18th Century Society

Major features of Life in the Old Regime

Pre-Red Europe: 1) Aristocrats got legal priveleges

2) Church tied with state and aristocracy

3) Guilded labor forces

4) Rural peasants subject to high taxes

Maintence of Tradition

Past weighed on people’s minds more than future

Few people outside gov. favored change or innovation

Social relationships

Peasants and nobles call for traditional rights

Nobles: Against expanding monarch power

Peasants: Customary manorial rights

18th century economy was predominant

Quality of harvest and grain = Most important

Hiearchy and Privelege

Medival sense of rank and degree

Enforcement of hierarchy -> Corperate nature of relationships

State/Society -> Large community -> Smaller community

Enjoy priveleges and rights based on particular community

Ex: Village, church, guild, university

The Aristocracy

Apprx 1-5% of the population in any country

Most countries: Had their own estates or diet

Law provide aristocracy largest amount of income

Influence felt throughout social and economic life

Varieties of Aristocratic Privilege

French Nobility

400,000 nobles

2 types: Of the robe (military) / Of the sword (Beaucracy or purchase title)

Also, those in favor of Versailles court and those who did not

In favor of Versailles: Held immense wealth

Late 1780s, apt. to church, army, and beaucracy go to the those already est. in court circles

Known as hoberaux

Exempt from many taxes

Taille = Land tax

Vingtieme = Income tax

Not liable for corvees

Aristocratic resurgence

Nobility reaction to threaten power from expanding power of monarchies

Make more difficult to become a noble

Pushed reserve appt. to upper rankes exclusively for nobles

Used authority of local noble-controlled institutions against monarchies

Improve wealth -> Gaining further tax empts and charge peasantry

The Land and Its Tillers

Land = Economic basis of 18th century economy and foundation of status and power

Most people = Poor

Peasants and Serfs

Rural social dependcy related directly to land

Class that own most land = Control government and courts

Obligations of peasants

Most French servants owned some land

Subject to banalities (certain feudal dues)

Ex: Use of lord’s mill, his oven

Could also require a certain number of work days (corvee)

Rarely have enough land to support family -> Had to rent more land

The Crisis of the French Monarchy

Late 1780’s – Government could not collect taxes to support itself

Unsucessful collection of money – Conflict with aristocrats and church

Louis XVI summon French Estates General

The Monarchy Seeks New Taxes

7 Years War -> Deep in debt

French support of American gov. = More in debt

Eve of revolution= debt was ½ budget

Problem lay in French gov’s inability to correctly collect tax

Debt = Monarchy couldn’t come into terms with political power of parlements

French absolutism = Negotiaition between monarch and nobles

Louis XV and Louis XVI lacked skills to resolve problems

Renen maupeou = Chancellor

Determined to break parlements and increase tax on the nobility

Louix XVI =Dismiss Maupeou and restore noble and parelement power

Second half of 18th century = Share similar economic interests and similar goals for administrative reform with professional and commercial classes

Parlements used language of liberty and reform to defend their cause

Portray monarchy as despotic

Monarchy = Unable to gather public support

Marie Antoinette = Dislike

Louis XVI often stayed at Versailles

Stood at disadvantage with parelements and later with aristocracy

Necker’s Report

French help to America = Worsen debt of Louis XVI government

1781: Debt larger, source of money unchanged

Jacques Necker

Argue that if American war help remove budget = Surplus

Report reveal that pensions went to nobles

Calonne’s Reform Plan and the Assembly of Notables

Charles Alexandre de Calonne = Minister of finance

Encourage internal trade, lower taxes, and transformation gabelle

Sought to remove internal trade regulations and government imposition

Introduce new taille that all had to pay

If happened: Government abandon all indirect taxes, less need to find new taxes

Est. local assemblies of landowners to approve land tax

Voting depend on amount of land owned

Met with Assembly of Notables in 1787

Nominate by royal ministry from upper ranks of nobles and church

Did not trust foundation of Calonne

Claim that any Estates General of France could consent on new taxes

Belief that calling estates general: Allowed direct noble and church dominiance -> Nobility direct role in govenning country

Deadlock and Calling of the Estates General

Calonne-> Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne

Sought to reform land tax

Parlement of Paris: Took new posistion that it lacked authority to approve tax and only Estates General could do so

Brienne present large subsidy to fund debt -> Clergy and nobles disapprove and lowered the don gratitut (paid in lieu of taxes)

Negotiations take center of political life -> Parlements and estates general in provinces made their own demands

