Chapter 2

Chapter 2Chapter 2How How

Sociologists Sociologists Do ResearchDo Research

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Non-Scientific v. Scientific ThinkingNon-Scientific v. Scientific ThinkingTen Types of Ten Types of NonNon-Scientific Thinking-Scientific Thinking

Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION

Non-Scientific v. Scientific ThinkingNon-Scientific v. Scientific ThinkingTen Types of Non-Scientific ThinkingTen Types of Non-Scientific Thinking

Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY


Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY3.3. CASUAL OBSERVATIONCASUAL OBSERVATION


Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY3.3. CASUAL OBSERVATIONCASUAL OBSERVATION4.4. OVERGENERALIZATIONOVERGENERALIZATION


Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY3.3. CASUAL OBSERVATIONCASUAL OBSERVATION4.4. OVERGENERALIZATIONOVERGENERALIZATION5.5. SELECTIVE OBSERVATIONSELECTIVE OBSERVATION


Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY3.3. CASUAL OBSERVATIONCASUAL OBSERVATION4.4. OVERGENERALIZATIONOVERGENERALIZATION5.5. SELECTIVE OBSERVATIONSELECTIVE OBSERVATION6.6. QUALIFICATIONQUALIFICATION


Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY3.3. CASUAL OBSERVATIONCASUAL OBSERVATION4.4. OVERGENERALIZATIONOVERGENERALIZATION5.5. SELECTIVE OBSERVATIONSELECTIVE OBSERVATION6.6. QUALIFICATIONQUALIFICATION7.7. ILLOGICAL REASONINGILLOGICAL REASONING


Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY3.3. CASUAL OBSERVATIONCASUAL OBSERVATION4.4. OVERGENERALIZATIONOVERGENERALIZATION5.5. SELECTIVE OBSERVATIONSELECTIVE OBSERVATION6.6. QUALIFICATIONQUALIFICATION7.7. ILLOGICAL REASONINGILLOGICAL REASONING8.8. EGO DEFENSEEGO DEFENSE


Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY3.3. CASUAL OBSERVATIONCASUAL OBSERVATION4.4. OVERGENERALIZATIONOVERGENERALIZATION5.5. SELECTIVE OBSERVATIONSELECTIVE OBSERVATION6.6. QUALIFICATIONQUALIFICATION7.7. ILLOGICAL REASONINGILLOGICAL REASONING8.8. EGO DEFENSEEGO DEFENSE9.9. PREMATURE CLOSURE OF INQUIRYPREMATURE CLOSURE OF INQUIRY


Knowledge based on:Knowledge based on:1.1. TRADITIONTRADITION2.2. AUTHORITYAUTHORITY3.3. CASUAL OBSERVATIONCASUAL OBSERVATION4.4. OVERGENERALIZATIONOVERGENERALIZATION5.5. SELECTIVE OBSERVATIONSELECTIVE OBSERVATION6.6. QUALIFICATIONQUALIFICATION7.7. ILLOGICAL REASONINGILLOGICAL REASONING8.8. EGO DEFENSEEGO DEFENSE9.9. PREMATURE CLOSURE OF INQUIRYPREMATURE CLOSURE OF INQUIRY10.10. MYSTIFICATIONMYSTIFICATION

Non-Scientific v. Scientific ThinkingNon-Scientific v. Scientific Thinking

Scientific Thinking – Sociological Scientific Thinking – Sociological Research seeks to overcome the kind Research seeks to overcome the kind of unscientific thinking described in the of unscientific thinking described in the previous list.previous list.

Sociologists use a cyclical process that Sociologists use a cyclical process that involves six steps to find answers to involves six steps to find answers to their questions.their questions.

This process is called the research This process is called the research cycle.cycle.

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle1. Formulate question 2.

