Chapter 19: Royal Power and Conflict - PBworks 19 Royal Power and Conflict 481 ... Alejandro, was ecstatic. ... Elizabeth I as England’s queen against the pope’s

19C h a p t e r

1500–1750

Royal Powerand Conflict

> Conflict Spanish and Englishmonarchs engage in a dynasticstruggle. Section 1

> Change Tudor monarchs bring stability and prosperity to England.Section 2

> Uniformity France’s Louis XIVstrengthens absolute monarchy andlimits rights of dissenters. Section 3

> Conflict Dynastic and religiousconflicts divide the German states.Section 4

> Innovation Peter the Greatattempts to modernize Russiansociety. Section 5

SThetoryteller

“We hunted all morning, got back around 3 o’clock in the

afternoon, changed, went up to gamble until 7 o’clock, then to

the play, which never ended before 10:30, then on to the ball

until 3 o’clock in the morning.… So you see how much time I

had for writing.”

Princess Elizabeth-Charlotte, sister-in-law of France’s King

Louis XIV, described court life at the Palace of Versailles in a

letter to a friend as an endless round of social activities. A man

of tremendous energy and drive, Louis routinely devoted eight

or nine hours daily to matters of state, regularly rode and hunt-

ed, ate with great enthusiasm, and expected courtiers, or mem-

bers of his court, to do the same as well.

How did monarchs build strong nation-states in earlymodern Europe? How did their efforts in national expansioncontribute to Europe’s legacy of territorial disputes and wars?

Historical Significance

480

Chapter Themes

Chapter 19 Royal Power and Conflict 481

Choose a country from this chapter.As you read the section, create a timeline of important events between 1500and 1750. Include the reigning monarchs,expansions of territory, laws, and conflicts.

Your History Journal

The vast palace and grounds of Versailles lie outside of Paris,France. Versailles was home to France’s monarchs and the royal

court during the late 1600s and most of the 1700s.

HistoryVisualizing

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.comand click on Chapter 19—Chapter Overviewto preview the chapter.

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/worldhistory/whthetea2003/content.php4/619/1

In the 1500s and 1600s, European mon-archs sought to create powerful king-doms in which they could command the

complete loyalty of all their subjects. This form of government, known as absolutism, placedabsolute, or unlimited, power in the monarch andhis or her advisers. The strength of absolutism rest-ed on divine right—the political idea that mon-archs receive their power directly from God and areresponsible to God alone for their actions. Anabsolute monarchy, it was reasoned, would unifydiverse peoples and bring greater efficiency andcontrol.

During the age of absolutism, the Hapsburgsremained Europe’s most powerful royal family. Buttheir lands were too scattered for any one person torule effectively. To remedy this problem, Charles Vretired in 1556 and divided the empire, leaving theHapsburg lands in central Europe to his brother,Ferdinand, who became Holy Roman emperor. Hegave Spain, the Netherlands, southern Italy, andSpain’s overseas empire to his son, Philip II.

Philip IIPhilip II, who ruled from 1556 to 1598, was the

most powerful monarch in Spanish history. Adevout Catholic, Philip saw himself as the leadingdefender of the faith. His efforts to endProtestantism in his domains made him the enemyof all Protestants. Son of the Holy Roman EmperorCharles V and Isabella of Portugal, Philip workedto increase the Hapsburg family’s power through-out Europe. This effort led Philip to involve Spainin a number of costly European wars.

Known as the Prudent King, Philip II was cau-tious, hardworking, and suspicious of others. Hebuilt a granite palace called El Escorial, whichserved as royal court, art gallery, monastery, andtomb for Spanish royalty. There Philip spent mostof his time at his desk, carefully reading and

482 Chapter 19 Royal Power and Conflict

> Terms to Defineabsolutism, divine right, armada, inflation

> People to MeetPhilip II, the Marranos, the Moriscos, Charles II

> Places to LocateEl Escorial, Madrid

The Duke of Alva’s son, ten-year-oldAlejandro, was ecstatic. He had been appointed asa page to King Philip—an excellent beginning toa career with the Spanish court. Alejandro wouldlearn to fence and to perform feats of horseman-

ship, as well as the rudi-ments of reading and writ-ing. In five or six years,when he completed his edu-cation, Alejandro wouldbecome a member of HisMajesty’s court and wouldbe expected to serve at arms.That position was the ful-fillment of most youngmen’s desires. If he provedhimself truly outstanding,he might become one of

Philip’s personal attendants, a position usuallyreserved for the sons of princes.

—from Charles V and Philip His Son,Marino Cavalli, reprinted in ThePortable Renaissance Reader, MaryMartin McLaughlin, 1977

S e c t i o n 1

Spain

SThetoryteller

Philip II

Read to Find Out Main Idea Philip II and other Spanish mon-archs had difficulty ruling the Spanish Empire.

responding to hundreds of documents from all overthe empire. Bureaucrats advised him and handledroutine matters, but he made all decisions andsigned all papers that he received.

UnrestPhilip II faced many difficulties in ruling Spain.

The Spanish kingdoms had united when Ferdinandof Aragon married Isabella of Castile in 1469. A uni-form system of government for the entire country,however, had not been set up. Separate laws andlocal authorities remained in place, but the ways ofCastile eventually came to dominate Spanish life. Inthe 1500s Castile had more territory, people, andwealth than any other part of Spain.

Philip II made Castile the center of Spain andthe empire. Madrid, located in Castile, became thecapital. The Castilian, or literary, form of Spanishwas spoken at the royal court. Most of Philip’sadvisers came from Castile. Trade from the over-seas empire was controlled by the Castilian city ofSeville, and Castilian merchants benefited mostfrom trade. Leaders in Aragon and other Spanishprovinces resented the dominance of Castile, and inthe 1590s Aragon revolted. The revolt was putdown, but discontent continued into the 1600s.

Religious Policy Philip had to deal with a number of troubling

religious issues in his European domains. He wasconcerned about the loyalty of large religiousminorities in Spain. These minorities includedProtestants, the Marranos (Jews who had convert-ed to Christianity), and the Moriscos (Muslimswho had become Christians). Philip supported theInquisition’s efforts to uproot the heresies believedto exist among these groups. He personally attend-ed several autos da fé, the elaborate public rituals ofsentencing usually followed by executions. TheInquisition was so thorough that Protestantismnever took hold in Spain. Its actions, however, ledto a revolt by the Moriscos in 1569. The revolt wasbrutally crushed, and finally in 1609 the Moriscoswere expelled from the country.

In 1567, when Philip had sought to imposeCatholicism on the Netherlands, Dutch Protestantsrebelled against his rule. This conflict proved to belong, bloody, and complex. The Dutch declaredtheir independence in 1581, but the fighting contin-ued. England gave support to the Dutch and to theEnglish “sea dogs” who raided Spanish ships intheir ports. Meanwhile, Philip extended his crusad-ing zeal into the eastern Mediterranean, where in1571 he defeated the Ottoman Turks in a naval bat-tle at Lepanto off the coast of Greece.

Spanish ArmadaCatholic Spain faced a growing challenge from

Protestant England. Philip at first had supportedElizabeth I as England’s queen against the pope’swishes. When Elizabeth aided the Dutch, Philipdecided to act against her.

In 1586 Philip laid plans to invade England. InMay 1588 a force of 130 ships and 33,000 men,known as the Spanish Armada, sailed for theEnglish coast. (An armada is a fleet of warshipsorganized to carry out a mission.) Two months later,the Armada entered the English Channel in crescentformation. The English had faster, more maneuver-able ships and longer-range cannons than did theSpaniards. Yet they were unable at first to block theSpanish formation. English fire ships, however,were able to separate the Spanish vessels. Runningout of shot and short of water, the Spanish fleetretreated to the stormy North Sea. After circling thenorthern tip of Great Britain, a number of Spanishships later sank near the rocky coasts of Scotlandand Ireland.

The defeat of the Armada not only ended Philip’splan to invade England, it also marked the beginningof Spain’s decline as a sea power. During the nexttwo centuries, the Dutch Netherlands, England,and France would gradually reduce Spanish mightin Europe and around the world.


The Spanish Armada entered theEnglish Channel in late July, 1588.

What advantages did the English fleet have over the SpanishArmada?

HistoryVisualizing

presented a new kind ofhero who did not conformto commonly acceptedbeliefs and practices.

Cervantes’s novel alsosymbolized the steadydecline of Spain as aEuropean power. DespiteSpain’s profitable over-seas empire, costly warsdrained the national trea-sury, forcing the govern-ment to borrow moneyfrom foreign bankers. This,along with the flow of goldand silver from theAmericas, led to inflation,an abnormal increase incurrency resulting in sharpprice rises. In addition,Spain’s industry and agri-culture declined. The gov-ernment excessively taxedthe industrious middleclass. It also expelled theMuslims and Jews, manyof whom were skilled arti-sans and merchants.

Philip II’s successorslacked his political skillsand turned the gov-ernment over to corruptand incompetent nobles.Spain became involved in

a series of European wars, and overtaxed citizensrebelled. Charles II, who became king in 1665, wasthe last of the Spanish Hapsburgs. No one expectedhim to rule long, since he was physically and men-tally weak. Although Charles later married, he didnot have any children. With no heirs to the throne ofSpain, European monarchs plotted to control thesuccession to the Spanish throne.