Wanted to restore prieveleges in early 17th century

June 1788: Brienne resign and Necker replace

The Revolution of 1789

The Estates General Becomes the National Assembly

Called because of the deadlock between Monarchy and noble

Social difference separate members of 2 orders

3rd Estate: Political and social discrimination from nobility

Stance of the Assembly of Nobtables and Parlement of Paris regarind Estates General meant tha t3rd Estate distrust nobles and church

Doubling the Third

Royal council decided that strengthening the 3rd estate would serve the interests of the monarchy and begin reform

The 3rd estate would elect twice as many reps as either nobles or clergy

The Cahiers de Doleances

Reps brought cahiers de doleances to gov.

Critized gov. waste, indirect taxes, church taxes, and corruption and hunting rights of the aristocracy

Called for periodic meetings of the Estates General, more equipable taxes, and more local control of administration

Call for equal trade regulations and free press

Overall demands = Equal rights for all citizens

Agreement that gov. need major reform, equality in other things was desirable, many noble priveleges be abandoned

The Third Estate Creates the National Assembly

Cahiers could not be discussed until voting was situated

High members of the Third Estate refuse to sit as separate order -> standoff

June 1: Third estate invites clergy and nobles to create new legislative body

June 17: Became National Assembly

June 19: Second estate voted to join

The Tennis Court Oath

Louis XVI called “Royal Session” of the Estate and close room where National Assembly met

June 20: National Assembly meet at tennis court and vow to sit until Frane got a National Consitution -> Tennis Court Oath

Shoawn as defiance to royal command

June 27: Louis XVI declare that First and Second Estate meet with National Assembly where voting was done by head

National Assembly -> National Consitutent Assembly

Shared common admin, constitutional, and economic reform

Fall of the Bastille

Louis muster royal troops near Versailles and Paris

July 11: Dismissed Necker from office

Most of the National Assembly want to start Constitutional Monarchy -> Louis refuse

Royal troops in Paris create anxiety

High price of bread cause riots

Reps of Paris of 3rd estate met -> organize citizen militia and collect arms

Dismissal of Necker: Opening of royal offense to National Consituent Assembly and City

June 14: Large crowd of Parisians (wage earners) storm Bastille for weapons

Troops in Bastille fire; Kill 98 people

Release 7 prisoners, kill tropps, and the governor

July 15: Milita of Paris/National guard appoint Marquis de Layfayette

Red and blue stripes from colors of the coat of arms of Paris, separated by the white stripe of the royal flag

Became revolutionary cockade and eventually the flag of revolutionary France

Attack of the Bastille: First of the crucial journees

Fall of the Bastille: National Consituent Assembly could not deicde political future of nation

Few days Later: Louis XVI bow to force of events and visist Paris and wear cockade and recognize electors as official government of city

Recongize National Guard

The “Great Fear” and the Night of August 4

Great fear swept across countryside: Fear of soliders

Burning of chateaux (legal records and docs), refusal to pay feudal dues

Reclaim rights to property they thought were theirs

August 4, 1789: National Constituent Assembly stop Great Fear

Nobles renounce feudal rights

Surender fishing and hunting rights, judicial authority, and legal exemptions

All French Citizens subject to equal rights and laws

Sale of gov. offices abolished

Open up high ranking positions by talent, not birth

Abolish old institutions of Old Regime

Create legal and social reconstruction of nation

Economic turndown in 1787-1788: Fires of revolution

Harvest low, food prices high

Winter, many people suffer from hunger

Food riots

National Constituent Assembly look to popular forces as source of strength against King and conservative aristocrats

Cooperate artisans and shopkeepers

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

National Constituent Assembly – Make broad statements

8/27/1789: Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Political language of enlightenment and Declaration of Rights of Virginia

All men were born free and had equal rights

Life, liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression

Government existed to protect natural rights

Sovereignty (political) in nation and representatives

Equal before the law

Elligble for all public offices based on talent

Due process of law

Freedom of religion

Fair tax

Ideas like that of protestant reformation

Civic equality and popular sovreignity

Legal and social issues, government be responsible for those governed

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen = Spec. to women

Political language of the enlightenment = Men and women in separate sepheres

Women = Motherhood and domestic life

Women concerned with property, inheritance, family, and divorce

The Parisian March on Versailles

Louis stall before ratifying declaration and renunciation of feudalism

Bread became expensive

7,000 Parisian women storm Versailes in October

Louis became intimidated, agree to sanction decree of Assembly

Oct. 6, Lousic and family settle in Tuileries

National Constituent Assembly move to Paris

The Reconstruction of France

National constituent Assembly – Reorganize France

Consitutional monarchy (econ, religion, anticlregy, freedom)

