Chapter 2Chapter 2

Explaining the Social World: How do Explaining the Social World: How do We Know?We Know?

The development of The development of sociology as a sciencesociology as a science

Prior to the 19Prior to the 19thth century religion was a century religion was a strong influence on knowledgestrong influence on knowledge

1919thth century philosophers helped create century philosophers helped create the modern way of studying sciencethe modern way of studying science

Conditions that led to the Conditions that led to the rise of sociologyrise of sociology

The Industrial RevolutionThe Industrial Revolution The French RevolutionThe French Revolution European Imperialism (and exposure to European Imperialism (and exposure to

other cultures)other cultures) Advances in the natural sciencesAdvances in the natural sciences

August ComteAugust Comte

Coined the term “sociology”Coined the term “sociology” Called for systematic data collection and Called for systematic data collection and

objective analysisobjective analysis Asked “What holds society together?” Asked “What holds society together?”

(social statics or structure) and “Why is (social statics or structure) and “Why is there change in society?” (social there change in society?” (social dynamics or process)dynamics or process)

Assumptions of ScienceAssumptions of Science

There is a real physical world that can be There is a real physical world that can be studied systematicallystudied systematically

There is order in the world resulting from There is order in the world resulting from causes and effectscauses and effects

Empirical tests allow us to gain knowledge of Empirical tests allow us to gain knowledge of the worldthe world

Scientific knowledge must be based on Scientific knowledge must be based on measurable phenomenameasurable phenomena

Science is rooted in objectivityScience is rooted in objectivity

TheoriesTheories

Statements regarding how facts are related to Statements regarding how facts are related to each other and the connection between themeach other and the connection between them

The level of analysis and theory help determine The level of analysis and theory help determine the method used to measure the social the method used to measure the social phenomenaphenomena

E.G., “Childhood experiences have an impact E.G., “Childhood experiences have an impact on career choices”on career choices”

Two types of reasoningTwo types of reasoning

Deductive- moving from general theories Deductive- moving from general theories to specific hypothesesto specific hypotheses Hypotheses- educated guesses based on Hypotheses- educated guesses based on

theories (e.g., “People who experienced theories (e.g., “People who experienced hospital stays as children will be more likely hospital stays as children will be more likely to pursue careers in health care”)to pursue careers in health care”)

Inductive- moving from specific data Inductive- moving from specific data (facts) to general theories(facts) to general theories

Steps in the Research Steps in the Research ProcessProcess

Planning the studyPlanning the study Designing the research methodsDesigning the research methods Doing the analysis Doing the analysis Drawing conclusionsDrawing conclusions

Planning a studyPlanning a study

Define the problem clearlyDefine the problem clearly Find out what is already known about the Find out what is already known about the

topictopic Formulate hypothesesFormulate hypotheses Operationalize variablesOperationalize variables

E.G., “hospital stay”= one or more overnight E.G., “hospital stay”= one or more overnight stays in a hospital as a patient while under stays in a hospital as a patient while under the age of 16the age of 16

Ways that two concepts can be relatedWays that two concepts can be related CorrelationCorrelation Cause and effectCause and effect

Independent variable- the cause of changeIndependent variable- the cause of change Dependent variable- the variable that changesDependent variable- the variable that changes Time dimension necessaryTime dimension necessary

Spurious relationshipSpurious relationship Control variables help eliminate the possibility of Control variables help eliminate the possibility of

a spurious relationshipa spurious relationship

Designing the research Designing the research methodsmethods

Methods depend upon the level of Methods depend upon the level of analysis, the theory, and the research analysis, the theory, and the research questionquestion

The value of the study depends upon the The value of the study depends upon the quality of the data collectedquality of the data collected

Survey methodSurvey method Interview- conducted by speaking with Interview- conducted by speaking with

respondents directlyrespondents directly Questionnaire- respondents answer in Questionnaire- respondents answer in

writingwriting Open-ended questions- allow the respondent to Open-ended questions- allow the respondent to

answer however they wishanswer however they wish Close-ended questions- force the respondents to Close-ended questions- force the respondents to

choose from among a set of predetermined choose from among a set of predetermined responsesresponses

Field studies/observational methods- Field studies/observational methods- systematic, planned observations of systematic, planned observations of social interactionssocial interactions Detached/non-participant- the researcher Detached/non-participant- the researcher

merely observesmerely observes Participant observation- the researcher Participant observation- the researcher

participates in the activity being studiedparticipates in the activity being studied Research effects- the group may be altered by Research effects- the group may be altered by

the presence of the researcherthe presence of the researcher Ethnography- a field study that involves self Ethnography- a field study that involves self

reflection; the findings guide the future methods reflection; the findings guide the future methods and observationsand observations

Controlled experiments- all variables are Controlled experiments- all variables are controlled except the ones being studiedcontrolled except the ones being studied Control group- subjects who are not Control group- subjects who are not

exposed to the treatmentexposed to the treatment Experimental group- subjects who are Experimental group- subjects who are

exposed to the treatmentexposed to the treatment Allow for the examination of true cause and Allow for the examination of true cause and

effect, but cannot be used to study many effect, but cannot be used to study many sociological questions, research effects may sociological questions, research effects may result, and it is unethical to introduce many result, and it is unethical to introduce many variables into the laboratoryvariables into the laboratory

Existing sources- using pre-existing Existing sources- using pre-existing materials in a new waymaterials in a new way Secondary analysis- Using data that has Secondary analysis- Using data that has

already been collected for other studiesalready been collected for other studies Data may not be representative, may not directly Data may not be representative, may not directly

answer the researcher’s questions, and any answer the researcher’s questions, and any problems in the original data will persist in the problems in the original data will persist in the new studynew study