Last of the Spanish HapsburgsThe period from 1550 to 1650 is called Spain’s

cultural siglo de oro, or ”golden century.” Midwaythrough this era, the Spanish author Miguel deCervantes (suhr•VAN•teez) wrote Don Quixote, anovel about a landowner who imagines himself aknight called to perform heroic deeds. Don Quixote


BalticSea

SPAIN

Sicily

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Paris

Calais

Rome

LondonENGLAND

IRELAND

FRANCE

BOHEMIA

HUNGARY

POLAND

AUSTRIA

OTTOMANEMPIRE

Brandenburg

DENMARK

AFRICA

Sardinia

Corsica

NETHERLAND

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Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 200

200

400 mi.

0 400 km

Seville

Madrid

English Channel

POR

TUG

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Spanish Hapsburgs

Austrian Hapsburgs

Holy Roman Empire

ATLANTICOCEAN

40°N

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10°W 10°E0° 20°E

NorthSea

Mediterranean Sea

MapStudy

Hapsburg Possessions in Europe 1560

The Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs sought to gain territories throughout Europe during the 1500s and 1600s. Region What areas of Europe were ruled by theSpanish Hapsburgs?

Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to identify problems Spanish

monarchs faced in ruling the

empire.

Recall2. Define absolutism, divine right,

armada, inflation.

3. Identify Philip II, El Escorial,

the Marranos, the Moriscos,

Spanish Armada, Charles II.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information Why

was the Spanish Armada sent

out? What resulted?

Understanding Themes5. Conflict What caused internal

unrest under Philip II’s rule?

How did he respond?

Problems in RulingSpanish Empire

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT


England, like Spain, developed a strongmonarchy. Its Tudor dynasty, whichruled from 1485 to 1603, brought unity to

the country after a long period of decline and dis-order. Tudor monarchs were hardworking, able,and popular. They greatly expanded the power andauthority of the Crown. They were not, however, asabsolute in their rule as other European monarchs.Instead, institutions such as Parliament and thecourts of law set bounds to the authority that Tudormonarchs could exercise.

Early TudorsHenry VII, the first Tudor monarch, became

king in 1485 after the Wars of the Roses. He usedshrewd maneuvering to disarm his rivals and toincrease the prestige of his family. Most of Henry’sclose advisers came from the gentry and merchantclasses. Titles were given to these officials, whoformed a new aristocracy dependent on the king.

Henry VII helped rebuild England’s commer-cial prosperity. He encouraged the expansion of for-eign trade, especially the export of finishedwoolens to the Netherlands, Germany, and Venice.He promoted the improved collection of taxes aswell as careful government spending. In foreignpolicy Henry avoided war, using diplomacy andthe arrangement of suitable royal marriages tostrengthen England’s interests abroad.

Henry VIIIThe second Tudor to rule was Henry VIII, son

of Henry VII and the most powerful of all Tudormonarchs. Unlike his father, Henry VIII foughtwars on the European continent and began to makeEngland a great naval power. His personal life,however, would have a lasting effect on Englishhistory. In his pursuit of a male heir, Henry marriedsix times. He worked with Parliament to obtain hispersonal goals and to break with the Catholic

> Terms to Definegentry, yeomen, balance of power

> People to MeetHenry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary,Elizabeth I, William Shakespeare, James I

> Places to LocateScotland, Ireland

On this day, Elizabeth would be crownedQueen of England. London was arrayed with pavil-ions and bright banners, and the city’s fountainsoffered wine, not the usual brackish water. AlisonCrisp eagerly awaited the royal procession toWestminster Abbey. Although only six years of age,she would present a costly gift to Elizabeth from theOrphans Home board of directors. When the proces-sion neared, the queen commanded her coachmen tostop. Alison flawlessly presented the gift. As the

queen prepared to move on, Alisonsurprised her with another

gift, a bouquet of flowersshe had picked. WithElizabeth’s acceptance ofthe child’s humble offer-ing, the rapport betweenthe queen and her peoplestrengthened.

—from Description ofElizabeth I’s Coronation

Procession in 1559, JohnHayward, in The Past Speaks,

L.B. Smith and J.R. Smith, 1993

S e c t i o n 2

England

SThetoryteller

Elizabeth I

Read to Find Out Main Idea Tudor monarchs stronglyinfluenced English and European affairs.

Church. As a result of this cooperation, the Houseof Commons increased its power during HenryVIII’s reign. Henry, however, furthered support forhis policies by seizing monastery lands and sellingthem to wealthy landowners.

Edward VI and Mary IAfter Henry VIII’s death in 1547, England

entered a brief period of turmoil. Edward VI,Henry’s son and successor, was only 9 years oldwhen he became king. He died in 1553 after a shortreign. Protestant nobles then plotted to preventEdward’s Catholic half sister, Mary, from becomingqueen. The English people, however, supportedMary’s claim to the Tudor throne.

Mary’s Catholic policies soon offended theEnglish. Despite strong opposition, Mary marriedPhilip II of Spain in 1554. The next year, sherestored Catholicism and had about 300 Protestantsburned at the stake for heresy. At Philip’s urging,Mary involved England in a war with France. As aresult, England lost the port of Calais, its final

foothold on the European continent. Many Englishpeople feared that England would be controlled bySpain. Before this fear could be realized, Mary diedchildless, and the throne then passed to herProtestant half sister, Elizabeth.

Elizabeth IElizabeth I became queen in 1558, when she

was 25 years old. She was shrewd, highly educated,and had a forceful personality. With a sharp tongueshe asserted her iron will, causing sparks to fly inexchanges with Parliament. Elizabeth, however,used her authority for the common good of herpeople. On frequent journeys throughout the king-dom Elizabeth earned the loyalty and confidence ofher subjects. During her travels, Elizabeth stayed atthe homes of nobles who entertained her with ban-quets, parades, and dances.

Elizabeth’s reign was one of England’s greatcultural periods. Poets and writers praised

of theof the

Tudor EnglandUnder Tudor monarchs, England enjoyed a

period of stability and relative prosperity.

Mary I married Philip II of Spain in

1554, against the wishes of her

Protestant subjects. This coat of

arms represents the marital union

of the two monarchs.

486

Elizabeth in their works. The theater flourishedunder playwrights such as William Shakespeare.During Elizabeth’s reign, English was transformedinto a language of beauty, grace, vigor, and clarity.

MarriagePeople fully expected that Elizabeth would

marry and that her husband would rule. The com-mon attitude of the time was that only men were fitto rule and that government matters were beyond awoman’s ability. Elizabeth, however, was slow inseeking a husband. She had learned from the lessonof her sister Mary: to marry a foreign prince wouldendanger England. At the same time, marrying anEnglishman would cause jealousies among theEnglish nobility. In the end, Elizabeth refused togive up her powers as monarch for the sake of mar-riage. To one of her suitors she stormed, “God’sdeath! My lord, I will have but one mistress[England] and no master.” Elizabeth’s refusal tomarry caused a great deal of speculation as to whowould succeed her.

Court and Government In matters of government, Elizabeth was assist-

ed by a council of nobles. With her approval theydrafted proclamations, handled foreign relations,and supervised such matters as the administrationof justice and the regulation of prices and wages.These advisers were assisted by small staffs of pro-fessional but poorly paid bureaucrats.

Although Parliament did not have the power toinitiate legislation, it could plead, urge, advise, andwithhold approval. These powers gave Parliamentsome influence, especially when it was asked toconsider tax laws.

The task of enforcing the queen’s law was per-formed by unpaid respected community membersknown as justices of the peace. Most justicesbelonged to the rural landowning classes. Theyknew both the law and local conditions. They main-tained peace, collected taxes, and kept the govern-ment informed of local problems. Their voluntaryparticipation in support of the government was akey to its success.

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. Why is Elizabeth’s reign considered one of

England’s great cultural eras?

2. Why was Mary I an unpopular ruler?

487

The Court ofElizabeth I was

known for its love

of fashions and

style. Noble men

and women who

served the queen

wore elegant

clothes and

enjoyed music and

the arts.

The Globe Theater in London was the

site where many of William Shakespeare’s

plays—tragedies, comedies, and histories—

were performed.

Social and Economic PolicyElizabeth believed in the importance of social

rank. During the late 1500s, English society was ledby the queen and her court. Next were prominentnobles from the great landed families and a middlegroup of gentry, or lesser nobles, merchants,lawyers, and clergy. This group provided thesource of Tudor strength and stability. The lowestsocial rank was comprised of yeomen, or farmerswith small landholdings, and laborers.

Government laws and policies closely regulat-ed the lives of the common people. The Statute ofApprentices of 1563 declared work to be a socialand moral duty. It required people to live and workwhere they were born, controlled the movement oflabor, fixed wages, and regulated apprenticeships.The Poor Laws of 1597 and 1601 made local areasresponsible for their own homeless and unem-ployed. These laws included means to raise moneyfor charity and to provide work for vagabonds.

Elizabeth inherited a monarchy that was badlyin debt. Royal revenues, which came from rents ofroyal land, fines in court cases, and duties onimports, barely covered annual expenses. Thequeen, however, spent lavishly on court ceremoniesto show the power and dignity of the monarchy. Inother matters, she showed the greatest financialrestraint, leading many to call her a “pinchpenny.”

To raise funds without relying on Parliament,Elizabeth sold off royal lands, offices, licenses,monopolies, and the right to collect customs. Thesemeasures helped but could not solve the problem.England faced the costs of war and mounting infla-tion. Elizabeth was therefore forced to turn toParliament for funds. When she ended her reign,England remained badly in debt.