Protect property

Limit impact on national life of those who had no property

Civic equality before law -> Democracy

Political Reorganization

Consitution 1791: COnsitutional Monarchy

Legislative Assembly

Monarch allow veto

War and peace

Active and Passive Citizens

Elaborate system to stop popular pressure on government

Active citizens – Paying taxes equal to 3 days of pay

Only could vote for electors -> Choose memebrs of legislature

Had to have property to be elector

No women

Wealth from aristocratic -> Welath in nation

Wealth: From land and property

Olyme de Gouge’s Declaration of the Rights of Woman

1791, she added woman to the Declaration of the Rights of Man

Address to Marie Antoinette

Women be regarded as citizens

Outlined women to own property, improved education, and equality of sexes in marriage

Showed that declaration create structure of universal civic expectations

Produce standards

Criteria for freedom

Deparments replace Provinces

Provinces -> Administrative units called departments

Equal size, name after geographical features

Subdivide into districts, canton, and communes

Elections for departmental and local aassemblies indirect

Judicial courts (parlements) replace with uniform courts with elected judges and prosecutors

Economic policy

Supressed guilds and encourage internal trade

Workers Organizations Forbidden

Policy of economic freedom and uniformity disappoint peasants

1789: Burden of proof on which the peasants to rid themselves of the feudal dues for compensation

Chapelier Law: Forbade workers associations

Saw as aid regime guilds

Confiscation of Church Lands

Debts still had to be paid

Owed to bankers, merchants, and traders of 3rd Estate

Took away Old taxes and place insufficient land taxes

Not enough officals to collect taxes

France debt by confiscation and selling church land

Inflation, religious schism, and civil war

The Assignats and Government bonds

Value garunteed by revenue from sale of church property

Set quantity to be sold

Circulate as currency

Ttry to liquidate national debt and create new property owners

Inflation

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Church land confiscate -> Church reconstruction

National Constituent Assembly -> Civil constitution of Clergy

Transform church to branch of secular state

Reduce bishops, provided elections -> paid bishops

Dissolve religious orders, except those who care for sick or schools

Create problems with church and state

Opposition within church

All bishops take oath to civil constitution

Those who did not sign were “refractory”

Anger: Mass celebrated

Pope Pius condemn constitution (clergy and Declaration)

Mark offensive against revolution

Create political loyalty for sincere Catholics

Counterrevolutionary Activity

16,000 aristocrats left France

Emigres settle near French border

Counterrevolution

Count of Artois (convince Louis to flee country)

Flight to Varennes

1791: Louis and family left Paris

Recongized at Vareness

Back to Paris

Natioanl Consituent Assembly = Louis abduct

King head of counterrevolutionary

Declaration of Pillnitz

Emperor Leopold II of Prussia issue (pressure from emigres)

Promised to intervene in France to protect royal family and monarchy if any other countries agree

The End of the Monarchy: A second Revolution

The National Consitutent assembly ended in 1791

Forbade any of its members to participate in legislative assembly

Confront challenges of counter revolutionaries

Emergence of the Jacboins

3rd Estate deputies organized themselves in politically like-minded clubs

Network of local clubs throughout provinces

Pressed for REPUBLIC in legislative assembly

Influenced by Rousseau (general will, popular sovreginity, and civic equality)

Important: Destroy old monarchy -> Republicanism vocab

Demands for Republic: Flight of Louis XVI and Declaration of Phillnitz

Girondists = Leaders of Assembly

Oppose counterrevolutionary

Emigrees must return (loss of property)

Refractory clergy take civil oath (loss of the state pension)

Led France to declare war on Austria, sliding with Prussia

War would preserve revolution from domestic enemies and bring great revolutionaries into power

Louis and other monarchs favor war (strengthen monarchy)

Foreign armies defeat and restor old regime

Overthre monarchy and form republic

Pauline Leon: Led women to petition for arms to fight and protect revolution and serve in National Guard

