence, this study. Further, this study is intended to be an eye opener for the
coffee growers living in Yercaud to enhance their knowledge in coffee cultivation
with modern methods and pesticides control. The present study will help the
policymakers of coffee board and coffee growers.
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45
END NOTE
Venkatram, R. and Satish Y. Deodhar (1999), Dynamic Demand Analysis of
India‘s Domestic Coffee Market, IIMA Working Paper.
Briyan Dorsey (1999), Agricultural Intensification, Diversification, and Commercial
Production among Smallholder Coffee Growers in Central Kenya, Economic
Geography, Vol. 75, No. 2 (April, 1999), PP. 178-195.
Maria Filomena Carneiro (1999), Advances in coffee biotechnology AgroBiotechNet
1999, Vol. 1 January, ABN 006
Octavio A. Ramirez and Romeo Sosa (2000), in his study entitled Assessing the
Financial Risks of Diversified Coffee Production Systems: An Alternative
Non normal CDF Estimation Approach Journal of Agricultural and Resource
Economics 25(1):267-285 Copyright 2000 Western Agricultural Economics
Association
Reinhild Bodein (2001), Knowledge management, learning and communication in
value chains – A case analysis of the specialty coffee value chain of
FAPECAFES, Ecuador, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropial, (2001).
Pongsak Angkasith (2001), Coffee Production Status and Potential of Organic Arabica
Coffee in Thailand, Paper presented at the First Asian Regional Round-table
on Sustainable, Organic and Speciality Coffee Production, Processing and
Marketing, 26-28, (February, 2001), Chiang Mai, Thailand.
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46
Ngowi A.V.F. (2003), A study of farmers knowledge, attitude and experience in the
use of pesticides in coffee farming, African newsletter on occupational health
and safety, Vol.13, (2003), PP. 62-64.
Mekuria T., Neuhoff D. and Köpke U. (2004) The Status of Coffee Production And
The Potential For Organic Conversion In Ethiopia Deutscher Tropentag,
(October, 5-7, 2004).
Edward Millardin (2004), Increasing Profitability for Farmers Supplying to the
International Coffee Market by Improving Supply Chain Management, including
Traceability, United States Agency for International Development, (2004).
Segura, H. R. Barrera, J. F. Morales, L H. and Nazar A. (2004), Farmers‘
Perceptions, Knowledge, and Management of Coffee Pests and Diseases and
Their Natural Enemies in Chiapas, Mexico, Entomological Society of
America, Vol 97 No.5, (2004) PP.1492-1499.
Madhusudan (2005), The Global Village: Linkages between International Coffee
Markets and Grazing by Livestock in a South Indian Wildlife Reserve,
Conservation Biology, Vol. 19, No. 2 (April, 2005), PP. 411-420.
Raghu Nath Subedi (2010),Comparative Analysis Of Dry And Wet Processing Of
Coffee With Respect To Quality In Kavre District, Nepal, Larenstein
University of Professional Education and Research, (2010), PP.1-11.
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47
Mike A. Rutherford (2006), Current Knowledge of Coffee Wilt Disease, a Major
Constraint to Coffee Production in Africa, The American Phytopathological
Society, Vol.96 No.6 (2006) .
Frank Hartwich, Mario Monge Pérez, Luis Ampuero Ramos and José Luis Soto
(2007), Knowledge management for agricultural innovation: lessons from
networking efforts in the Bolivian Agricultural Technology System, Knowledge
Management for Development Journal, Vol.3, No.2, (2007) PP.21-37.
Diriba Muleta (2007), in his study entitled Microbial Inputs in Coffee (Coffea arabica
L.) Production Systems, Southwestern Ethiopia Acta Universitatis Agriculturae
Sueciae 2007:117ISSN1 652-6880ISBN 978-91-85913-16-9 © 2007 Diriba
Muleta, Uppsala Tryck: SLU Service/Repro, Uppsala 2007.
David G. Mhando, Juichi Itani (2007), Farmers‘ coping strategies to a changed
coffee market after economic liberalization: the case of Mbinga district in
Tanzania, African study Monographs, Vol 36, (March 2007) PP.39-56.
Fábio M. DaMatta; Cláudio P. Ronchi; Moacyr Maestri; Raimundo S. Barros (2007)
Eco physiology of coffee growth and production Braz. J. Plant Physiol.
vol.19 no.4 Londrina Oct./Dec. 2007.