Foreign PolicyBy Elizabeth’s time, England had lost all of its

possessions on the European continent. France wastoo powerful for England todefeat in order to regain territo-ries. Although England couldnot completely withdraw fromcontinental affairs, it developeda foreign policy suitable for asmall island nation with limitedresources.

For security, the Englishrelied on the English Channel toprotect their island fromEuropean invaders. Building andmaintaining a strong navy wastherefore important in defendingthe nation. For that reason,Elizabeth continued the effortsbegun by her Tudor predecessorsto build such a navy.

Spain and France posed thegreatest naval threats toEngland. The attack of theSpanish Armada made England


Elizabeth I by GeorgeGlower, 1596.

National Portrait Gallery, London,England A woman of keen intel-lect, Elizabeth I was gifted inmusic, languages, and the arts. Inaddition, she was an excellentpublic speaker. What foreign policystrategy did England develop underElizabeth I’s reign?

Art&History

realize the dangers of an alliance between Spainand France. England might be able to defeat onepower, but certainly not both. As a result, theEnglish relied on diplomacy as well as sea power toprotect their interests.

During Elizabeth’s reign, England worked tobalance the power of European nations. In interna-tional affairs, balance of power refers to the systemin which each nation helps to keep peace and orderby maintaining power that is equal to, or in balancewith, rival nations. If one nation becomes morepowerful than the other, a third nation can reestab-lish the balance by supporting the second nation.

Under Elizabeth’s rule, England operated as thethird balancing nation. In the early part ofElizabeth’s reign, England and Spain feared thepower of the French. England cooperated with Spainin order to keep France out of the Netherlands. Later,when the Netherlands revolted against Philip II, theEnglish supported the rebels and allied with theweaker power against the stronger one.

Scotland was largely Catholic and hostiletoward England during the 1550s. Although part ofIreland was under English rule, the rest of thecountry resisted English armies. To protect Englishinterests, Elizabeth sought to solidify her ties withScotland and Ireland so they could not be used asbases for Spanish and French attacks on England.

In the 1560s, with Elizabeth’s help, Scotlandbecame Protestant and an ally of England. MaryStuart, later known as Mary, Queen of Scots, wasElizabeth’s cousin. She was forced to abdicate herposition as queen of Scotland in 1567. She later fledto England, where her presence caused controversy.Mary was a Catholic and heir to the English throne.Many English Protestants feared she would try toreplace Elizabeth. In 1586 Mary was accused ofplotting with English and foreign Catholics againstElizabeth. In 1587 Elizabeth finally agreed toMary’s execution, although she was hesitant to sen-tence to death another monarch.

In the 1590s, England carried out military cam-paigns in Ireland to conquer the Irish. WithScotland and Ireland allied with England, a periodof temporary peace came to the British Isles.

Elizabeth died in 1603 at the age of 69. With herdeath came the end of the Tudor dynasty. King JamesVI of Scotland, the Protestant son of Mary, Queen ofScots, became the new monarch of England. AsJames I, he founded the Stuart dynasty and unitedScotland and England under a common ruler.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to show the effects

of Tudor rulers on European

politics.

Recall2. Define gentry, yeomen,

balance of power.

3. Identify Henry VII, Henry VIII,

Edward VI, Mary, Elizabeth I,

William Shakespeare, Poor Laws,

James I.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Information

Contrast the effect on English

government of Henry VIII’s

many marriages with the effect

of Elizabeth I’s refusal to

marry.

Understanding Themes5. Change How did the rule

of the Tudor monarchs, espe-

cially the rule of Elizabeth I,

affect the development of

England?

Sir Francis Drake was one ofEngland’s most famous explorers

and military leaders. After sailing around the world,Drake was knighted in 1581 by Queen Elizabeth I. Hisnaval warfare later helped make England a major seapower. What European nation was England’s primaryenemy during the time of Elizabeth I and Francis Drake?

HistoryVisualizing

Cause:

TudorMonarchy

Effects on European Politics

➔


After a period of religious conflict,peace was restored to most of Francewhen Henry of Navarre became

King Henry IV in 1589. He founded the Bourbondynasty, which ruled France with some interrup-tions until the early 1800s. During most of that time,Bourbon kings maintained an absolute monarchythat was imitated by monarchs throughout Europe.

Henry IVHenry IV was a Protestant, but he converted to

Catholicism to quiet his Catholic opponents.Believing that people’s religious beliefs need notinterfere with their loyalty to the government,Henry issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598 to reas-sure the Huguenots, the name given to France’sProtestants. The edict allowed Protestant worshipto continue in areas where the Protestants were amajority, but barred Protestant worship in Parisand other Catholic strongholds. The edict grantedHuguenots the same civil rights as Catholics.

These actions ended religious strife andenabled France to rebuild itself. With the help of hisminister of finance, Henry restored the Crown’streasury, repaired roads and bridges, and support-ed trade and industry. He also tried to restore disci-pline in the army and bring order to the govern-ment bureaucracy. All of these royal policies wereput into effect without the approval of the Estates-General and thus laid the foundation for theabsolute rule of later Bourbon monarchs.

Cardinal RichelieuWhen Henry IV was assassinated in 1610, his

9-year-old son, Louis XIII, became king. Louis’smother, Marie de Medici, was regent for the next 7years. In 1617 Louis gained the throne by force andexiled his mother from court. A few years later, he

> Terms to DefineEdict of Nantes, intendant

> People to MeetHenry IV, Cardinal Richelieu, Louis XIV

> Places to LocateVersailles

A flourish of trumpets sounded. The crowd ofcourtiers bowed as King Louis entered the GrandSalon at Versailles, accompanied by his atten-dants. The Duke of Saint-Simon, one of manynoblemen whose power Louis was systematicallyeclipsing, was nonetheless required to be present.He observed that the king “liked splendor, magnif-icence, and profusion in everything: you pleasedhim if you shone through the brilliancy of yourhouses, clothes, tables, equipages.” Because every-one tried to emulate the king, a taste for extrava-gance and luxury was spreading through allclasses of society.

—adapted from The Memoires of theDuke of Saint-Simon, reprinted in

Aspects of WesternCivilization, Volume II,Perry M. Rogers, 1988

S e c t i o n 3

France

SThetoryteller

Louis XIV’slavish court life


Read to Find Out Main Idea An absolute monarchy devel-oped in France under the Bourbon monarchs.

gave power to one of her advisers, CardinalRichelieu.

Gradually Louis gave complete control of thegovernment to the cardinal, who set out to build anabsolute monarchy in France. To realize this goal,Richelieu had to reduce the power of the noblesand the Huguenots.

When Louis XIII came to the throne, the nobili-ty was in control of the provinces. Nobles collectedtaxes, administered justice, appointed local offi-cials, and even made alliances with foreign govern-ments. To end the nobles’ power, Richelieudestroyed their fortified castles and stripped themof their local administrative functions. The nobilityretained social prestige, while authority in localgovernment affairs was given to special agents ofthe Crown known as intendants. Non-nobles,Richelieu believed, would not assert themselvesand challenge the king’s authority.

Richelieu also sought to take away the militaryand territorial rights given to the Huguenots by theEdict of Nantes. The Huguenots were seen as athreat to the French state. In 1625 radicalHuguenots revolted against Louis XIII. After thedefeat of Protestant forces at the seaport of LaRochelle in 1628, Richelieu took away theHuguenots’ right to independent fortified towns.The Huguenots were, however, allowed to keeptheir religious freedom.

Having weakened the monarchy’s internal ene-mies, Richelieu sought to make France the supremepower in Europe. He strengthened the French armyand took steps to build up the economy. In order tostrengthen national unity, he supported French cul-ture. Under Richelieu’s direction, France’s leadingwriters in 1635 organized the French Academy. TheAcademy received a royal charter to establish“fixed rules for the language … and render theFrench language not only elegant but also capableof treating all arts and sciences.” In the followingcentury, French became the preferred language ofEuropean diplomacy and culture.

Louis XIVLouis XIV is recognized as the most powerful

Bourbon monarch. He became king in 1643 at theage of 5. At first, France was ruled by his tworegents—his mother, Anne of Austria, and CardinalMazarin, Richelieu’s successor. When Mazarin diedin 1661, Louis announced that he would run hisown government. He was then 23 years old.

The 72-year reign of Louis XIV was the longestin European history. It set the style for European

monarchies during the 1600s and 1700s. During hisown lifetime, Louis was known as the Sun King,around whom the royalty and nobility of Europerevolved. He set up a lavish court and surroundedhimself with pomp and pageantry. Louis’s monar-chy had power as well as style. Although Louisrelied on a bureaucracy, he was the source of allpolitical authority in France. In one of his audi-ences, he is said to have boasted, “L’état, c’est moi!”(“I am the state!”).

Absolute RuleLouis emphasized a strong monarchy because

of his fear of disorder without it. As a child, he hadlived through the Fronde, a series of uprisings bynobles and peasants that occurred between 1648and 1653. During the Fronde, royal troops lost con-trol of Paris and mobs rioted in the streets. Theyoung Louis and his regents were called to give anaccount of their actions before the Parlement, orsupreme court of law, in Paris. The Fronde wascrushed, but Louis never forgot this attempt to limitroyal power. As king, he intended never to let ithappen again.

Louis XIV’s feelings about absolute monarchywere later supported by Jacques Bossuet (ZHAHKbaw•SWAY), the leading church official of Franceduring the 1600s. Bossuet’s defense of the divine


Cardinal Richelieu strengthenedFrance’s economy by promoting the

manufacture of luxury goods. He also gave chartersto commercial companies for overseas trade. How didRichelieu encourage the growth of French culture?

