CHAPTER 17— Revolution and Enlightenment

7/31/2019 CHAPTER 17 Revolution and Enlightenment

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The ScientificRevolution

The Enlightenment

The Impact of theEnlightenment

Colonial Empires andthe American

Revolution

Revolution and Enlightenment,

1550-1800

The Scientific Revolution

Objectives:

Discuss how theScientific

Revolution gaveEuropeans a new

way to view

humankinds placein the universe


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Background to the

Revolution

These scientists relied on afew ancient authorities

especially Aristotlefor theirscientific knowledge

Renaissance humanists hadmastered Greek as well as

Latin and thus had access tonewly discovered works byPtolemy, Archimedes, and

Plato

Background to the

Revolution

These scientists relied on afew ancient authorities

especially Aristotlefor theirscientific knowledge

Renaissance humanists hadmastered Greek as well as

Latin and thus had access tonewly discovered works byPtolemy, Archimedes, and

Plato


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The invention of newinstruments, such as the

telescope and microscope,made fresh scientific

discoveries possible

The study of mathematicswas promoted in theRenaissance by the

rediscovery of ancientmathematicians

Copernicus, Kepler,Galileo, Newton

A Revolution in

Astronomy

Secrets of nature werewritten in the language

of mathematics

Major discoveries inscience and astronomy

overturned the

conception of theuniverse held by

Westerners in the MiddleAges


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The Ptolemaic System

This system is called*geocentric because it placesthe earth at the center of the

universe

The universe is a series ofconcentric spheres

The earth is fixed motionlesssurrounded by crystal-like

transparent orbs of light

God dwells at the highest mostexterior place of the universe


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The Ptolemaic System

This system is called*geocentric because it placesthe earth at the center of the

universe

The universe is a series ofconcentric spheres

The earth is fixed motionlesssurrounded by crystal-like

transparent orbs of light

God dwells at the highest mostexterior place of the universe


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Copernicus and Kepler

Copernicus On the Revolution of

the Heavenly Spheres

*Heliocentric, or sun-centered,conception of the universe

offered a more accurate

explanation than did the

Ptolemaic system

The spheres rotate around the

sun

The moon around the earth and

the earth around on its axis

Copernicus and Kepler

Copernicus On the Revolution of

the Heavenly Spheres

*Heliocentric, or sun-centered,

conception of the universe

offered a more accurate

explanation than did the

Ptolemaic system

The spheres rotate around thesun

The moon around the earth and

the earth around on its axis


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Kepler useddetailed

astronomical datato arrive at his lawsof planetary motion

Kepler showed thatthe orbits of the

planets around theSun were not

circular, ratherelliptical

Kepler useddetailed

astronomical data

to arrive at his lawsof planetary motion

Kepler showed thatthe orbits of the

planets around theSun were not

circular, ratherelliptical

Galileo

*Galileo Galilei taughtmathematics and was the

first European to makeregular observations of

the heavens using atelescope

The Starry Messenger

The Copernican modeland Galileo threatened

the Catholic Church


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Galileo

*Galileo Galilei taughtmathematics and was the

first European to makeregular observations of

the heavens using atelescope

The Starry Messenger

The Copernican modeland Galileo threatened

the Catholic Church


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NewtonMathematical Principles of

Natural Philosophy

(Principia)

The three laws of motionthat govern the planetary

bodies

*universal law of gravitation

Every object in the universeis attracted to every other

object by a force calledgravity

NewtonMathematical Principles of

Natural Philosophy

(Principia)

The three laws of motionthat govern the planetary

bodies

*universal law of gravitation

Every object in the universeis attracted to every other

object by a force calledgravity


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Newtons ideascreated a newpicture of the

universe. It wasnow seen as onehuge, regulated,uniform machine

that workedaccording to natural

laws

Breakthroughs in

Medicine and Chemistry

A revolution in

medicine also began inthe 16th century

Ancient Greek, Galen

Relied on animals forhis medical and

anatomical research

Andreas Vesalius

One the Fabric of the Human

Body

He dissecting human bodies

Individual organs and generalstructure of the human body

He still clung to Galenserroneous idea that two kindsof blood flowed in the veins

and arteries


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Andreas Vesalius

One the Fabric of the Human

Body

He dissecting human bodies

Individual organs and generalstructure of the human body

He still clung to Galenserroneous idea that two kindsof blood flowed in the veins