Shalima G. M., Devi, K. S. Anil Kumar (2008), Remote sensing and GIS
application for land quality assessment for coffee growing areas of Karnataka
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing March 2008, Volume 36,
Issue 1, pp 89-97.
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48
Jeff Neilson 2008 in his study entitled ―Environmental Governance in the Coffee
Forests of Kodagu, South India‖ Transforming Cultures eJournal, Vol. 3 No 1,
(February, 2008).
Ruth Nansamba (2009), Local knowledge about trees and ecosystem services in
coffee plantations in Rubavu and Rutsiro districts, Rwanda, Bangor
University, Wales, (September 2009).
Joni Valkila (2009), Fair Trade organic coffee production in Nicaragua — Sustainable
development or a poverty trap, Ecological Economics,Vol.3 (2009), PP.1-8.
Frank Hartwich, Ingrid From, Gustavo Romero (2010), Innovation Trajectories in
Honduras Coffee Value Chain. Public and Private Influence on the Use of
New Knowledge and Technology among Coffee Growers, International
Journal on Food System dynamics,Vol.3, (2010), PP.237-251.
Jaime Forero Alvarez, Victoria J. Furio (2010), Colombian Farmers ‗Adaptions to
New Condition in the World Coffee Market, Latin American Perspectives,
Globalization, Neoliberalism, And The Latin American Coffee Societies
Vol. 37, No. 2, (March 2010), PP. 93-110.
Heran Sereke-Brhan (2010), Lessons for Africa from the Ethiopian Fine Coffee
Initiative, Boston University The Frederick S.Paradee Center for the study of
the Longer-Ranger Future, The Pardee Papers, No. 11, (July 2010).
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49
Kul Prasad Tiwari (2010), Agricultural Policy Review For Coffee Promotion In Nepal,
The Journal of Agriculture and Environment Vol:11, Jun.2010, PP.138-147.
Erin Sue Smith (2010), The Evolution Of Coffee Markets For Sustainable
Development: A Honduran Cooperative‘s Experience With Fair Trade,
California State University, Chico, (Spring, 2010), PP. xiv.
Shrinidhi Ambinakudige (2011), in his study entitled ― National Parks, coffee and
NTFPs: the livelihood capabilities of Adivasis in Kodagu, India‖ Journal of
Political Ecology Vol. 18, (2011).
Frascareli, E.C. Silva, V.M. Tonon, R.V. Hubinger M.D. in their study entitled ―Effect
of process conditions on the microencapsulation of coffee oil by spray drying,
Elsevir journel food and bioproducts processing,Vol.90 (2012), PP.413–424.
Moses Hensley Duku, Sai Gu, Essel Ben Hagan(2011), Bio-char production
potential in Ghana—A review, M.H. Duku et al. Renewable and Sustainable
Energy, Vol.15, Issue 1(2011), ISSN 1364-0321.
Théodore Munyuli (2011) Farmers perceptions of pollinators‘ importance in coffee
production in Uganda‖ Earth & Environmental Sciences Journal
Vol.2 No.3, August 2011.
Pushpa S. Murthy and M. Madhava Naidu (2011), in his study entitled
―Improvement of Robusta Coffee Fermentation with Microbial Enzymes‖
European Journal of Applied Sciences 3 (4): 130-139, 2011 ISSN 2079-
2077© IDOSI Publications, 2011.
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50
Arlos Roberto Cerdán (2011), Local knowledge about how ecosystem services and
biodiversity conservation are related top productivity in coffee agro-forestry,
Elsevier Editorial System for Agricultural Systems, (May, 2011).
Anteneh, R. Muradian, R. Ruben (2011), Factors Affecting Coffee Farmers Market
Outlet Choice. The Case of Sidama Zone, Ethiopia,Center for International
Development Issues Nijmegen, Radboud University, the Netherlands, Paper
prepared for the EMNet 2011 in Cyprus (Dec, 1 – 3).
Stefano Ponte (2011), Behind the Coffee Crisis, Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol. 36, No. 46/47 (Nov. 24-30, 2001), PP. 4410-4417
Carlos Roberto Cerdán, (2011), Local knowledge about how ecosystem services
and biodiversity conservation are related top productivity in coffee agro
forestry, Elsevier Editorial System(tm) for Agricultural Systems
(May, 2011).
