Chapter 12The Presidency: Leading the Nation

The American presidency is always a central office in that its

occupant is a focus of national attention. This chapter examines the roots of presidential power,

the presidential selection process, the staffing of the presidency, and the factors

associated with the success or failure of presidential leadership.

Monica LewinskiAs Bill Clinton was

launching an aggressive second-term policy

agenda, however, he got entangled in an affair with a White House intern, Monica Lewinski, which led to his

impeachment by the House of Representatives and weakened his claim to

national leadership.

Chapter 12 Main Ideas

• Public expectations, national crisis, and changing national and world conditions have required the presidency to become a strong office.

• The modern presidential election campaign is a marathon affair in which self-selected candidates must plan for a strong start in the nominating contests and center their general-election strategies on media, issues, and a baseline of support.

• The modern presidency could not operate without a large staff of assistants, experts, and high-level managers, but the sheer size of this staff makes it impossible for the president to exercise complete control over it.

Chapter 12 Main Ideas

• The president’s election by national vote and position as sole chief executive ensure that others will listen to the president’s ideas; but to lead effectively, the president must have the help of other officials and, to get their help, must respond to their interest as they respond to the presidents.

• Presidential influence on national policy is highly variable.

Foundations of the Modern Presidency

The writers of the Constitution knew what they wanted from a president – national leadership, statesman of foreign affairs, command in time of war or insurgency, enforcement of the laws- but they could devise only general phrases to describe the president’s constitutional authority. (Article II of the Constitution).

Over the course of American history, each of the president’s constitutional powers has been extended in practice beyond the Framer’s intention.

Foundations of the Modern Presidency

Example:

• The Constitution grants the president command of the nation’s military, but only Congress can declare war. Nevertheless, the nation’s presidents have sent troops into military action abroad more than 200 times. Of the more than a dozen wars included in that figure, only five were declared by Congress. All of America’s most recent war’s- the Korean, Vietnam, Persian Gulf, Balkans, Afghanistan, and Iraq conflicts- have been undeclared.

• The presidency is a more powerful office that the Framers envisioned, for many reasons. But two features of the office in particular – national election and singular authority – have enabled presidents to make use of changing demands on government to claim the position of leader of the American people.

Asserting Claim to National Leadership

• 19th Century – Conditions in the United States did not call for a strong national leader and most felt that the President should not have implicit powers for dealing with national problems. They felt that the president was primarily an administrator charged with carrying out the will of Congress.

Asserting Claim to National Leadership

Andrew JacksonAndrew Jackson – First president to forcefully assert a claim to popular leadership.

Jackson was the only president who ever paid off the national debt.

Jackson's soldiers nicknamed him "Old Hickory" in honor of his toughness.

The hot-tempered Jackson killed Charles Dickinson in a duel after Dickinson made insulting remarks about his marriage.

Whig TheoryWhig Theory – A theory that held that the – A theory that held that the presidency was a limited or restrained presidency was a limited or restrained office whose occupant was confined to office whose occupant was confined to expressly granted constitutional authority.expressly granted constitutional authority.

President James BuchananPresident James Buchanan ““My duty is to execute the My duty is to execute the

laws… ..and not my individual laws… ..and not my individual opinions.”opinions.”

(1857 – 1861)(1857 – 1861)

Buchanan, a large robust man.Buchanan, a large robust man. Reportedly took great pride in his tiny feet. Reportedly took great pride in his tiny feet. James Buchanan was the first unmarried James Buchanan was the first unmarried

man to be elected president. man to be elected president. By the time Buchanan's presidential term By the time Buchanan's presidential term

ended, seven states had seceded from the ended, seven states had seceded from the Union.Union.

1901 – 1901 – Theodore RooseveltTheodore Roosevelt elected – He rejected the elected – He rejected the Whig Whig

Theory.Theory. Stewardship TheoryStewardship Theory – Argued for a strong assertive – Argued for a strong assertive

presidential role, with presidential authority limited presidential role, with presidential authority limited only at points specifically outlined by law.only at points specifically outlined by law.

(1901 – 1909)(1901 – 1909)

Roosevelt's foreign policy was:Roosevelt's foreign policy was:"Speak softly and carry a big stick.""Speak softly and carry a big stick."

Roosevelt was shot during a speech Roosevelt was shot during a speech in the campaign of 1912. But he in the campaign of 1912. But he continued, saying, "I will deliver this speech or die." continued, saying, "I will deliver this speech or die."

At age 42, Roosevelt became the youngest president in At age 42, Roosevelt became the youngest president in U.S. history. U.S. history.

