1 Lecture 6 Comparative-Historical Study and Educational Institutions EDM 6402 Qualitative Method in Educational Research Lecture 6 Comparative-Historical

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EDM 6402Qualitative Method in Educational Research

Lecture 6Lecture 6

Comparative-Historical Study Comparative-Historical Study and Educational Institutionsand Educational Institutions

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South Korea

教育改革行動方案

行政院八十七年五月廿九日

台八十七教字第二六六九八號核定

壹、前言政府為有效推動教育改革工作，於教育部召開第七次全國教育會議之後，在八十三年九月二十一日成立「行政院教育改革審議委員會」，該委員會歷經兩年審慎研議，於八十五年十二月二日提出「教育改革總諮議報告書」，揭櫫教育改革五大方向：一、教育鬆綁；二、帶好每位學生；三、暢通升學管道；四、提升教育品質；五、建立終身學習社會，及八大改革之重點項目。嗣後，教育部融合「教育改革總諮議報告書」之具體建議，及「中華民國教育報告書－邁向二十一世紀的教育遠景」、「中華民國身心障礙教育報告書」、「中華民國原住民教育報告書」等長期研議之施政構想，於八十六年七月提出「教育改革總體計畫綱要」，並根據三十大項計畫綱要，研提具體的中長程計畫十八種、實施方案十二種，以為全面推動落實教育改革工作之依據。惟因整體教育改革工程，所涉範疇含蓋教育部整體業務，為明教育改革重點，乃根據行政院教育改革推動小組第六次會議之決議，綜合「教育改革總諮議報告書」及「教育改革總體計畫綱要」，擇取重點關鍵項目，彙成本行動方案，一以整合行政院各相關部會之力量戮力促成，二為嗣後考核教改成效之指標。

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• Towards a General Theory of Social Action of Institutionalized Values

– Weber defines that “sociology is a science concerning itself with interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and consequence.” (Weber, 1976, p. 209)

Towards a General Theory of Social Action

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– This definition has not only initiated the interpretive tradition in social sciences, it has also stipulated the tradition of verifying causal explanation of regularities in social action. In fact, these two research approach, which Weber has rightly characterized as two integral objectives that future sociologists must strive for, are currently juxtaposed by most practicing social researchers as two uncompromised camps, namely positivistic approach striving for universally predictable causality and interpretative approach striving for empathetically understanding of subjectivity.


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– As Jürgen Habermas points out: “How are general theories of social action possible? General theories allow use to derive assumptions about empirical regularities in the form of hypotheses that serve the purpose of explanation. At the same time, and in contradistinction to natural processes, regularities of social action have the property of being understandable. Social action belongs to the class of intentional actions, which we grasp by reconstructing their meaning.” (Habermas, 1988, p. 11)


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(1929 -

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– According to Haberman the missing link between intentional-subjective symbolic action and causal-predictable regularities in social actions is “institutional values”. As Habermas underlines “sociology is concerned only with institutional values. We can now formulate our question in amore specific form: How are general theories of action in accordance with institutionalized values (or prevailing norms) possible?” (Habermas, 1988, p. 75)


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• The meaning of institutions: A social phenomenological perspective

– Habitualization of actions: According to the social phenomenologist, in order to make human interaction possible, interacting partners have to go through a series of decision making on definitions of situation, typifications, and reciprocity of perspectives, therefore human interactions and human activities in general have the tendency to become habitualized. That is "any action that is repeated frequently becomes cast into a pattern, which can then be produced with an economy of effort and which, ipso facto, is apprehended by its performer as that pattern." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p. 70-71)

What is Institutions?

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• The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective:– Habitualization of meanings: "Habitualized actions, of

course, retain their meaningful character for the individual although the meanings involved become embedded as routines in his general stock of knowledge, taken for granted by him and at hand for the projects into the future. …Habitualization makes it unnecessary for each situation to be defined anew, step by step. A large variety of situation may be subsumed under its predefinitions." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p.71)


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• The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective:– "Institutionalization occurs whenever there is a

reciprocal typification of habitualized actions by types of actors. Put differently, any such typification is an institution." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p. 72)


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• The meaning of institution: A social phenomenological perspective:

– The reciprocal typification of habitualized actions constituted within an institution implies the following structural features of an institution:

• Historicity: "Reciprocal typifications of actions are built up in the course of a shared history. They cannot be created instantaneously. Institutions always have a history, of which they are the products. It is impossible to understand an institution adequately without an understanding of the historical process in which it was produced." (Berger and Luckmann, 1967, p.72) This structural feature of historicity of institution implies an essential methodological implication in the study of institution, that is, study the historical configuration, from which the current institution emerged and developed, is vital to any institutional analysis.


