CHAPTER 11, COMPARATIVE AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Chapter Outline

Content Analysis Analyzing Existing Statistics Comparative and Historical Research Ethics and Unobtrusive Measures Quick Quiz

Unobtrusive Research – Methods of studying social behavior without affecting it. Example: Durkheim’s analysis of suicide

Types of Unobtrusive Research1. Content Analysis2. Analysis of Existing Statistics3. Comparative and Historical Analysis

Content Analysis

Content Analysis – The study of recorded human communications (i.e., books, websites, paintings, laws).

Appropriate Topics “Who says what, to whom, why, how, and with

what effect?”

Example: violence on TV1. Develop operational definitions2. Decide what to observe3. Decide how to code/analyze data

Figure 11.1

Sampling in Content Analysis Units of Analysis

Identify the unit of analysis:

You are interested in how children’s literature portrays gender roles.

You are interested in popular film’s use of drugs and alcohol.

You are interested in sociology textbook’s definition of race.

You are interested in the content of Internet Blogs.

Figure 11.2

Sampling Techniques Any conventional sampling technique may be

used for content analysis.

Coding in Content Analysis Coding – The process whereby raw data are

transformed into standardized form suitable for machine processing and analysis.

Manifest Content – The concrete terms contained in a communication.

Latent Content – The underlying meaning of communication.

Conceptualization and the Creation of Code Categories Operational Definition Levels of Measurement

Counting and Record Keeping The end product of coding must be numerical. Record keeping must distinguish between units

of analysis and units of observation. Record from the base from which the counting

is done.

Figure 11.4

Qualitative Data Analysis “Negative Case Testing”

Tips for Avoiding Dangers1. Select cases at random2. Provide at least three supporting examples3. Ask others to review interpretations4. Report inconsistencies

Illustrations of Content Analysis

Strengths of Content Analysis Economy of time and money Allowing for the correction of errors Permits the study of processes occurring over

time Research has little (if any) effect on subjects Reliability

Weaknesses of Content Analysis Limited to recorded communications Validity

Analyzing Existing Statistics

The analysis of existing statistics is not the same as secondary analysis.

Existing statistics may be the main source of data or a supplemental source of data.

Example: Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

Example: Kentor’s Consequences of Globalization

Units of Analysis By nature, existing statistics describe

groups. Ecological Fallacy

Problems of Validity Logical Reasoning Replication

Problems of Reliability Quality of Existing Statistics

Sources of Existing Statistics Statistical Abstract of the United States Government Data Demographic Yearbook SINET

Comparative and Historical Research

Comparative and Historical Research – The examination of societies (or other social units) over time and in comparison with one another.

Examples of Comparative and Historical Research Weber and the Role of Ideas Japanese Religion and Capitalism

Sources of Comparative and Historical Data

Figure 11.5

Analytic Techniques

Quick Quiz

1. Which type of research does not require the researcher to intrude on what s/he is studying?

A. Quantitative ResearchB. Qualitative ResearchC. Survey ResearchD. Unobtrusive Research

Answer: D.Unobtrusive research does not require the researcher to intrude on what s/he is studying?

2. Which of the following may be examined in content analysis?

A. booksB. magazinesC. websitesD. all of the above

Answer: D.Books, magazines, and websites may be

examined in content analysis.

3. Which of the following occurs when you obtain a copy of someone else’s data and undertake your own statistical analysis?A. using quasi official statisticsB. using official statisticsC. secondary analysisD. none of the above

Answer: C.Secondary analysis occurs when you

obtain a copy of someone else’s data and undertake your own statistical analysis.

4. Which of the following are types of unobtrusive research methods?A. content analysisB. analysis of existing statisticsC. comparative and historical researchD. all of the above

Answer: D.Content analysis, analysis of existing

statistics, and comparative and historical research are types of unobtrusive research methods.

5. Which of the following are usually qualitative?A. field researchB. comparative and historical researchC. both of the aboveD. none of the above

Answer: C.Field research and comparative and

historical research are usually qualitative.

6. _____ are the individual units that we make descriptive and explanatory statements about.A. Units of analysisB. ArtifactsC. GroupsD. all of the above

Answer: A.Units of analysis are the individual units

that we make descriptive and explanatory statements about.

7. In the content analysis of _____, sampling may occur at any or all of several levels.A. written proseB. televisionC. the Internet

Answer: A.In the content analysis of written prose

sampling may occur at any or all of several levels.

8. Existing statistics should always be considered a _____ source of data.A. primaryB. supplementalC. tertiaryD. all of the aboveE. none of the above

Answer: B.Existing statistics should always be

considered a supplemental source of data.

9. When we base research on an analysis of data that already exist, we face problems of:A. repeatability.B. validity.C. generalization.

Answer: B.When we base research on an analysis of

data that already exist, we face problems of validity.