Roosevelt was the first president to ride in a car or fly in Roosevelt was the first president to ride in a car or fly in an airplane. an airplane.

Roosevelt was the first president to travel abroad while Roosevelt was the first president to travel abroad while in office. He visited Panama and Puerto Rico in 1906.in office. He visited Panama and Puerto Rico in 1906.

The stewardship theory was further developed by Franklin D. Roosevelt. FDR’s “New Deal” economic package signaled the end for the idea of a limited presidency. Today the presidency is an inherently strong office.

In April 1939 Roosevelt became the first president to appear on television.

Roosevelt held the presidency for 12 years, longer than any other president.

Franklin D. Roosevelt was related, either by blood or by marriage, to 11 former presidents.

Roosevelt was the first president to appoint a woman to his cabinet when he named Frances Perkins secretary of labor in 1933.

The Need For Presidential Leadership

During most of the 19th century (the Civil War period excluded), the United States did not need a strong president. The U.S. government’s role in world affairs was also small. As these conditions changed, however, the presidency also changed.

Foreign Policy LeadershipForeign Policy LeadershipUnited States: United States:

isolationism isolationism reigned supreme.reigned supreme.

The Japanese attack of The Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor and the Pearl Harbor and the Beginning of World Beginning of World War II fundamentally War II fundamentally changed the nation’s changed the nation’s international role andinternational role andthe president’s role in the president’s role in foreign policy. In 1945,foreign policy. In 1945,the U.S. emerged as a global superpower, a the U.S. emerged as a global superpower, a giant in world trade, and the recognized leader of giant in world trade, and the recognized leader of the non-communist world.the non-communist world.

Sept. 11 2001 - After the terror attacks, the initiative in the Sept. 11 2001 - After the terror attacks, the initiative in the war on terrorism rested squarely with the White House. war on terrorism rested squarely with the White House.

Americans wanted decisive action and were looking to the Americans wanted decisive action and were looking to the president, not Congress, for leadership.president, not Congress, for leadership.

Domestic Policy Leadership

• Throughout most of the 19th century Congress jealously guarded its constitutional powers, making it clear that domestic policy was its business. Early in the 20th century, the national government began taking on regulatory and policy responsibilities.

• 1930’s – Great Depression – Roosevelt’s “New Deal” legislation responded to the public’s demand for economic relief with a broad program that involved a level of policy planning and coordination beyond the capacity of Congress.

• Presidential authority has continued to grow since Roosevelt’s time. In response to pressures from the public, the national government’s role in such areas as education, health, welfare, and protection of the environment has expanded greatly, which in turn has created additional demands for presidential leadership.

Choosing the President

The United States in its history has had four systems of presidential selection,

each more “democratic” than its predecessor. The justification for each new electoral system was legitimacy, the idea that the choice of a president

should be based on the will of the people as expressed through their

votes.

Toward a More “Democratic” System of Presidential Election

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 feared that popular election would make the presidency too

centralized and too powerful and thereby undermine the principles of

federalism and separation of powers. They devised a novel system – the

Electoral College.

President chosen by electors – who are appointed by the states – winner of majority electoral votes wins presidency – each state is entitled to an lector for each member it has in Congress (House / Senate).

The primary election process has been used more recently and the candidate who dominates those primaries can expect to receive the presidential nomination.

The presidential election system has changed from an elite-dominated process to one based on voter support. This arrangement has strengthened the presidency by providing the office with the reserve of power that popular election confers on democratic leadership.

The Campaign for Election• By tradition, the choice of the vice presidential

nominee rests with the presidential nominee. Critics say the vice presidential nomination should be decided in open competition, because the vice president could become president someday. The chief argument for the existing method is that the president needs a trusted and like-minded vice president.

• A tie vote in the 1800 election between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr led to the enactment in 1804 of the 12th Amendment to the Constitution, which provides that the electoral college use separate ballots, one for president and one for vice president. (Ties - House Chooses Pres. / Senate Chooses V.P.)

The Campaign for Election

The winner of the November general election is certain to be either the Republican or the Democratic candidate. Two-thirds of the

nation’s voters identify with the Republican or Democratic Party, and most independents lean toward one or the other of them. As a result, the major-party presidential nominees have a

built – in source of votes. A third party candidate has no hope of overcoming this

disadvantage. Therefore, the current system Therefore, the current system of election can deter potentially effective of election can deter potentially effective

presidents from running for the officepresidents from running for the office.