HistoryVisualizing

origins of monarchy became one of the mostfamous justifications of absolute rule. He wrote:

What grandeur that a single man shouldembody so much! … Behold this holypower, paternal and absolute, containedin a single head: you see the image ofGod in the king, and you have the idea of royal majesty.

According to Bossuet, subjects had no right torevolt even if the king was unjust. Kings needaccount to no one except God, but they should actwith humility and restraint.

Court LifeAfter the Fronde, Louis made plans to live out-

side of Paris. He moved his court and government toa new palace that he built at Versailles. No expensewas spared, for Versailles was to demonstrate thewealth, power, and glory of France.

The palace had elegant royal apartments,sweeping staircases, mirrored halls, priceless tapes-tries, and lavish formal salons and dining rooms.There were offices for government bureaucrats aswell as tiny, cramped rooms where officials lived.As many as 10,000 people lived at Versailles.Outside the palace were acres of formal gardens.

In this setting Louis felt secure from the dangerof Parisian mobs. Here he had the nobility attendhis court so that he could control them. Instead ofusing the nobles in government service, Louis hadthem wait on him in a round of daily court rituals.The nobility depended on the king’s favor for pen-sions, court posts, and protection from creditors.

In exchange for ending the nobles’ power,Louis freed them from taxation. To nobles and non-nobles alike, he sold many offices with salaries.The sale of offices provided needed royal incomebut became a long-term drain on the treasury.

Government PoliciesLouis continued the efforts of Henry IV and

Richelieu to strengthen the power of the monarchand the state. He followed the tradition of Richelieuand chose his top advisers not from the nobility, butfrom middle-class families.

Although Louis was an absolute monarch, hewas not able simply to change the traditions of hiscountry’s feudal past. Legal systems varied through-out France. Private tolls and customs were levied ongoods moving from one province to another.Weights and measures were not uniform. There wereseparate authorities and districts for financial, judi-cial, religious, and administrative affairs.

If Louis had tried to change these practices, itwould have endangered his throne. Instead, theking kept the traditional ways, but added to themnew administrative offices and practices. Two keypeople aided Louis XIV in his efforts—Jean-Baptiste Colbert (kohl •BEHR) and François MichelLe Tellier, the Marquis de Louvois (loov•WAH). Aseconomic and financial minister, Colbert followedmercantilist policies to promote trade and industry.Louvois served as minister of war and helped makeFrance’s army the strongest in Europe.

TaxationWhile reforming some aspects of government

practice, Louis failed to adjust the complicated andunjust tax system. The poor carried most of the tax burden, while nobles, clergy, and government officials were exempt from many payments.Independent tax collectors often made large profits,but they were allowed to continue this practicesince the money was needed to support the army.

The unreformed tax system heightened the eco-nomic differences between the regions of France.Since any visible improvement in one’s farm orhousehold might lead to higher tax payments, therewas little desire to improve one’s output. The taxsystem encouraged people to move from heavily


Louis XIV of France by Hyacinthe Rigaud, c.1701, The Louvre, Paris, France Louis XIV

worked six to eight hours a day at what he called“the business of being king.” How does this paintingreflect the monarchy of Louis XIV?

Art&History

taxed regions to regions with lower taxes. As aresult, heavily taxed regions became poorer.

Religious PolicyLouis regarded the Huguenots as a threat to his

absolute monarchy. Many Huguenots were militaryleaders and prosperous merchants. They often con-trolled local commerce. In spite of their high socialstanding, the Huguenots faced mounting persecu-tion from Louis’s government. The king wanted theHuguenots to accept Catholicism. He believed that,in this way, they would prove their loyalty to thethrone. In 1685 the Edict of Nantes was repealed.Huguenots could no longer practice their religionand their children had to become Catholics.

The result of the king’s policy was the emigra-tion of about 200,000 Huguenots to such places asthe Netherlands, England, and England’s Americancolonies. Many of these people contributed to eco-nomic growth and prosperity where they settled.

Expansion Louis XIV pursued a bold and active foreign

policy. Other European rulers were fearful ofLouis’s desire for expansion and, as a result, alliedin opposition to France.

At the end of Louis XIV’s reign, Europe wasconcerned about the succession to the Spanishthrone. It was expected that Charles II of Spainwould die without an heir. Both France and Austriahad claims to the throne. The rest of Europe wasalarmed that the balance of power would be dis-rupted if France inherited Spain’s vast empire.Prior to Spanish king Charles II’s death, the

European powers worked out a plan to divide theSpanish Empire. The will of Charles II upset thisplan by stating that the entire empire shouldremain intact and pass to Louis XIV’s grandson,Philip of Anjou. Louis XIV accepted the provisionsof the will. When Charles II died in 1700, Philip ofAnjou became King Philip V of Spain. As a result,Europe was plunged into a conflict known as theWar of the Spanish Succession.

ConflictThe War of the Spanish Succession lasted from

1701 to 1713. During the conflict England, theDutch Netherlands, and Austria led a GrandAlliance of nations against France and Spain.

Peace finally came with the Treaty of Utrechtin 1713. England and the Dutch Netherlands rec-ognized Philip V as king of Spain, on the conditionthat France and Spain never be united under onecrown. England gained trade advantages with theSpanish colonies. France, however, was forced tosurrender Acadia (Nova Scotia) and Newfoundlandto England. The War of the Spanish Successiondrained the French treasury, increased poverty,and created opposition to Louis’s rule.

Louis XIV’s LegacyFrance enjoyed one of its most brilliant cultur-

al periods under Louis XIV. Builders and artisansdesigned and decorated palaces and churches.Artists and playwrights portrayed the daily life ofthe king’s court, the nobility, and the lower class-es. Louis’s building projects and his wars, howev-er, had left the country near financial ruin. Theweakening of the French nobility also had itscosts. The nobles lost their ability to govern, butnot the desire for power. The peasants and themiddle class resented the privileges and wealth ofthe nobles. After Louis XIV’s death in 1715, thenobility sought to expand its power under Louis’sgreat-grandson, Louis XV. Conflicts between thenobles and the middle and lower classes wouldbring France to the brink of revolution.


Main Idea1. Use a web diagram like the one

below to list characteristics of

the Bourbon monarchy.

Recall2. Define intendant.

3. Identify Henry IV, Edict of

Nantes, Cardinal Richelieu,

Louis XIV, Treaty of Utrecht.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Information

What do you think were the

successes and failures of Louis

XIV’s reign?

Understanding Themes5. Uniformity What were Cardi-

nal Richelieu’s political goals?

How did Richelieu reduce the

power of the nobility? Of the

Huguenots?

Bourbon Monarchy


Student Web Activity 19

Visit the World History: The Human Experience Web siteat worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 19—Student Web Activities for an activityrelating to the Huguenots.

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=619&pt=2&bk=18

While the Bourbons were buildingthe strongest monarchy in Europe,the Hapsburgs of Austria were try-

ing to set up their own absolute monarchy in cen-tral and eastern Europe. Their efforts renewed ten-sions between Europe’s Catholics and Protestants.This eventually led to yet another conflict—theThirty Years’ War. Though most of the fighting tookplace in Germany, all the major European powersexcept England became involved.

The Thirty Years’ WarConflicts between Catholics and Protestants

had continued in Germany after the Peace ofAugsburg in 1555. These disputes were complicat-ed by the spread of Calvinism, a religion that hadnot been recognized by the peace settlement.Furthermore, the Protestant princes of Germanyresisted the rule of Catholic Hapsburg monarchs.

In 1618 the Thirty Years’ War began inBohemia, where Ferdinand of Styria had becomeking a year earlier. Ferdinand was also theHapsburg heir to the throne of the Holy RomanEmpire. An enemy of Protestantism who wanted tostrengthen Hapsburg authority, Ferdinand beganhis rule by curtailing the freedom of BohemianProtestants, most of whom were Czechs. In 1618 theCzechs rebelled and took over Prague. Soon therebellion developed into a full-scale civil war—Ferdinand and the Catholic princes against theGerman Protestant princes. Philip III of Spain, aHapsburg, sent aid to Ferdinand.

The Czech revolt was crushed by 1620 and,over the next 10 years, the Czechs were forcefullyreconverted to Catholicism. Instead of ending,however, the war continued. Protestant Denmarknow fought against the Hapsburgs, hoping to gainGerman territory. The Danes were soon defeatedand forced to withdraw. Then Sweden entered thewar to defend the Protestant cause. By this time the

> Terms to Definepragmatic sanction, Peace of Westphalia

> People to MeetFerdinand of Styria, Maria Theresa, Frederick II

> Places to LocateAustria, Prussia, Silesia

Thomas Taylor traveled slowly and cautiouslyfrom Dresden to Prague. He was overwhelmed bya harshness he had never witnessed in his nativeEngland. Life all around him was insecure anduncomfortable. Violent outlaws roamed the high-ways, torture was part of the judicial process, exe-cutions were horrible, famine and disease wereevident in every town. Taylor detoured aroundpublic refuse heaps, swarming with rats and car-rion crows. He dodged the bodies of executedcriminals dangling from the gallows. Taylor hadheard rumors of war. If the rumors were true, hejudged it would be long, brutal and terrible.