Content analysis- systematic categorization Content analysis- systematic categorization and recording of information from written or and recording of information from written or recorded sourcesrecorded sources Unobtrusive, inexpensive, and easy to doUnobtrusive, inexpensive, and easy to do

Triangulation- the use of multiple methods of Triangulation- the use of multiple methods of research to enhance the accuracy of the research to enhance the accuracy of the findingsfindings

Triangulation

Survey Research

Content Analysis

Participant Observation

Selecting a sampleSelecting a sample

Sample- a small group of people who are Sample- a small group of people who are systematically chosen to represent the systematically chosen to represent the larger populationlarger population Representative- accurately reflects the Representative- accurately reflects the

group being studiedgroup being studied Random- every person in the population has Random- every person in the population has

an equal chance of being selectedan equal chance of being selected Non-representative- cannot be generalized Non-representative- cannot be generalized

to the larger populationto the larger population

Doing the analysis and Doing the analysis and drawing conclusionsdrawing conclusions

Data is interpretedData is interpreted Results are discussed and conclusions Results are discussed and conclusions

are drawn about whether the hypotheses are drawn about whether the hypotheses are supportedare supported

Findings must be replicableFindings must be replicable Each study gets us closer to an accurate Each study gets us closer to an accurate

understanding of the social worldunderstanding of the social world

Ethical issues in social Ethical issues in social researchresearch

Sociologists must ensure that subjects Sociologists must ensure that subjects are not harmed in any way and that their are not harmed in any way and that their confidentiality is protectedconfidentiality is protected

The subjects must provide informed The subjects must provide informed consentconsent

Human subjects boards at universities Human subjects boards at universities and research institutions help protect and research institutions help protect subjectssubjects

Sociology’s major Sociology’s major theoretical perspectivestheoretical perspectives

Theoretical perspective- a basic view of Theoretical perspective- a basic view of society that:society that: Guides sociologists’ ideas and researchGuides sociologists’ ideas and research Helps them understand social behaviorHelps them understand social behavior Helps develop explanations of organized Helps develop explanations of organized

social patterns and their relationshipssocial patterns and their relationships Can be micro- or macro- level (all can be Can be micro- or macro- level (all can be

used at the meso level)used at the meso level)

Symbolic InteractionismSymbolic Interactionism

Level:Level: micro to meso micro to meso Main ideas:Main ideas: through interactions and symbols, through interactions and symbols,

we socially construct our worlds. These we socially construct our worlds. These constructions help us decide how to act and constructions help us decide how to act and are dependent upon our social positionsare dependent upon our social positions

Key theorists:Key theorists: Mead, the Iowa School, Weber Mead, the Iowa School, Weber Main criticisms:Main criticisms: neglects macro-structures; neglects macro-structures;

difficult to study concepts like “the mind” and difficult to study concepts like “the mind” and “the self”“the self”

Rational Choice TheoryRational Choice Theory

Level:Level: micro to meso micro to meso Main ideas:Main ideas: people make choices based on people make choices based on

utilitarian factors motivated by self interest; utilitarian factors motivated by self interest; attempt to maximize rewards and minimize attempt to maximize rewards and minimize costscosts

Main criticisms:Main criticisms: macro-level and internal macro-level and internal processes given little attention; challenge of processes given little attention; challenge of the idea that human behavior is always self-the idea that human behavior is always self-centered or utilitarian; cannot explain altruistic centered or utilitarian; cannot explain altruistic behaviorbehavior

Structural-functionalismStructural-functionalism

Level:Level: meso to macro meso to macro Main ideas:Main ideas: society is primarily stable and society is primarily stable and

orderly; all parts of the system are interrelated orderly; all parts of the system are interrelated and necessary for society’s functionand necessary for society’s function

Key theorists:Key theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Parsons Comte, Durkheim, Parsons Main criticisms:Main criticisms: Fails to explain change in Fails to explain change in

society; assumes conflict is harmful (but it can society; assumes conflict is harmful (but it can actually lead to greater stability); just because actually lead to greater stability); just because a system seems stable does not mean that it is a system seems stable does not mean that it is equitableequitable

Conflict TheoryConflict Theory

Level:Level: meso to macro meso to macro Main ideas:Main ideas: conflict underlies all social conflict underlies all social

relations because of injustice in society; social relations because of injustice in society; social change is desirable, especially when it can change is desirable, especially when it can lead to greater equality; the powerful impose lead to greater equality; the powerful impose their values and beliefs on the weakertheir values and beliefs on the weaker

Key theorists:Key theorists: Marx, DuBois, Dahrendorf, Marx, DuBois, Dahrendorf, Simmel, Coser, Weber Simmel, Coser, Weber

Main criticisms:Main criticisms: micro-level not explained; micro-level not explained; difficult to test empirically; not effective in difficult to test empirically; not effective in explaining cohesion and cooperationexplaining cohesion and cooperation

Feminist TheoryFeminist Theory

Level:Level: micro to meso to macro micro to meso to macro Main ideas:Main ideas: women are disadvantaged by the women are disadvantaged by the

hierarchical way society is organized; sociology hierarchical way society is organized; sociology has traditionally been male dominated; feminist has traditionally been male dominated; feminist theory is rooted in conflict and symbolic theory is rooted in conflict and symbolic interactionisminteractionism

Main criticisms:Main criticisms: the theory should address the theory should address the intersection of race, class, and genderthe intersection of race, class, and gender

Using multiple Using multiple theoretical perspectivestheoretical perspectives

Desirable because each theory makes its Desirable because each theory makes its own contributionown contribution