Election StrategyElection Strategy 2 Electoral votes per state / assigned by 2 Electoral votes per state / assigned by

representation in the House of Representatives.representation in the House of Representatives. 538538 Total Electoral Votes – Total Electoral Votes – 270270 required for a required for a

majority.majority. If no candidate receives a majority – the House of If no candidate receives a majority – the House of

Representatives decides the election.Representatives decides the election.

John Quincy Adams ran for president in 1824. John Quincy Adams ran for president in 1824. Opposing him were General Andrew Jackson of Opposing him were General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Tennessee, Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky, and Secretary of the Treasury William H. Kentucky, and Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford of Georgia. None of the candidates Crawford of Georgia. None of the candidates received a majority of electoral votes. The vote received a majority of electoral votes. The vote was: Jackson, 99; Adams, 84; Crawford, 41; and was: Jackson, 99; Adams, 84; Crawford, 41; and Clay, 37.Clay, 37.

Unit RuleUnit Rule: The rule that grants all of a state’s : The rule that grants all of a state’s

electoral votes to the candidate who receives most electoral votes to the candidate who receives most of the popular votes in the state.of the popular votes in the state.

$$ Media And MoneyMedia And Money

$$ The modern presidential campaign is a media The modern presidential campaign is a media campaign. Televised debates can influence campaign. Televised debates can influence voter’s assessments of the candidates. Televised voter’s assessments of the candidates. Televised commercials are by for the most expensive part commercials are by for the most expensive part of presidential campaigns, accounting for half of presidential campaigns, accounting for half the candidate’s general election expenditures.the candidate’s general election expenditures.

Federal funding is available for the presidential Federal funding is available for the presidential candidates. The major-party nominees in the candidates. The major-party nominees in the 2004 presidential election each received about 2004 presidential election each received about $75 million. (One string is attached – those $75 million. (One string is attached – those candidates that accept that money can spend no candidates that accept that money can spend no additional funds on their campaigns.)additional funds on their campaigns.)

The WinnersThe Winners

The Constitution specifies only that the The Constitution specifies only that the president must be at least 35 years of president must be at least 35 years of age, a natural-born U.S. citizen, and a age, a natural-born U.S. citizen, and a

U.S. resident for at least fourteen U.S. resident for at least fourteen years. Except for four army generals, years. Except for four army generals,

all presidents to date had served all presidents to date had served previously as vice presidents, previously as vice presidents,

members of Congress and state members of Congress and state governments, or top federal governments, or top federal

executives.executives.

Staffing the PresidencyStaffing the Presidency

When Americans go to the polls on When Americans go to the polls on Election Day, they have in mind the Election Day, they have in mind the choice between two individuals, the choice between two individuals, the

Democratic or Republican presidential Democratic or Republican presidential nominee. In effect, however, they are nominee. In effect, however, they are

choosing a lot more than a single choosing a lot more than a single executive leader. They are also executive leader. They are also

picking the Secretary of state, the picking the Secretary of state, the director of the FBI and the Chairman director of the FBI and the Chairman

of the Federal Reserve Board. Each of of the Federal Reserve Board. Each of these is a presidential nominee.these is a presidential nominee.

Presidential Appointees

Newly elected presidents gain important advantages from their appointment powers:

1. Their appointees are a source of policy information.2. The appointees extend the president’s reach into the

huge federal bureaucracy by exerting influence on the day-to-day working of the agencies they lead.

The Vice-President – Although the vice president works in the White House, no constitutional executive authority comes with this office.

The EOP (Executive Office of the President) – created in 1939 to provide the president with the staff necessary to coordinate the workings of the executive branch.

CabinetCabinet – A group – A group consisting of the consisting of the heads of the heads of the executive executive departments, who departments, who are appointed by are appointed by the president, the president, subject to subject to confirmation by the confirmation by the Senate. Senate.

(15 departments)(15 departments)

Factors Influencing Factors Influencing Presidential LeadershipPresidential Leadership

Significant presidential action Significant presidential action normally depends on the approval normally depends on the approval of Congress, the cooperation of the of Congress, the cooperation of the

bureaucracy, and sometimes the bureaucracy, and sometimes the acceptance of the judiciary. acceptance of the judiciary.

Congress in particular holds the key Congress in particular holds the key to presidential success. Without to presidential success. Without congressional authorization and congressional authorization and

funding, most presidential funding, most presidential proposals are nothing but ideas, proposals are nothing but ideas,

empty of action.empty of action.

Factors Influencing Presidential Factors Influencing Presidential LeadershipLeadership

Force of CircumstanceForce of Circumstance

In the eyes of the American public, presidential In the eyes of the American public, presidential success hinges on a healthy economy. When success hinges on a healthy economy. When conditions are favorable, the power of the conditions are favorable, the power of the presidency appears awesome.presidency appears awesome.