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– Structure features of an institution:• Social control: "Institutions …, by the very fact of their

existence, control human conduct by setting up predefinied patterns of conduct, which channel it in one direction as against the many other directions that would theoretically be possible. …These mechanism (the sum of which constitute what is generally called a system of social control) do …exist in many institutions and in all the agglomerations of institutions that we call societies. …To say that a segment of human activity has been institutionalized is already to say that this segment of human activity has been subsumed under social control." (p. 72-73)


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– Structure features of an institution:• Socialization: As a set of reciprocal typifications of

habitualized actions has achieved its historicity, i.e. proven its social efficacy through time and has further been backed up by social control mechanism, it can be said that this set of intersubjectivity has been externalized and objectivated. However to complete the cycle of institutionalization, this intersubjectivity must in turn be internalized into the subjectivity of the new members of a culture. It is by means of socialization, acculturation, education, or even indoctrination that new members will acquire the "common-sense knowledge" necessary to be able to become fully functional members of a culture.


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– Structure features of an institution:• Legitimation

– Explanation of cognitive validity

– Justification of normative dignity


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• Jürgen Schreiwer, a researcher in comparative education, suggests that education institution can be studies with the "functional-cum-configurational" approach. More specifically, it is a combination of both functional comparative method with configurational-historical method. (2003) Accordingly, the research methods in educational institution studies to be explicated are:

– Functional-comparative approach

– Configurational-historical approach

Comparative-Historical Methods in Institutional Studies

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• The concept of functional equivalence: – The concept of function: Jurgen Schriewer defines

function as "the performance achieved for the maintenance of whole entities or systems by elements of such entities or component parts of such system." (Schreiwer, 2003, p. 37)

Functional Equivalence Perspective in Comparative Studies

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• The concept of functional equivalence: – The concept of functional prerequisite: According to

traditional functionalists, such as A,R. Radcliff-Brown and Talcott Parsons, function are conceived as "necessary conditions of existence" of social systems (Kincaid, 2007, p.217). Parsons further specifies these functional prerequisites of social systems into four (Kincaid, 2007, p.217)

• adaptation ― obtaining resource from the environment

• integration ― maintain coherent relationship among their component elements

• goal attainment ― setting goals and allocating resources to achieve them

• latency ― reproducing organizational structure and managing tension between units.

– Parsons asserts that these four functions are prerequisites of the existence of social system.


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• The concept of functional equivalence: – Critique on functional prerequisites: Functionalists' strong

version of defining functions as "the prerequisites" and "necessary condition of the existence" of social system and Parsons' specification of them into four AGIL constituents have been criticized as too deterministic.


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• The concept of functional equivalence: – Critique on functional interconnection and equilibrium

theses: G.A. Cohen in his explication of the functional explanation thesis in Marxism criticizes the functionalists' assumption that all constituents in a social system are "functionally connected" and "support or reinforce one another" and suggests that this assumption is not necessary in the logical structure of a functional explanation. (Cohen, 1978, p. 283-285) This implicates that some constituents of a social system may be dysfunctionally or even antagonistically connected with the essential core of a given social system. As a result, the thesis of totality of functional connection can be forsaken and so is the thesis of equilibrium and benign stability of the social system.


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• The concept of functional equivalence: – To relax functionalists' assumptions on the functional

prerequisite and totality of functional interconnection, we may simply redefine functions as contributions or benefits a given constituent could offer to the maintaining of the essential core of the social system. Accordingly, the conception of functional prerequisite can be replaced by functional equivalence. As a result, what we are looking for are contributing and beneficial conditions instead of necessary conditions (or even sufficient condition) for the maintaining of the essential core of the social system. Furthermore, the strong version of functionalists' specification of functional prerequisites into AGIL can also be relaxed.


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• Functional equivalence perspective in comparative research

– In comparing societies or particular institutions, such as education, in different societies, concept of functional equivalence can be served as heuristic concept to the issue of comparability.

– From the concept of functional equivalence, we may initiate comparative research by posing "first that different structures may perform the same function, and second, that the same structure may perform several different functions." (Dogan and Pelassy, 1984, p. 37)


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• Functional equivalence perspective in comparative research

– Conception of dissociation of functions and structures:

"The search for functional equivalences passes through this analytical dissociation of roles and function. The same performance may be accomplished in various countries by different organs, and similar or comparable institutions may fulfill, in various countries, different tasks." (Dogan Pelassy, 1984, p. 37)

– Accordingly, comparative researches may be categorized as follows.


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Structures

Same Different

Same Functional & structural equivalence

Functional equivalence Structural differentiation

Functions

Different Functional

differentiation Structural equivalence

Functional & structural Differentiation

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• Functionalism: –For education institution, Parsons underlines that

school class performs two essential functions to the equilibrium of the social system of modern society.