and arteries

William Harvey

On the Motion of the Heart and

Blood

He showed that the heartnot the liver, as Galen had

thoughtwas the beginningpoint for the circulation of

blood in the body

He showed that blood makesa complete circuit through

the body

Science of chemistryarose in the 17th and

18th

Robert Boyle

controlled experimentsand explored the

properties of gases

The volume of a gasvaries with the pressure

exerted on it


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Women and the Origins of

Modern Science

Women as well as men wereinvolved in the Scientific

Revolution

*Margaret Cavendish

Observations Upon Experimental

Philosophy

She was critical of the growingbelief that humans, through

science, were the masters of nature

Descartes and Reason*Rene Descartes, the father of

rationalism

Began by thinking and writingabout the doubt and

uncertainty that seemed to beeverywhere

Discourse on Method

I think, therefore I am

The mind cannot be doubtedbut the body and materialworld can, the two must be

radically different

The Scientific Method

Scientific Methodasystematic procedure forcollecting and analyzing

evidence

*Francis Bacon, an Englishphilosopher with few

scientific credentials, believed

that instead of relying on theideas of ancient authorities,

scientists should useinductive reasoning


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The Enlightenment

Objectives:

1. Describe howeighteenth-century

intellectuals used theideas of the Scientific

Revolution to reexamineall aspects of life

2. Relate how peoplegathered in salons to

discuss the ideas of thephilosophes

Path to the

Enlightenment

18th centuryphilosophicalmovement of

intellectuals who weregreatly impressed

with achievements ofthe Scientific

Revolutions

Isaac Newton and JohnLocke


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Newton: the world-machine

Locke: theory ofknowledge and tabula

rasa

People believed thatthey could discover the

natural laws to producean ideal society

Philosophes and Their

Ideas

The intellectuals of the

Enlightenment were called

*philosophes

Writers, professors, journalists,

economists, etc.

Most were French with a few

important English thinkers

Three key thinkers:

Montesquieu, Voltaire, and

Diderot

Montesquieu

Came from French nobility,writing The Spirit of the Laws

Tried to use the scientific methodto find the natural laws that

govern the social and politicalrelationships of human beings

Wrote on governments:republics, despotism, andmonarchies

*separation of power


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Voltaire

Came from prosperousmiddle-class

wrote pamphlets, novels,plays, letters, essays, and

histories

especially well known forhis criticism of

Christianity

*deism

DiderotAuthor of the first

Encyclopedia

He wrote the text tochange the general way

of thinking

Many articles attackedreligious superstition

and supported religioustoleration

Consumed by doctors,clergy, teachers, and

lawyers

Toward A New Social

Science

Economics

The Physocrats, a Frenchgroup interested in identifyingthe natural economic laws that

govern human society

*Adam Smith, Wealth of

Nations

wrote on *laissez-faire, let itbe the state should not

interfere in economic matters


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The Salon

Salons were elegantdrawing rooms of thewealthy upper class in

which writers and artistsgathered together witharistocrats, governmentofficials, and wealthymiddle-class people

Religion in the

Enlightenment

Most Europeans in the18th century were still

Christians

Catholic parish churchesremained an important

center of life

New movementsemerged, particularly

Methodism

*John Wesley, an Anglicanminister, had a mystical

experience in which the giftof Gods grace assured him

of salvation

He street preached,especially to lower classes

Methodism led to the

abolition of slavery and gavethe lower and middle classesin English society a sense of

purpose and community


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The Impact of the Enlightenment

Objectives:

1. Discuss howEnlightenment beliefs

were reflected in the art,music, and literature of

the time

2. Summarize howEnlightenment thought

influenced the politics ofEurope in the eighteenth

century

The Arts

Architecture and Art

The ideas of theEnlightenment also had animpact on European culture

The palace of Louis XIV atVersailles, in France, had

made an enormous impact on

Europe

grandiose residencesemerged, blending thesecular and the sacred


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By 1730, a new artisticstyle spread all over

Europe: *rococo

Unlike the baroquestyle, rococo

emphasized grace,charm, and gentle actiona highly secular style

Its lightness and charm

spoke of the pursuit ofpleasure, happiness, and

love

Music

*Johann SebastianBach, a renowned

organist as well as a

composer

Mass in B Minor

Music

*Johann SebastianBach, a renowned

organist as well as acomposer

Mass in B Minor


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Handel, a German whospent most of career in

England

He is probably bestknown for his religiousmusic, namelyMessiah

Bach and Handel

perfected the baroquestyle


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Classicism styleemerged in the late

18th century

The style is bestdemonstrated by

Wolfgang AmadeusMozart

While there are manyexamples, he is mostknown for Don

Giovanni


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Enlightenment and

Enlightened Absolutism

The philosophesbelieved in naturalrights for all people:

law, religious worship,speech, press, and

property

They argued thatnations should be

governed byenlightened rulers


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Some Absolutist Rulersattempted to practice

*Enlightenedabsolutism

Prussia, Austria, andRussia will be examples

Did they allow freedomof speech, press, the

right to privateproperty?