Review existing literature3. Select Method

4. Collect Data

5. Analyze Data

6. Report Results

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle1. Formulate a 1. Formulate a

research questionresearch question --Must be stated so it can be Must be stated so it can be answered by answered by systematically collecting systematically collecting and analyzing sociological and analyzing sociological datadata

The Research CycleThe Research CycleWhich question can be Which question can be answered by systematically answered by systematically collecting and analyzing collecting and analyzing sociological data?sociological data?1.1. Does God exist?Does God exist?2.2. Why are some people more Why are some people more

religious than others?religious than others?

The Research CycleThe Research CycleWhich question can be Which question can be answered by systematically answered by systematically collecting and analyzing collecting and analyzing sociological data?sociological data?A.A.What is the best political system?What is the best political system?B.B.Which political systems create Which political systems create

more opportunities for higher more opportunities for higher education?education?

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle2. Review existing 2. Review existing

literatureliteratureStimulate imaginationStimulate imaginationRefine initial questionRefine initial questionPrevent duplicationPrevent duplication

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle3. Select research method3. Select research method

1)1) Field ResearchField Research2)2) ExperimentsExperiments3)3) SurveysSurveys4)4) Existing Documents & Existing Documents &

StatisticsStatistics


1)1) Field ResearchField Research - - Research Research based on the observation of based on the observation of people in their natural settingspeople in their natural settings 3 Main Types of Field Research3 Main Types of Field Research

Detached observationDetached observation Ethnographic researchEthnographic research Participant observationParticipant observation


1)1) Field ResearchField Research - - Research based on Research based on the observation of people in their natural the observation of people in their natural settingssettings 3 Main Types of Field Research3 Main Types of Field Research

Detached observation-Detached observation- classifying and counting the classifying and counting the behavior of interest according behavior of interest according to a predetermined schemeto a predetermined scheme

Ethnographic researchEthnographic research Participant observationParticipant observation


1)1) Field ResearchField Research - - Research based on the Research based on the observation of people in their natural settingsobservation of people in their natural settings 3 Main Types of Field Research3 Main Types of Field Research

Detached observationDetached observation Ethnographic researchEthnographic research – researcher – researcher

spends months or even years living spends months or even years living with people to learn their language, with people to learn their language, values, and mannerisms – their values, and mannerisms – their entire culture – and develop an entire culture – and develop an intimate understanding of their intimate understanding of their behaviorbehavior

Participant observationParticipant observation


1)1) Field ResearchField Research - - Research based on the Research based on the observation of people in their natural settingsobservation of people in their natural settings 3 Main Types of Field Research3 Main Types of Field Research

Detached observationDetached observation Ethnographic researchEthnographic research Participant observationParticipant observation – involves – involves

carefully observing people’s face-to-carefully observing people’s face-to-face interactions and actually face interactions and actually participating in their lives over a participating in their lives over a long period, thus achieving a deep long period, thus achieving a deep and sympathetic understanding of and sympathetic understanding of what motivates them to act in the what motivates them to act in the way they do.way they do.


1)1) Field ResearchField Research - - Research based Research based on the observation of people in their on the observation of people in their natural settingsnatural settings Exploratory ResearchExploratory Research is an is an

attempt to describe, attempt to describe, understand, and develop theory understand, and develop theory about a social phenomenon in about a social phenomenon in the absence of much previous the absence of much previous research on the subjectresearch on the subject


2)2) ExperimentsExperiments A carefully controlled A carefully controlled

artificial situation that artificial situation that allows researchers to allows researchers to isolate hypothesized isolate hypothesized causescauses and measure and measure their their effectseffects precisely precisely

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle3. Select research method3. Select research method2)2) ExperimentsExperiments

Lab experiments – a Lab experiments – a controlled setting chosen by controlled setting chosen by the researcher (laboratory)the researcher (laboratory)

Field & Natural Experiments Field & Natural Experiments – controlled by researchers, – controlled by researchers, but conducted in the “field” but conducted in the “field” or the real worldor the real world

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle3. Select research 3. Select research

methodmethod3)3) SurveysSurveys

Ask people questions Ask people questions about their knowledge, about their knowledge, attitudes, or behaviorattitudes, or behavior