The Stage of a President’s TermThe Stage of a President’s Term

Most presidents are usually most powerful Most presidents are usually most powerful when they are least knowledgeable – during when they are least knowledgeable – during their first months in office.their first months in office.

Honeymoon PeriodHoneymoon Period - The president’s first - The president’s first months in office, a time when Congress, the months in office, a time when Congress, the press, and the public are more inclined than press, and the public are more inclined than usual to support presidential initiatives.usual to support presidential initiatives.

Factors Influencing Presidential Factors Influencing Presidential LeadershipLeadership

Presidents are somewhat more likely to get what Presidents are somewhat more likely to get what they want when the issue is foreign policy, because they want when the issue is foreign policy, because they have more authority to act on their own and they have more authority to act on their own and are more likely to receive support from the opposite are more likely to receive support from the opposite party in Congress.party in Congress.

2002 State of the Union Address2002 State of the Union Address

Pres. Bush declares the “Axis of Evil” – Iran, Iraq, Pres. Bush declares the “Axis of Evil” – Iran, Iraq, North KoreaNorth Korea

Relations with CongressRelations with Congress

Although the presidency is not nearly as powerful Although the presidency is not nearly as powerful as most Americans assume, the capacity of as most Americans assume, the capacity of presidents to influence the agenda of national presidents to influence the agenda of national debate is unrivaled, reflecting president’s unique debate is unrivaled, reflecting president’s unique claim to represent the whole country.claim to represent the whole country.

Factors Influencing Presidential Factors Influencing Presidential LeadershipLeadership

Relations with CongressRelations with Congress

1991 – George Bush said flatly that he would veto 1991 – George Bush said flatly that he would veto any bill that imposed hiring “quotas” on any bill that imposed hiring “quotas” on employers. Congress changed the provisions of employers. Congress changed the provisions of the bill.the bill.

The most basic fact about presidential leadership The most basic fact about presidential leadership is that it takes place in the context of a system of is that it takes place in the context of a system of divided powers. Although the president gets divided powers. Although the president gets most of the attention, Congress has most of the most of the attention, Congress has most of the constitutional authority in the American system. constitutional authority in the American system.

Even the presidential veto has clear limits. The Even the presidential veto has clear limits. The veto is as much a sign of presidential weakness veto is as much a sign of presidential weakness as it is of strength, because it comes into play as it is of strength, because it comes into play when Congress refuses to go along with the when Congress refuses to go along with the president’s ideas.president’s ideas.

Colliding with Congress

On rare occasions, presidents have pursued their goals so zealously that Congress has been compelled to take steps to curb their use of power. Congress’s power to impeach and remove the president from office is an example.

The House of Representatives decides whether the president should be impeached (placed on trial), and the Senate conducts the trial and then votes on the president’s case, with a 2/3’s vote required for removal from office.

Colliding with Congress

1886 – Andrew Johnson – 1 vote shy of being removed from office.

1974 – Richard Nixon resignation halted congressional hearings on “Watergate”.

1998 – Bill Clinton accused of lying under oath and obstructing justice. He was acquitted by the Senate.

During the Vietnam War, presidents Johnson and Nixon repeatedly mislead Congress with false information so Congress would continue to fund the continuation of the war.

To prevent future “Presidential” wars, Congress passed the War Powers Act. Nixon vetoed the measure but, Congress overrode his veto. The War Powers Act is Congress’s most significant historical effort to curb presidential power.

War Powers Act1. Required the president to notify Congress of the reason

for committing combat troops with 48 hours.2. Specifies that hostilities must end with sixty days; grants

30 extra days to withdraw the troops.3. Requires the president to consult with Congress

whenever feasible before committing troops.

Public Support Public support affects the president’s

ability to achieve policy goals. Policy initiatives are more successful with strong support from the American people.

Presidential Approval Rating – A measure of the degree to which the public approves or disapproves of the president’s performance in office.

Economic downswings tend to reduce the public’s confidence in the president. The most important factor in determining the level of a president’s support is the current state of the economy.

Public Support Scandal is the biggest threat to a president’s

ability to influence news coverage. When a whiff of a possible scandal is detected, a media “feeding frenzy” ensues, and power shifts from the White House to the press and the president’s political opponents.

Because the public expects so much from its presidents, they get too much credit when things go well and too much blame when things go badly. The American public tends to blame the president for national problems that may be out of his control (gas prices / hurricanes).

The public expects far more from its presidents than they can deliver.