—freely adapted from The ThirtyYears’ War, C.V. Wedgwood, 1961

S e c t i o n 4

The German States

SThetoryteller

The Thirty Years’ War

Read to Find Out Main Idea The Thirty Years’ War involvedmore countries than prior European wars.

war had been going on for 12 years, and religious issues were tak-ing second place to political ones. In 1635, under Cardinal Richelieu,Roman Catholic Francetook up arms against the Roman CatholicHapsburgs to keep themfrom becoming too powerful.

For 13 more years thewar dragged on—rivalarmies plundering theGerman countryside anddestroying entire towns.Historians estimate thatGermany lost about one-third of its people.

When the conflictfinally ended in 1648, theoutcome was the furtherweakening of Germanyand the rise of France asEurope’s leading power.The Peace of Westphaliaending the war recog-nized Calvinism amongthe official religions anddivided the Holy RomanEmpire into more than300 separate states. TheHapsburgs still ruledAustria and Bohemia,but their control of the other German states was inname only, thus ending their hope of establishingan absolute monarchy over all of Germany.

AustriaAfter the Thirty Years’ War, the Austrian

Hapsburgs concentrated on building a strongmonarchy in Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia.Austria was still the most powerful of the Germanstates. In 1683 the Austrians, with the aid of thePoles, lifted an Ottoman siege of Vienna. By 1718,Austrian armies had regained territory in theBalkan Peninsula from the Ottomans. As a result ofthe War of the Spanish Succession, the Austriansreceived the Spanish Netherlands and acquiredlands in Italy.

In 1740, 23-year-old Maria Theresa inheritedthe throne of Austria from her father, Holy Roman

Emperor Charles VI. According to law and custom,women were not permitted to rule Austria. In 1718Charles had convinced the monarchs of Europe toaccept a pragmatic sanction, or royal decree havingthe force of law, by which Europe’s rulers promisednot to divide the Hapsburg lands and to accept


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Europe After Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia confirmed the division of central Europe into Roman Catholic and Protestant territories and maintained the Holy Roman Empire as a unit of more than 300 states. Region What was the result of this confirmation?

Tulip ManiaDuring the Thirty Years’

War, western Europeans fell

in love with tulips. Dutch traders brought tulip

bulbs into Europe from Ottoman Turkey begin-

ning in the 1500s, and gardeners in the

Netherlands and other parts of Europe took a lik-

ing to the blossoms. This led to a public craze for

tulips that reached a peak in the 1630s.

CON

NECTIONS

CO

NNECTIONS

Explain why Johann Sebastian

Bach’s work is called “baroque.”

How was he regarded after his

death? How is he regarded today?

What impact has Bach had on

modern music?

female succession to the Austrian throne.Maria Theresa had not received any training in

political matters, yet she proved to be a clever andresourceful leader. Overcoming the opposition of thenobility and most of her ministers, Maria Theresagreatly strengthened the Austrian central govern-ment. She reorganized the bureaucracy, improvedtax collection, and furthered the building of roads.Understanding that the unity of her empiredepended on a strong economy, Maria Theresaended trade barriers between Austria and Bohemiaand encouraged exports. She also used governmentfunds to boost the production of textiles and glass.

PrussiaMaria Theresa faced a number of enemies in

Europe. One of these was France, the traditionalrival of the Hapsburgs. In the 1700s a newEuropean rival rose to prominence in northeasternGermany. Brandenburg-Prussia was ruled by theHohenzollern family, which had governed the terri-tory of Brandenburg since the 1400s. During theThirty Years’ War, they gained control of Prussiaand other widely scattered lands in Germany.

Great ElectorOne of the greatest of the Hohenzollern mon-

archs was Frederick William. He held the title“Great Elector.” After the Thirty Years’ War,Frederick William increased the strength ofBrandenburg-Prussia by creating a permanentstanding army. To meet the cost of his army, he pro-posed raising taxes. The Junkers, or nobles,opposed this plan. Frederick William then workedout a compromise with them. He permitted onlyJunkers to be landowners, freed them from taxes,and gave them full power over the peasants. Inreturn, the Junkers agreed that Frederick Williamcould tax townspeople and peasants. These twogroups were too weak to organize and oppose thisincreased burden. In 1663 the Junkers furtherstrengthened their ties to the Hohenzollerns. Theypledged allegiance to Frederick William. As a resultof this alliance with the Junkers, Frederick Williamwas able to become an absolute ruler.

Frederick William was succeeded by his sonFrederick I. Frederick aided the AustrianHapsburgs against Louis XIV in the War of theSpanish Succession. As a reward, Frederick wasgiven the title of king. He was, however, a weakruler who did little to strengthen his country.


The Sounds of Bach

Born in Eisenach, Germany, in

1685, Johann Sebastian Bach was

one of the world’s most talented

composers. He wrote music for

the Lutheran Church, wealthy

nobles, and other musicians.

Bach’s work reflects the baroque

style of music, which reached its

height during the early 1700s.

Baroque music was characterized

by lively, complex dramatic com-

positions that appealed to the lis-

tener’s mind and emotions.

Bach is especially known for

two types of baroque music—

counterpoint and fugue. In coun-

terpoint, two or more melodies

are combined. In the fugue, several

instruments or voices play together, each play-

ing the same melodies but with variations.

For about 50 years after Bach’s death in

1750, his work was neglected. Today Bach is

esteemed as a brilliant musician, and his

influence has touched even modern popular

music and film. Walt Disney had Mickey

Mouse conducting Bach’s Toccata and Fuguein D Minor in the 1940 movie classic Fantasia.

Bach’s style is at least hinted at in the rock

song A Whiter Shade of Pale and in rock musi-

cian Jethro Tull’s jazz-like arrangement of

the Bourrée from the E Minor Lute Suite.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Frederick William IFrederick William I, who ruled from 1713 to 1740,

was a powerful leader. He centralized the Prussiangovernment, uniting all functions into one bureau-cracy under his direct control. He supported produc-tion and trade and brought more revenue into thegovernment treasury. Known as the Royal DrillSergeant, Frederick William devoted his life to thePrussian army and made it the most efficient fightingforce in Europe. He especially delighted in recruitingtall soldiers and formed a special “regiment ofgiants” that he drilled himself.

Frederick IIIn 1740 Frederick II, Frederick William I’s son,

became king of Prussia. As king, Frederick adoptedhis father’s military ways and set out to expandPrussian territory. Frederick the Great, as he becameknown, rejected Austria’s pragmatic sanction andseized the Austrian province of Silesia.

Frederick’s attack on Silesia began a conflictcalled the War of the Austrian Succession. Prussia’sforces were stronger than Austria’s. In spite of herdisadvantage, the Austrian empress, MariaTheresa, decided to send her forces into battle.Spain and France backed Prussia, while GreatBritain (formed in 1707 by the union of Englandand Scotland) and the Dutch Netherlands support-ed Austria.

After seven years of fighting, in 1748 theEuropean powers signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which officially recognized Prussia’s riseas an important nation. Frederick was allowed tokeep Silesia; Maria Theresa was able to hold the restof her domain: Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia.

The Austrian ruler, however, was not satisfiedwith the treaty and was determined to recoverSilesia. To this end, Maria Theresa changed heralliance from Great Britain to France. She also gainedthe support of Russia since Prussia’s Frederick II wasan archenemy of Empress Elizabeth of Russia. Thesealliances set the stage for further conflict.



to identify the results of the

Thirty Years’ War.

Recall2. Define pragmatic sanction.

3. Identify Ferdinand of Styria,

Peace of Westphalia, Maria

Theresa, Frederick II, Silesia.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information How

did Empress Maria Theresa

strengthen the central govern-

ment in Austria and in her other

territories?

Understanding Themes5. Conflict How did the many

conflicts among the German

states affect the European bal-

ance of power?

The Seven Years’ War—from 1756 to 1763—wasa worldwide conflict in which Great Britain andFrance competed for overseas territory, and Prussiaopposed Austria, Russia, France, and other nations.The war between Austria and Prussia erupted in1756. After victories in Saxony—a German state andan ally of Austria—and after a later victory over theAustrians in Silesia, Frederick II signed a peaceagreement that enabled him to retain most of Silesia.

The struggle between Great Britain and Francein North America was known as the French andIndian War. The British and French also fought inIndia. At the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France gave upmost of French Canada and its lands east of theMississippi River to Great Britain. Great Britain alsoreplaced France as the leading power in India. As aresult of the Seven Years’ War, Great Britainemerged as the strongest colonial empire andPrussia retained the province of Silesia.

CCaarriibbbbeeaann SSeeaa

The War of The War of JenkinsJenkins’’ Ear Ear

Caribbean Sea, 1739The War of Jenkins’ Ear was part of a series of conflicts among European nations in the 1700s. In the waters off Florida, an English smuggler named Robert Jenkins lost his ear in a fight with Spaniards in 1731. Jenkins’ appearance in Parliament in 1738 further incited public opinion against Spain. The result was war, declared in June 1739, over possession of Georgia and commercial rivalry at sea. Within a year, the War of Jenkins’ Ear had become part of the more serious War of Austrian Succession.

AROUND THE

Results of Thirty Years’ War


Between 1500 and 1800, Russia madetremendous territorial gains andbecame a major European power.

Slavs elsewhere lost ground and were taken overby other powers.

In southeastern Europe, the Ottoman Turksruled most of the Balkan Peninsula and the Serbs,Bosnians, and Macedonians who lived there. Underthe Ottomans, some of these Slavs converted toIslam, while the rest remained Eastern Orthodox.Hungary ruled the Croats (KROH•ATZ), andAustria controlled the Slovenes (SLOH•VEENZ).Both these Slavic peoples remained RomanCatholic and oriented to western Europe.