Showed how language changed social structure spheres

Might not get military

Duke of Brunswick: Destroy Paris of Royal family was harmed

Loss of support of war and king

Gov. of Paris -> Commune of reps from sections of the city

Independent political force

Protector of grains of revolution

Dominance of Paris

8/10/92: Tuileries Palace

Crowed demand Lousi and Maries to live in liegislative assembly

Swiss Guard Murder

Louis had no political power

The Convention and the Role of the Sans –Coulottes

The September Masacres

Paris Commune kill everyone in city prison

New hostility towards rev. Government

Call legislative Assembly to create democratic assembly

Convention: Declare France a republic

Goals of the Sans-Culottes

More radical than Jacobins, caused secondary revolution

Shop-keepers, artisans, wage earners, and factory workers

Assignats made life burdensome

Old regime ignored, Nat. Assembly gave economic liberty

Wanted relief from food shortages and fluctuating prices

Social equality

Hostile towards aristocracy and leaders of 1st revolution

Small, property owner – community

Strongly republican, popular sovereignty

Paris Commune = Main power

Policies of the Jacboins

Favor unregulated economy

Did not hate aristocracy as sans – culottes

Extreme Jacboins cooperate with Parisan sans-culottes and Paris Commune to overthrow monarchy

Mountains

W. sans-culottes, carry revolution forward to win war

Execution of Louis XVI

Mountain and sans-culottes dominate convention

12/92, Louis put on trial as citizen capet

Girdonists: Spare life

Laws: Against liberty of people and security of state

Behead: January 21, 1793

Convention: Declare war on Britain, Holland, and Spain

Prussia: Drove France out of Belgium

General Dumouriez: Desert to enemy

Royalist officer and priests erupt in Vendee with popular support

Europe at War with the Revolution

Before; Thought France as wisely reorganize government, revolution=non important

Edmond Burke Attakcs the Revolution

Reflections on the Revolution in France

Reconstruction of France: Blind to Historical Realities

Forecast turmoil of revolutionaries by death of monarchs

Ideas were influentional

Thomas Paine and the Rights of Man = Age of revolutions

France war with Austria in 1792: Other countries saw ideas of Burke

The Second and Third Partitions of Poland, 1793, 1795

Direct results of Fears of French Rev.

1792: Polish leaders = stronger state

91: Polish Patriots: Elective monarchy, bicameral diet, no more liberum veto

Equality before law

William II: Promise to defend Polish Consitutaional (Reussion power)

1792: Russia invade to restore old order, Txesoz Kosciuszkoo defeat

Ferderick William: Pull troops east

93: Second Parittion of Poland -> Russia

1794: Polish officers against Russia

Kosciuszko lead, initially successful

Prussia, Austria, and Russia send troops to stop rebellion

95: Parittion rest of Poland

The Reign of Terror

War with Europe

Invasion of Austrian Netherlands/reorganization = Europe at hostility

1792: Convention aid all people who wish to cast off aristocratic and monarchial oppression

Scheldt River in Netherlands open to all commerce of all nations

Violated treaty of England and Austria and Holland

1793: Declaration of Hostilites with England

April 1793: War with Austria, Prussia, GB, Spain, Sadrina, and Holland

First Coalition: Protect social structure, economic interests, and political systems against revolution

War 1792 – 1793: New kind of war had erupted

Defense of bold, new, political and social order

Achievements of revuolution in danger

Everyone = Executed

Wanted to IMMEDIATELY protect from enemies

Protection of revolution and silence dissent: Reign of Terror

The Republic DEFENDED

Mobilize for war: Revolution government form elective committes

Organize French life during war

Immense military effort dedicate to protect and promote military ideals

The Committee of Public Safety

Carry executive duties of government

Later: dictorial power

Republicans who opposed Girondists

Save revolution at home and aboraod

The Levee en Masse

Convention struggle to wage war and secure support

1793: Parisian sans-culottes invaded convention and expelled Girdondists -> mountain got complete control

6/22: Democratic constitution never implemented

8/23: Lazare Carnot

Leevee en Masse: Requisition of the military on the entire population

Direct economy for military purposes

Convention establish prices in accordance to sans-culotte demands

Europe: Shocked

Revolution armies stop many counterrevolutionary revolts

Organization

Largest citizen army

The Reign of Terro

The “Republic of Vritue” and Robespierre’s Jusification of Terror

Prescence of army = Forget about legal due process

Convention and comitte saw as a “republic of virtue”

Civil virtue: Sacrifice as one’s self for public good

Replace selfish aristocratic and monarchial corruption

Rosseasu’s “The Social Contract”