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle3. Select research 3. Select research

methodmethod3)3) SurveysSurveys

Face-to-Face InterviewFace-to-Face Interview Telephone InterviewTelephone Interview Paper-and-Pencil FormatPaper-and-Pencil Format


4)4) Existing Documents & Existing Documents & StatisticsStatistics Studying documents and Studying documents and

statistics not created by statistics not created by the researcherthe researcher


4)4) Existing Documents & Existing Documents & StatisticsStatistics DiariesDiaries NewspapersNewspapers Published historical worksPublished historical works Census dataCensus data Police crime reportsPolice crime reports Records of key life eventsRecords of key life events

(marriage, births, deaths)(marriage, births, deaths)

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle4. Collecting data4. Collecting data

Observing subjectsObserving subjects Interviewing subjectsInterviewing subjects Reading documents Reading documents

produced by or about produced by or about subjectssubjects

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle5. Analyzing data5. Analyzing data

Learn things nobody ever Learn things nobody ever knew aboutknew about

Confirm expectations or Confirm expectations or Confound expectationsConfound expectations

The Research CycleThe Research Cycle6. Publicize results6. Publicize results

1.1. Research is not much use to the Research is not much use to the sociological community, the sociological community, the subjects of the research, or the subjects of the research, or the wider society if it is not publishedwider society if it is not published

2. Allows others to scrutinize and 2. Allows others to scrutinize and criticize researchcriticize research

3. Sociologists can formulate new and 3. Sociologists can formulate new and more sophisticated questions for more sophisticated questions for next round of researchnext round of research

ETHICAL ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONSCONSIDERATIONS

Respect the rights of subjects:Respect the rights of subjects: Right to safety (do no harm)Right to safety (do no harm) Right to privacy of subjectsRight to privacy of subjects Right to confidentialityRight to confidentiality Right to informed consentRight to informed consent

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchMeasurementMeasurementReliabilityReliabilityValidityValidityGeneralizabilityGeneralizabilityCausalityCausality

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchMeasurementMeasurement

Defining the variables to Defining the variables to be studied in such a way be studied in such a way that they can be measuredthat they can be measuredExamples: Race, class, Examples: Race, class, gendergender

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchReliabilityReliability

The degree to which a The degree to which a measurement procedure measurement procedure yields consistent resultsyields consistent results

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of Research ValidityValidity

The degree to which a The degree to which a measure actually measures measure actually measures what it is intended to what it is intended to measuremeasure i.e. reliable shoe size not a i.e. reliable shoe size not a

valid measure of incomevalid measure of income

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchGeneralizabilityGeneralizability

Exists when research Exists when research findings apply beyond findings apply beyond the specific case the specific case examinedexamined

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchCausalityCausality

The analysis of causes The analysis of causes and their effectsand their effects

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchRandomizationRandomization

assigning individuals to assigning individuals to groups by chance groups by chance processesprocesses

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchControl groupControl group

The group that is NOT The group that is NOT exposed to the exposed to the independent variableindependent variable

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchExperimental groupExperimental group

The group that IS The group that IS exposed to the exposed to the independent variableindependent variable

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchIndependent variableIndependent variable

The presumed cause in a The presumed cause in a cause-and-effect cause-and-effect relationshiprelationship

The variable that is The variable that is controlled for in an controlled for in an experimentexperiment

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchDependent variableDependent variable

The presumed effect in a The presumed effect in a cause-and-effect cause-and-effect relationshiprelationship

The variable that is The variable that is observed in an experimentobserved in an experiment

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchSampleSample

The part of the The part of the population of research population of research interest that is selected interest that is selected of analysisof analysis

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchPopulationPopulation

The entire group about The entire group about which a researcher which a researcher wishes to generalizewishes to generalize

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchStatistical Statistical SignificanceSignificance exists when a finding is exists when a finding is unlikely to occur by unlikely to occur by chancechance

Methodology of ResearchMethodology of ResearchAssociationAssociation

exists between two exists between two variables if the value of variables if the value of one variable changes one variable changes with the value of the with the value of the other.other.