In central Europe, Austria ruled the Slovaksand Czechs. Neighboring Poland had been animportant European power from the late 1300s.Polish monarchs created one of the larger states ofEurope, but by the 1600s Poland had graduallyweakened. Ukrainian subjects rebelled againstPolish rule in the mid-1600s and allied with Russia.By 1764 almost all of Ukraine was under Russiancontrol. In the late 1700s Prussia, Austria, andRussia divided Poland among themselves. TheBelarus region and its people, the Belarussians,passed from Polish to Russian control at this time.

Rise of RussiaFrom the 1200s to the early 1700s, Russia was

isolated from western European developments,such as the Crusades, the Renaissance, and theReformation. Russia developed its own civilizationbased on the values of the Eastern OrthodoxChurch and the Byzantine Empire. The Russianmonarchy became all-powerful and easily crushedits opponents. The nobility, the established church,and the towns—all of whom had posed repeatedopposition to royal power elsewhere in Europe—never posed the same challenge in Russia.


> Terms to Defineboyar, dvorianie, serf

> People to MeetIvan IV, the Romanovs, Peter I, Catherine II

> Places to LocatePoland, Siberia, St. Petersburg

When first posted, no one could believe thedecree. Czar Peter had ordered all children fromthe nobility and clerical classes [clergy] to studymathematics and geometry. Those who refusedwere forbidden to marry until they mastered thematerial. Such commands seemed absurd andmany scoffed at the czar’s ability to enforce hisdemands. However, teachers arrived in each dis-trict and local taxes were increased for support.

Priests likewise received notificationand no priest dared solemnize a

marriage without proper certifi-cation. Father Konstantinlooked sadly at the couplebefore him and explained,“You do not have the propercertification. I cannot marryyou.”

—adapted from Decree onCompulsory Education of the RussianNobility, reprinted in The HumanRecord, Volume 2, Alfred J. Andreaand James H. Overfield, 1990

S e c t i o n 5

Russia

SThetoryteller

RussianOrthodoxBishop

Read to Find Out Main Idea The power of Russian czars differed from that of other European monarchs.

Ivan IVThe most powerful of the early czars was

Ivan IV, who ruled from 1533 to 1584. Known asIvan “the Terrible” or “the Awesome,” he was atonce learned, religious, and cruel. Ivan becameczar at the age of three. While growing up, he wascaught between rival groups of nobles who soughtto rule the country. He witnessed much cruelty and was never able to rid himself of his early memories. As an adult, Ivan saw treason everywhere and arrested, exiled, or executed manyof his closest advisers. In a fit of rage, he evenkilled his own son.

Ivan took many steps against the boyars(boh•YAHRZ), or nobles, to reduce their potentialthreat to his throne. He seized their scattered landsand placed them under his direct control. The former owners were uprooted and dispersed. Onthe seized land, which made up about one-half of the country, Ivan placed his own loyal people.They became a secret police force, the oprichniki,(aw•PREECH•nee•kee) and terrorized the rest ofthe country.

Ivan IV also increased Russia’s trade with western Europe and worked to expand his borders.Despite Russia’s vast size, it had few seaports freeof ice throughout the year. Gaining more access to the sea for trade and security became a majorgoal of Russian rulers. During the late 1500s, Ivanconquered Mongol lands east and south ofMoscow but waged unsuccessful war againstPoland, Lithuania, and Sweden for territory nearthe Baltic Sea.

The Time of TroublesAfter Ivan’s death in 1584, Russia drifted

toward chaos. During the ”Time of Troubles,” from1598 to 1613, noble feuds over the throne, peasantrevolts, and foreign invasions plagued the country.Finally in 1613, an assembly of clergy, nobles, andtownsmen named 17-year-old Michael Romanovas czar. Michael began the Romanov dynasty thatruled Russia until 1917.

During the 1500s and 1600s, Russian societyexperienced many changes. Boyars became moreclosely tied to the czar’s service, townspeople lostwhat little influence they had on government, andpeasants were bound to the land as a virtuallyenslaved workforce. To escape, many peasantsmoved to borderlands south of Moscow. InUkraine, some formed self-governing villages ofwarrior pioneers and their families and becameknown as Cossacks. Peasants, traders, and adven-turers also moved into Siberia, the vast stretch ofland east of European Russia.

Peter the GreatIn 1689 Peter I, known as Peter the Great, came

to the throne. He was a towering figure, nearly 7 feet(2 m) tall. Peter had boundless energy and volcanicemotions. During his reign, he sought to bring Russiainto the mainstream of European civilization.

Encounter With the WestAs a young man, Peter enjoyed practical sub-

jects, such as mechanics, geography, and militarystrategy. He sought out tutors among the foreigncommunity in Moscow to learn the basic skills ofnavigation and shipbuilding. He discovered thatRussian knowledge of the outside world was quitelimited. Most Russians were illiterate peasants;only a few nobles were well educated.

After becoming czar, Peter took an 18-monthstudy tour of England and the Netherlands. He vis-ited shipyards, factories, mills, and laboratories. Helearned carpentry and developed enough skill insurgery and dentistry to want to practice on others.


Peter the Great, a man of restlessenergy and sometimes hasty deci-

sions, attempted many reforms. What reforms did heintroduce to make Russia more like western Europeannations?

HistoryVisualizing


Where he first set foot onthe Baltic coast, legendhas it, Peter the Great pro-claimed: “Here there shall

be a town.” On May 16, 1703, Russianworkers laid the foundations for afortress on the Baltic coast. The city ofSt. Petersburg soon spread out, and in1712 Peter made it the new capital of Russia. A trav-eler in his youth, he was determined that his newcapital would imitate the imposing European citieshe had visited. St. Petersburg did not remain the cap-ital of Russia, but the new city offered Peter theGreat a chance to consolidate the power of the Rus-sian central government and to drag Russia into themodern world. Many changes were inaugurated: He

forbade men to wear beards or todress in the traditional long robescalled caftans. He simplified theCyrillic alphabet. He was relentless.At times he even resorted to terror.But he transformed Russia and madehis new city on the Baltic Sea a win-dow to the West.

Today Peter’s legacy is everywhere: in the ship-yards, the research centers, and the architecture ofornate palaces such as the Winter Palace (center),completed during the reign of Catherine the Great in1762. “I have a whole labyrinth of rooms ... and all ofthem are filled with luxuries,” she wrote of the Win-ter Palace and the adjoining Hermitage, where Pavil-ion Hall (top) fills one small corner. �

Peter’s Great City�

PICTURING HISTORY

Ste

ve R

aym

er

G.D. Talbot

When he returned home, Peter forced theRussian nobility to adopt the ways of westernEurope. He ordered members of the court to wearwestern European clothing. Men entering Moscowwere forced to shave their beards or pay a fine.Women, who had always been excluded from socialgatherings, were ordered to attend parties.

Peter sent Russians abroad to study shipbuild-ing, naval warfare, mathematics, and foreign lan-guages. He invited foreign experts to trainRussians. His greatest effort to open Russia toEurope was the building of a new capital, which henamed St. Petersburg. Located at the mouth of theNeva River near the Baltic Sea, St. Petersburgbecame Russia’s “window to the West.”

Foreign Policy Peter’s goal was to make Russia a European

power. He expanded Russia’s borders in the south,east, and northwest. In 1689 Russia forced China to accept Russian control of Siberia. In the early1700s, the Danish navigator Vitus Bering claimedfor Russia what became known as the Bering Straitbetween Siberia and Alaska. Russian settlementseventually started in Alaska and even California.

During much of Peter’s reign, Russia foughtPoland, Sweden, or the Ottoman Empire. Russianfailures to win warm-water ports on either theBaltic or Black Seas convinced Peter to modernizethe military. His reforms paid off in 1721, whenRussia defeated Sweden and won control of theeastern end of the Baltic region.

Government Administration Peter made sweeping changes in the Russian

government. Borrowing ideas from France, heintroduced a central bureaucracy and placed localgovernments under its control. Peter brought theEastern Orthodox Church under his direct authori-ty. In place of a single independent church leader,Peter created the Holy Synod, a council of bishopsresponsible to the government.

Peter also created a new class of nobles calleddvorianie (DVOH•ree•YAH•nee•YUH), who, inreturn for government service, were allowed toown hereditary, landed estates. A noble’s duty tothe czar started at age 15 and continued untildeath.

Peter used privileges and force to make theestablished nobility accept government service.Nobles were given full control over the serfs, orpeasant laborers who worked the estates and werebound to the land. While freedom for peasants hadgradually increased in western Europe, the oppo-site was true in Russia.

Finally, Peter changed the tax laws to increasegovernment income and efficiency. Under the plan, nobles paid no taxes. As in France, thetax burden fell on the poorest classes.

Economic ChangesTo stimulate economic growth, Peter brought

agriculture and craft production under strict gov-ernment control. He gave incentives to increaseproduction in favored areas such as mining andmetalworking. New production centers were pro-vided with land, money, and workers. Most of theworkers were tied to their trades as the serfs wereto the land.


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MapMapStudyStudy

Russian Expansion in Europe

Peter the Great and Catherine the Great looked westward to increase the power and influence of Russia.

Location How did geography influence the foreignpolicy of Russian rulers?