Streets to egalitarian vocab, dress like sans-coulottes, attack against crimes

Name of public good -> Reign of Terror

Maximilien de Robspierre

Favor a republic

Jacobin Club and sans-colottes

Oppose war in 1792 because he feared it would endanger the monarchy

Republic of Virtue: Support of government and renounce domestic and foreign enemies

Repression of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women

1793: Pauline Leon and Clair Lacombe found the society of the Revolutionary and Republican women

Fight internal enemies of revolution

Initially, Jacobins welcome

Wanted stricter control of price of food, food horaders, and revolutionary cockaed

Fear of turmoil -> Shut down

Believe the society oppose many policies

Olympe de Gouges oppose Reign of Terror and accuse Jacboins of corruption

Exclusion of women part of republic virtue

De-Christianization

Nov. 1793: Convention say that calendar began on the first day of the New Republic

12 months, 30 days, names associated with seasons and climates

10 days a week

Cathedral Notre Dame: ‘Temple of Reason’

Convention sent members to enforce de-Christianization

Much popular opposition and alienated French government

Robspierre oppose

Revolutionary Tribunals

Mandate of Tribunals: Try enemies of the public

Definition of enemy shifted

Ex: Aid of European powers, endager of republican virtue, good republicans who opposed popular opinion

Terror: Systemized terror and resentment of Sept. Masacres

Guullotine, Mass Shooting, and Drowning

First victims: Mare Antoinette and Family

Girondists politicans next

Early 1794: Terror moved to provinces

Executions of thousands of peasants who were accused of internal opposition

Nantes drowning

Terror affect every social class

The End of the Terror

Revolutionaries turn against themselves

Late 1794: Robspierre execute politicans

Execute sans-coulotte leaders (enrages)

Wanted further price secure, civic equality, and de-Christianization

Turn against Jacques Danton

Heroic national leadership during Dark Days, briefly in the Comitte of Public Safety

Accessed of not being militant enough during the war, profit from revolution, not link politics and moral virtue

Robspierre: Both groups threatened his position

Passed Law of 22 Parial and permit revolutionary tribunal to execute without hearing

Fall of rosPierre

“Worship of Reason” -> “cult of Supreme Being”

Civic religion that induce morality among citizens

July 26: Accuse Convention and government of conspiring against him

No convention member felt safe

9th of Thermidor: Convention Members stop his speech

Arrest: he and 80 supporters executed

Sans-coulottes did not save

Deprive of chief leaders and wages

Jacobins didn’t want to be next victims

Destroy rivals of leadership

Rob. Try to convince that convention was helping enemies

The Thermadorian Reaction

Convention assert powers over comitte of public safety

Reign of Terror stopped: War go well and republican forces stop revoltes

Destruction of machines of terror and constitutional regime

Fear that sans-coulottes became too powerful

Convention allow Girondists to come out of hiding

Reshape Committee of Public Safety

Diminish Law 22 Parial and Power

Paris Commune executed and stopped, Jacobin clubs stopped as well

The White Terror

Execution of terrosists (reign of terror0Jacobins

Republic of Virtue Gave Away

Catholic services held

Repeal laws of 1792 -> Womean had easier divorce

People wanted to return to regular life

Establishment of the Directory

Year II: Convention placed constitution

Rejuect both constitutional monarchy and democracy

Legislature of 2 houses

Upper body: Council of elders (widows over 40)

Lower body: Council of 500 ( at least 30, single or married)

Executive: 5 person directory from a list of the council of 500

Property limit votes

Thermidor Political reaction

Policial system based on property ownerhip

People were given direct political power

Property distribution and economic regulation questioned

Representation based on politics

Revolution of property holders

French revolution consider win of bourgeoise

Wealth from land

Peasants did not have to pay dues

Removal of the Sans-Culottes from Political Life

Convention stop ties as war succeeded

Thermidorians repealed the high prices

1794-1795: Food shortages and food riots

Convention stop

October 5, 1795: Vendemarie royalists try to stop Convention

Napolean Bonaprte stopped the riot

Treaty of Basel: Convention conclude peace with Prussia dn Spain

Convention: To be on council of 500, must have served in Convention

2/3 Law: Lowered public faith with new government

Directory faced immediate social unrest

1796: Grachus Babeuf lead the Conspiracy of Equals

Wanted more equal property and democracy

Said: Rich monopolize property

Resist any change that endanger property of policial stability

Never overcame: Supression of sans coulottes, rich monopoloy, 2/3 law, and Catholic loyalists

Need: Broader loyalty

Dependy on soliders and army to govern