Mugo, H. M., Irungu, L. W., Ndegwa, P. N. (2011), The insect pests of coffee and
their distribution in Kenya, international journal of science and nature, Vol 2
No.3, (2011), PP.564-569.
Donovan, Jason A. (2011), Value chain development for addressing rural poverty:
asset building by smallholder coffee producers and cooperatives in
Nicaragua, University of London Ph.D. thesis (2011) PP.3-5.
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51
Thangaswamy, Selvankumar, Muthusamygovarthanan And Munisamy Govindaraju
(2011), Endoglucanase Production By Bacillus Amyloliquefaciens
Using Coffee Pulp As Substrate In Solid State Fermentation International
Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, Vol.2 No3, September 2011,
ISSN 0975 -6299.
Courtney M. Dowdall (2012), Small Farmer Market Knowledge and Specialty Coffee
Commodity Chains in Western Highlands Guatemala, Florida International
University.
Maria-Alejandra Gonzalez-Perez and Santiago Gutierrez- Viana (2012),
Cooperation in coffee markets, the case of Vietnam and Colombia,
Developing and Emerging Economies, Vol. 2 No. 1, (2012), PP. 57-73.
Harris, E. Abdul-Aziz, A. R. Avuglah R. K. (2012), Modeling Annual Coffee
Production in Ghana Using ARIMA Time Series Model, International Journal of
Business and Social Research, Volume 2, (December 2012), PP.175-185.
Jacques Avelino, Ali Romero-Gurdián, Héctor F. Cruz-Cuellar and Fabrice
A. J. Declerck (2012), Landscape context and scale differentially impact
coffee leaf rust, coffee berry borer, and coffee root-knot nematodes,
Vol. 22, No. 2 (March, 2012), PP. 584-596.
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52
Berhanu Megerssa, Getachew Welde Michael, Derese Teshome (2012), Knowledge
and Attitude of Small holder Coffee Producing Farmers to Coffee Quality:
The Case of Oromiya and South Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional
States, Ethiopia, Applied Science Technology, Vol. 3, No.2, (2012), PP. 31-44
Rizal Syarief, Elida Novita, Erliza Noor
and Sri Mulato (2012), Smallholder Coffee
Processing Design Using Wet Technology Based On Clean Production
Journal of applied science in environmental sanitation Vol. 7, No. 2 (June,
2012), PP. 93-102.
Gholam Abbas Darvishi, Indira M. (2013) An Analysis Of Changing Pattern In
Area, Production And Productivity Of Coffee And Tea In India International
Journal of Marketing, Financial Services & Management Research_
ISSN 2277- 3622 Vol.2, No. 9, September (2013), PP. 46-60.
Margaret Njeri Gathura (2013), Factors affecting Small-Scale Coffee Production in
Githunguri District, Kenya, International Journal of Academic Research in
Business and Social Sciences Vol. 3, No. 9, (September, 2013),
ISSN: 2222-6990 .
Kucel, P. Kangire A. and Egonyu J. P. (2008), Status and Current Research
Strategies for Management of the Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei
Ferr) in Africa, National Crop Resources Research Institute, Uganda. (2008).
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53
Karthigaiselvan and Maran, B (2013), Production And Marketing of Coffee In
Tamil Nadu, Shanlax International Journal of Commerce, Vol.1,
No.3 (June, 2013).
Nguyen Ngoc Thang, Truong Quang and Nguyen Hong Son (2013), Knowledge
Creation And Green Entrepreneurship: A Study Of Two Vietnamese Green
Firms, Asian Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2, (2013),
PP. 129–151.
Akinbamowo R. O. (2013), A review of government policy on agricultural
mechanization in Nigeria, Academic Journals, Vol.5(8), (September, 2013),
PP. 146-153.
Drunday Vanesa, Pacin Ana (2013), Occurrence of Ochratoxin A in coffee beans,
ground roasted coffee and soluble coffee and method validation, Elsevir
Journel of Food Control, Vol.30, (2013)
Prapulla Malladi Indira, M. (2014), Impact Of Trade Liberalization on Indian
Coffee Exports International Journal of Advanced Research in Management
and Social Sciences ISSN: 2278-6236 Vol. 3 | No. 4 | April 2014.
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