Effects Peter’s reforms strengthened Russia’s role in

foreign affairs. In his own country, however, Peterhad only limited success. His domestic policiesbroke the traditional Eastern Orthodox culture thathad united nobles and peasants. With Peter’s reign,a dangerous split developed between the few whoaccepted European ways and the many who clungto traditional values. Many of Peter’s reforms wereincomplete and hasty. Yet his measures broughtRussia into the mainstream of western Europeancivilization.



to list the powers of the Rus-

sian czars.

Recall2. Define boyar, dvorianie, serf.

3. Identify Ivan IV, the

Romanovs, Peter I, Catherine II.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

How did the reigns of

Romanov rulers Peter the Great

and Catherine the Great affect

the Russian nobility and the

common people of the Russian

Empire?

Understanding Themes5. Innovation How did Peter

the Great try to make Russian

people of all ranks accept

western European ideas and

practices?

Portrait of Catherine the Great byAlexandre Roslin. Musée des Beaux Arts,

La Rochelle, France What changed Catherine’s mindabout the equality of all people?

Art&History

Catherine the GreatAfter Peter’s death in 1725, Russia was ruled by

a series of weak or ordinary monarchs. The nextnotable ruler was Catherine II. In 1762, Catherineseized the throne from her weak husband, Peter III,and ruled as empress of Russia until 1796. Althoughborn a German princess, Catherine easily adoptedRussian ways and earned the respect of her people.

As monarch, Catherine was greatly influencedby leading western European thinkers. She studiedtheir works and corresponded with a number ofthem. For a time, she believed that all people wereborn equal and that it was “contrary to the Christianfaith and to justice to make slaves of them.”

Early in her reign, Catherine consideredfreeing the serfs. A peasant rebellion that threat-ened her rule, however, made Catherine change hermind. To ensure the continued support of thenobles, she released them from the government ser-vice required by Peter I. She also allowed the noblesto treat their serfs as they pleased. DuringCatherine’s reign, more peasants were forced intoserfdom than ever before, and their conditionsworsened. Russia’s common people had fewerrights than those in any other part of Europe. Whengroups of them revolted, Catherine brutallycrushed the uprisings.

A successful foreign policy earned her thename Catherine the Great. She significantlyexpanded Russia’s southern borders and secured awarm-water port on the Black Sea. In making thisgain, Russian armies defeated the Ottoman Turks.In the west, Catherine acquired territory fromPoland. Prussia and Austria took the rest of Poland,which then ceased to exist until 1919.

Catherine was the last of the great absolutemonarchs of the 1700s. By the time of her death in1796, new ideas of liberty and equality had spreadthroughout western Europe. These new ideasdirectly challenged and questioned the age-oldinstitution of monarchy.

Powers of Russian Czars


1.

2.


Emanuella asks her friend Ashley if shewould date a football player. Ashley says,“No way. Football players are all muscle

and no brains.” Ashley has expressed a stereo-type—an oversimplified description of a group.Because stereotypes may be both inaccurate andharmful, we must learn to recognize them inspeaking, writing, and thinking.

Learning the SkillA stereotype can describe any group—a

gender, race, religion, country, region, city, neighborhood, school, or profession. Stereotypesblur or ignore the characteristics of individualswithin the group. In the example above, Ashleymay reject the friendship of a very considerateand intelligent person just because he plays football. While this is a negative stereotype, other stereotypes may have positive or neutralconnotations. “Blondes have more fun” is a posi-tive stereotype. Negative stereotypes, however,are the least accurate and most harmful.

Stereotypes can influence not only our atti-tude about a group’s members, but also ourbehavior toward them. History is full of examplesof oppression and persecution directed at particu-lar groups of people. Negative stereotypes usual-ly accompany these destructive acts.

Because stereotypes are so common, it is easyto ignore or accept them. Instead, learn how torecognize and evaluate them. Certain words,phrases, and thoughts signal the presence ofstereotypes. In any kind of material, written ororal, first notice characteristics attributed to a par-ticular group. Look for exaggerations, often indi-cated by words such as all, none, every, always,and never. Identify strong negative adjectivessuch as lazy, sneaky, cruel, and corrupt. Note a positive or negative tone to the description.

Once you recognize a stereotype, then evaluate its accuracy. Think about whether thestereotype puts a positive or negative slant on theinformation concerning a specific group. Ask

yourself: Does this stereotype agree or disagreewith what I know about individual members ofthis group?

Practicing the SkillEach statement below contains a stereotype

held from the 1500s to the 1700s. In each state-ment, identify any words or phrases that helpyou recognize the stereotype, and tell whether ithas a negative, positive, or neutral connotation. 1. England is an isle fouled by heretics and bar-

barians. (Spain, 1554)2. It is against the law, human and divine, that a

woman should reign and have empire abovemen. (England, 1560)

3. The Italians are so jovial and addicted tomusic that nearly every countryman plays onthe guitar, and will commonly go into thefield with a fiddle. (England, 1600)

4. Do not put such unlimited power into thehands of husbands. Remember all men wouldbe tyrants if they could. [We ladies] will nothold ourselves bound by any laws in whichwe have no voice, or representation. (UnitedStates, 1776)

Applying the SkillIdentify three stereotypes about groups with-

in your community. For each one, write a para-graph evaluating its accuracy by recalling yourown experiences with members of the group.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 505.

Recognizing a Stereotype

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

Reviewing Facts1. Government Use a diagram like the one below

to identify similarities and differences betweenhow Queen Elizabeth I ruled and Catherine theGreat ruled.

2. History List at least four European royal fami-lies and their countries during the period fromabout 1500 to about 1800.

3. History Identify major characteristics ofEurope’s age of absolutism.

4. Government Explain how England’s Henry VIIIstrengthened support for his policies.

5. Citizenship State why Henry IV’s issuing of theEdict of Nantes was a significant event.

6. History Identify the changes that Peter theGreat brought to Russia.

Critical Thinking1. Analyze How were the Hapsburg and Tudor

monarchies of the 1500s similar? How werethey different? Which one do you think wasmore successful?

2. Synthesize Imagine you are a soldier duringthe Thirty Years’ War. Describe how you joinedthe army and what conditions were like duringthe war. What hopes do you have for the future?

3. Evaluate Consider the leadership style of MariaTheresa of Austria, who had no training inpolitical matters. Can a person today be a suc-cessful political leader with no prior trainingor experience?

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence. Thenwrite a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. absolutism g. armada

b. balance of power h. inflation

c. intendants i. yeomen

d. serfs j. pragmatic sanction

e. divine right k. dvorianief. boyars

1. Ivan IV of Russia took steps against the _____ toreduce their potential threat to his throne.

2. In 1718 the Holy Roman emperor Charles VIconvinced Europe’s monarchs to accept a__________ in which they promised to acceptMaria Theresa as the future Hapsburg monarch.

3. During Spain’s decline as a European power, itseconomy suffered from ________, an abnormalincrease in currency resulting in sharp priceincreases.

4. During the 1600s and the 1700s, European mon-archs claimed to rule by __________, the theorythat monarchs derive their power from God.

5. During Elizabeth I’s reign, England worked fora ___________ on the Continent to prevent oneEuropean power from becoming too strong.


Choose an event from the countrytime line you created. Write a shortopinion paper on why you believe thatthis was the most significant develop-ment, person, or decision in that nationduring the period 1500 to 1750.

Using Your History Journal

CHAPTER 19 ASSESSMENT

Elizabeth I

Same

Catherine the Great

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 19—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Building a DatabaseSearch the Internet oryour library for additionalinformation about European monarchies sincethe early 1500s. Build a database collecting biographical information about Europeanmonarchies from the 1500s to present day.Include information such as name of monarchy,country, date of coronation, achievements, andnames of heirs.

Technology Activity

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=619&pt=3&bk=18

4. Evaluate Which of the monarchs described inthis chapter do you most admire? Which one doyou least admire? Explain your reasons.

5. Evaluate What does the portrait of Frederickthe Great below reveal about the values andcharacteristics of the Prussian monarchy?


Understanding Themes1. Conflict How did Spain’s rivalry with England

develop during the period from about 1500 toabout 1750?

2. Change How did Tudor monarchs bring stabili-ty to England?

3. Uniformity How did Louis XIV try to strength-en French loyalty to his monarchy?

4. Conflict What dynastic and religious issuesdivided the German states?

5. Innovation Why did Peter the Great want tomake innovations in government and society?

Skill PracticeThe following lines from William Shakespeare’s playsinclude stereotypes that were common in 16th-centuryEngland. Identify each stereotype and any words orphrases that helped you recognize it.

1. “Frailty, thy name is woman!”2. “These Moors are changeable in their moods.”3. “This Hebrew will turn Christian; he grows

kind.”4. “Today the French … all in gold, like heathen

gods, shone down the English.”

NorthSea

Baltic Sea

POLANDBrunswick

Saxony Silesia

Bohemia

Bavaria

HU

NG

AR

Y

Brandenburg

Pomerania

Palatinate

0 50

50

100 mi.

0 100 km

N

E

S

W

Boundary of Holy

Roman Empire

33–66%

Over 66%

Up to 15%

15–33%

Population Loss 1618–1648

1. European monarchs in the 1600s and 1700sresolved their territorial disputes and ambi-tions through war. How do present-dayleaders resolve disputes? Explore the simi-larities and the differences between contem-porary world leaders and monarchs in earlymodern Europe.

2. European monarchs in the 1600s and 1700swere powerful leaders who claimed to ruleby divine right. What is the position of mon-archs in Europe today? How is power exer-cised in modern European governments?