Prussia: Army and

Bureaucracy

Frederick William I

strove to maintain ahighly efficientbureaucracy of civil

service workers

His other major concernwas the army, creating

the fourth largest inEurope

Frederick II theGreat was one of thebest educated and

most culturedmonarchs in the 18th

century

He abolished the useof torture, grantedlimited freedom ofspeech and press

The Austrian Empire


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The Austrian Empire

The sprawling empire and its

composite of different ethnicities,

languages, religions, and cultures

made it difficult to rule

Joseph II attempted to reform,

creating a society based on

reason

His reform programs largely

failed

His successors undid almost all

of his reforms

Russia under Catherine the

Great

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-96)was familiar with the works of

the philosophes and seemed tofavor enlightened reforms

She promised to reform the lawcode, that all are equal before

the law

She continually postponed theapplication of this law due to

war

Enlightened Absolutism?

Only Joseph II truly attemptedto apply the radical changes

that the enlightenedphilosophers proposed

All three rulers were chieflyguided by a concern for the

power and well-being of theirstates

Ultimately, 18th centurymonarchs sought a balance of

power, preventing any onefrom dominating the others

W f th A t iIn 1740, a major war broke


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War of the Austrian

Succession

jout in connection with thesuccession to the Austrian

throne

Maria Theresa took thethrone when her father,

Charles V, died

Prussia invaded because awomen ruled Austria. France

allied with Prussia.

Austria allied itself withGreat Britain

The War expanded andwas fought in other partsof the world, the far east,India, and North America

The Seven Years War

New Allies

A great reversaloccurred in alliances

France allied withAustria

Russia allied with FranceBritain allied with

Prussia

The reversal wasprecipitated by colonialrivalries between Britain

and France


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The War in Europe

Europe witnessed theclash of the two majoralliances: the British

and prussians againstthe Austrians,

Russians, and French

This conflict spread,

creating a global war

The War in India and North

America

The struggle between Britain

and France in the rest of the

world had more decisiveresults

The greatest conflicts arose in

the North America

French North America was run

by the French government as a

vast trading area: fur, leather,

fish, and timber

The British and Frenchfought over two primary

areas in North America: thewater ways of the Gulf of St.Lawrence and the Ohio River

valley

The French were able to gainthe support of the Indians. As

traders and not settler, theFrench viewed by the Indians

with less hostility than theBritish


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Latin America was amultiracial society

Intermarriagebetween Europeans

and NativeAmericans

*mestizos

African slaves and

Europeans*Mulattoes

Economic

Foundations

One source of wealth camefrom abundant supplies of

gold and silver, whichwere sent to Europe

Farming was the longlasting and most

rewarding source ofprosperity for Latin

America

Trade provided anotheravenue for profit:

sugar, tobacco,diamonds, and animal

hides

Both Spain andPortugal closely

regulated the trade of

their American coloniesto keep others out

State and Church


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Colonial officials in LatinAmerica had much freedom incarrying out imperial policies

Spanish and Portuguese rulerswere determined to Christianize

the native peoples

The Catholic Church, throughDominicans, Franciscans, and

Jesuits, gained great influence

These missionaries convertedpeople, taught trades, andencouraged to grow crops

Britain and British

North America

A new dynasty came to

powerthe *Hanoverians

George I, from the Germanstate of Hanover, became

king

*Robert Walpole served a shead of cabinet (Prime

Minister) pursued a peacefulforeign policy

The American

Revolution

After the Seven Years War,British leaders wanted to get

new revenues from the coloniesa source to fund the cost of

war and defense of the colonies

1765, Stamp Act, required on

all printed materials,newspapers, etc.

Rebellion erupted

The War Begins


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The colonies organized the

First Continental Congress of

1774 to consider to take up

arms and organize militias

War erupted in 1775 at

Lexington and Concord,

Massachusetts

1776, Second Continental

Congress approved adeclaration of independence

written by Thomas Jefferson,

an Enlightened thinker

Foreign Support and

British Defeat

Of great importance to thecolonies cause was

support from foreigncountries during their

rebellion

The French supplied armsand money to the rebels

from the beginning of thewar

Spain and theDutch Republicalso entered the

war against GreatBritain

The Treaty ofParis, signed in

1783, recognized

the independenceof the American

colonies

The Birth of a New

N ti


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Nation

The states feared

concentrated power and each

one was primarily concerned

for its own interests

The Articles of Confederation

did little to provide for a

strong central government

The Constitutionalconvention in 1787 drafted a

new national government

The Constitution

The new system created afederal system in whichpower would be shared

between the nationalgovernment and the state

governments

The federal governmentspowers were broken intothree separate branchesto prevent a monarchy:

executive, legislative, andJudicial

The Bill of Rights

The new congress created aBill of Rights10

amendments (changes) tothe constitution granting

freedom of religion, speech,press, etc.

Many of these rightsdirectly derived from theEuropean intellectual

Documents

CHAPTER 17— Revolution and Enlightenment