Geography in History1. Location Refer to the map below. Along

what body of water did Pomerania lie? What was the population loss over much of its area?

2. Place Of Bohemia, Saxony, and Silesia, whicharea had suffered the least population loss?

3. Region In general, what parts of the HolyRoman Empire retained the most population?Why do you think this was so?

CHAPTER 19 ASSESSMENT

506 Unit 4 Emergence of the Modern World

Unit 4

Chapter 16

Erasmus’s Description ofSir Thomas More

The Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus was oneof the most influential writers of the Renaissance.Here Erasmus describes his friend Sir Thomas More,whose book Utopia criticized society. Later, whenMore refused to recognize King Henry VIII’s religiousauthority, he was executed. Erasmus wrote thisdescription of Thomas More in 1519, 15 years beforeMore’s death.

In human relations he looks for pleasurein everything he comes across, even in thegravest matters. If he has to do with intelli-gent and educated men, he takes pleasure in their brilliance; if with the ignorant andfoolish, he enjoys their folly. He is not putout by perfect fools, and suits himself withmarvellous dexterity to all men’s feelings.For women generally, even for his wife, hehas nothing but jests and merriment. . . .

He diligently cultivates true piety, whilebeing remote from all superstitious obser-vance. He has set hours in which he offers to God not the customary prayers butprayers from theheart. With hisfriends he talks ofthe life of the worldto come so that onesees that he speakssincerely and notwithout firm hope.Such is More evenin the Court. Andthen there are thosewho think thatChristians are to be foundonly in monasteries! . . .

Between 1400 and the mid-1700s,

European and Asian powers began

exploring the world. This exploration

and expansion often brought differing

cultures into conflict with one

another but also encouraged the

exchange of ideas and technology.

VOCABULARY PREVIEWdexterity: the ability to adjust

piety: religious devotion

sovereignty: supreme leadership

✦

For more primary sources to accompany this unit, use the World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM.

DesideriusErasmusc. 1466–1536

✦

✦

Unit 4 Emergence of the Modern World 507

Chapter 17

Vespucci on South America

Amerigo Vespucci was the first person to suggestthat the lands encountered by Columbus were part of aworld unknown to Europeans. Here, in 1502, Vespuccidescribes Native Americans of Brazil.

Having no laws and no religious faith, theylive according to nature. They understandnothing of the immortality of the soul. There isno possession of private property among them,for everything is in common. They have noboundaries of kingdomor province. They haveno king, nor do theyobey anyone. Each oneis his own master.There is no administra-tion of justice, which isunnecessary to them,because in their code noone rules. They live incommunal dwellings,built [as] very large cab-ins. For people [without]metal, one can call their cab-ins truly miraculous . . .

That which made me themore astonished at their wars and cruelty wasthat I could not understand from them whythey made war upon each other, consideringthat they held no private property or sovereign-ty of empire and kingdoms and did not know any suchthing as lust for possess-ion, . . . which appear tome to [cause] wars. . . .When we requested themto state the cause, theydid not know how togive any other cause thanthat this curse upon thembegan in ancient times . . .

11.. How would you describe Thomas More’s behavior and personality?

22.. What about the Native Americans surprised Vespucci the most? Why?

33.. According to Sung, from what two sources was all clothing made?

44.. CRITICAL THINKING: What do the excerpts about silk reveal about the

importance of the weaving industry in Chinese society?

Applications ActivityDraw a map showing the route of the Silk Road, including the major cities

that existed along it during the 17th century.

Interpreting Primary Sources

Chapter 18

The Silk Industry in China

During the 1600s Sung Ying-Hsing wrote a bookon Chinese industry called the T’ien-kung K’ai-wu(Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century),which included sections on the production of silk.

. . . Members of the aristocracy are clothedin flowing robes decorated with patterns ofmagnificent mountain dragons, and they arethe rulers of the country. Those of lowly sta-tions would be dressed in hempen jackets andcotton garments to protect themselves fromthe cold in winter and cover their nakednessin summer, in order to distinguish themselvesfrom the birds and beasts. Therefore Naturehas provided the materials for clothing. Ofthese, the vegetable [plant] ones are cotton,hemp, meng hemp, and creeper hemp; thosederived from birds, animals, and insects arefurs, woolens, silk, and spun silk. . . .

But, although silk looms are to be found inall parts of the country, how many personshave actually seen the remarkable functioningof the draw-loom? Such words as “orderly government” [chih, i.e. the word used in silkreeling], “chaos” [luan, i.e. when the fibers areentangled], “knowledge or good policy” [ching-lun, i.e. the warp thread and the woven pattern]are known by every schoolboy, but is it notregrettable that he should never see the actualthings that gave rise to these words? . . .

AmerigoVespucci1454–1512

Standardized Test Practice

1. Which of the following innovations isNOT associated with the EuropeanRenaissance?

A The use of perspective in paintingB The increased interest in educationC The separation of church and state D The development of a middle class

2. The ideas of humanism and individ-ualism most likely influenced which of Martin Luther’s beliefs?

F The sale of indulgences was unethicalbecause it excluded peasants.

G The Bible was the final authority.H Every individual Christian had the

right to read and interpret the Bible.J The pope should not be free from

criticism for Church injustices.

Use the time line below to answer question 3.

3. According to the time line above, whichof these statements is true?

A England did not send out explorersuntil the 1600s.

B Pizarro invaded India beforeMagellan’s crew circumnavigated theglobe.

C Portugal began the search for a searoute to Asia.

D France was interested primarily insetting up colonies in South America.

Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the followingmultiple choice questions. If you have trouble answering a question,use the process of elimination to narrow your choices. Write youranswers on a separate piece of paper.

Test-Taking Tip: Be careful—overlookingthe words NOT or EXCEPT in a question is acommon error. Look for the answer choicethat does NOT fit with the question. Forexample, the use of perspective in paintingwas an important Renaissance development,so answer A cannot be the correct choice.

Test-Taking Tip: This question requiresyou to know the meaning of the words human-ism and individualism. As you study, theglossary of your textbook can help you defineunfamiliar terms. Remember, more than oneanswer will describe Luther’s beliefs. Choosethe answer that is most closely related tohumanism and individualism.

Test-Taking Tip: Make sure that youranswer is supported by information on thetime line. Do not rely only on your memory forthis type of question.

508 Unit 4 Emergence of the Modern World

Dias (Portugal) discovers andnames the Cape of Good Hope

Cortés (Spain) begins conquestof Aztec Empire in Mexico

Verrazano (France) beginssearch for Northwest Passageto India

Champlain (France) sets upcolony in Quebec, Canada

Columbus (Spain) makes firsttrip to the West Indies

Cabot (England) sailsnorthern Atlantic to

Newfoundland

Da Gama (Portugal) reachesIndia after sailing around

the Cape of Good Hope

Magellan’s crew (Spain)complete circumnavigation

of the globe

Pizarro (Spain) invadesInca Empire in Peru

Pilgrims (England) foundPlymouth colony

1488

1519

1524

1608

1492

1497

1498

1522

1532

1620

European Exploration and Settlement

Unit 4 Emergence of the Modern World 509

Standardized Test Practice

4. Leonardo da Vinci became known as a“Renaissance man” because

F he was born in Italy during the time ofthe Italian Renaissance.

G his paintings, such as the Mona Lisa,contributed to the rise of realism in thearts.

H he developed talents in many fields, suchas art, architecture, and engineering.

J his ideas influenced many otherRenaissance artists in Europe.

5. The 1636 Japanese Act of Seclusion was

A intended to prohibit contact betweenJapan and almost all other nations.

B a brilliant policy that protected Japaneseculture from Western influences.

C never successful, since all Japanesecitizens preferred foreign goods.

D the most logical defense against apossible Mongol invasion.

Use the following map to answer question 6.

6. According to the map, which of thefollowing statements is true?

F Mountains divide Silesia and Bohemia.G Brunswick has more people than

Pomerania.H Bavaria lost more people than Brunswick.J Bohemia and Bavaria had the same

number of people.

BrunswickBrunswick

SaxonySaxony SilesiaSilesia

BohemiaBohemia

BavariaBavaria

Brandenburg

Pomerania

Palatinate

0 50

50

100 mi.

0 100 km

N

E

S

W

Brunswick

Saxony Silesia

Bohemia

Bavaria

Brandenburg

Pomerania

Palatinate

North Sea

Baltic Sea

POLAND

HU

NG

AR

Y

Population Loss 1618–1648

Boundary of Holy

Roman Empire

33–66%

Over 66%

Up to 15%

15–33%

Test-Taking Tip: The termsRenaissance man and Renaissance womanare still used today. They are used to describepeople who are often experts in severalsubject areas. Although more than one of the answer choices is certainly true, only one answer is directly related to the termRenaissance man.

Test-Taking Tip: Make sure that you lookat the map’s title and key so that you under-stand what it represents. It shows populationloss in parts of Europe during the period1618–1648. Since mountains are not shownon this map, you can eliminate answer F.

Test-Taking Tip: The answer to this typeof question must be a fact, not an opinion.A fact is a statement that can be proved; an opinion is a personal belief. To identifyopinions, look for phrases such as good, bad,greatest, and worst. Which of these answerchoices are opinions?

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Chapter 19: Royal Power and Conflict - PBworks 19 Royal Power and Conflict 481 ... Alejandro, was ecstatic. ... Elizabeth I as England’s queen against the pope’s