• Socialization function: "School class functions to internalize in its pupils both the commitments and capacities for successful performance of their future adult roles." (Parson, 2004, p. 32)

• Selection function: School class on the other hand "functions to allocate these human resources within role-structure of the adult society." (p. 32)

Perspectives of Functional Equivalence in Comparative Methods in Education Research

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• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:–The theory of equilibrium as "consequence law" in

functionalism has been criticized for conservative and legitimatizing the status quo (Cohen, 1978, p.284; Turner and Maryanski, 1995, p.55-56)


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• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:– G.A. Cohen, one of the prominent members of Analytical

Marxism, in reconstructing historical materialism offers a selection theory through class struggle as the "consequence law" for his functional explanations.

• In the functional explanation of the relationship between force of production and relation of production (class relation) Cohen suggests


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• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:– G.A. Cohen, …

• "Classes are permanently poised against one another, and that class tends to prevail whose rule would best meet the demands of production. But how does the fact that production would prosper under a certain class ensure its dominance? Part of the answer is that there is a general stake in stable and striving production, so that the class best placed to deliver it attracts allies from other strata in society. Prospective ruling classes are often able to raise support among the classes subjected to the ruling class they would displace. Contrariwise, classes unsuited to the task of governing society tend to lack the confidence political hegemony requires, and if they do seize power, they tend not to hold it for long." (Cohen, 1978, 292)


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• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:– G.A. Cohen, …

• In the functional explanation of the relationship between infrastructure and superstructure, Cohen once again suggests

• "All classes are receptive to whatever ideas are likely to benfit them, and ruling classes are well placed to propagate ideologies particular congenial to themselves. But before an ideology is received or broadcast it has to be formed. And on that point there are traces in Marx of a Darwinian mechanism, a notion that thought-systems are produced in comparative independence from social constraint, but persist and gain social life for ideological service. …There is a kind of 'ideological pool' which yields elements in different configurations as social requirements change." (Cohen, 1978, p.291)


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• Functional explanation in Marxian perspective:– As for the functional explanation of education institution,

Marxist conceptions can be summarized into two counts• Reproduction function: As Louis Althuser indicates education

is part of the ideological apparatus of the state, which performs the function of reproduction of the prevailing class relation of a given society. (Althusser, 1971; Carnoy, 1982; see also Bowles and Gintis, 1976; Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977; Apple, 1979)

• Legitimatizing function: Bowles and Gintis indicate that the highly selective and competitive structure of education does not only corresponds but in fact legitimatizing the inequality found in the class structure of capitalist society. )Bowles & Gintis, 1976)


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• Functional explanation of education in Weberian perspective

–Max Weber has rendered a function explanation of the relationship between education contents and forms of domination in societies. (Weber, 2004)

–Margret Archer has also expounded that domination and assertion among status groups as the primary factor contributing to education expansion in recent decades.


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• In light of these perspectives, the functional equivalence comparison framework can be elaborated as follow.


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Structures

Same Different

Functionalism Socialization Function

Same

different

Selection Function

Same

Different

Marxism Reproduction Function

Same

Different

Weberian Perspective

Legitimatizing Function

Same

Domination Function

Different

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• Applying the general theory of functional equivalence of development of education institutions in specific national context, education researchers can undertake historical-sociological studies on how education institution is transformed within the social and historical context of a particular society.

• There are varieties of approaches to historical-sociological studies of education institution, such as

– The Weberian historical-sociological approaches, – The Marist historical-sociological approach, – The new-institutionalist approach, etc.

• Methodological details of these approaches will be explicated in EDM 6003.

Configurational-Historical method in study of morphogenesis of education institution

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• Functional-equivalence comparative study of global education reform

– Education Reform in the UK• Lifetime learning: A policy framework (1996)

• The learning age: A renaissance for new Britain (1998)

– Education Reform in the US• Goal 2000 Act, 1994

• A nation learning: Version for the 21st Century (1997)

• No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

– Education Reform in Canada• Knowledge Matters: Skills and learning for Canadians (2002)

• Achieving excellence: Investing in people, knowledge and opportunity (2002)

Comparative-Historical Approach to Global Education Reform of Neoliberalism

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– Education Reform in Australia• National Board of Employment, Education and Training (1996)

Lifelong learning ―― Key issues

• Dept. of Education, Science and Training (1998) Learning for life: Review of higher education financing and policy (1998)

• Dept. of Education, Science and Training (2003) Lifelong learning in Australia

– Education Reform in South Korea• Ministry of Education Adapting Education to the Information

Age (2000-2004)

– Education Reform in Singapore: • Education for Learning Society in the 21st Century (2000)


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– Education Reform in Taiwan• 教育改革行動方案 , 1998

– Education Reform in HKSAR• Education Commission (2000) Education for Life and

Education through Life

– OECD (1991) The lifelong learners in the 1990s.– OECD (1996) Lifelong learning for all.– OECD (2001) Education policy analysis 2001.– UNESCO (1996) Learning: The Treasure from within.– European Commission (1995) Teaching and learning:

Towards the learning society


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• Configurational-historical study of global education reform of HKSAR


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Lecture 6Lecture 6Comparative-Historical Study Comparative-Historical Study

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1 Lecture 6 Comparative-Historical Study and Educational Institutions EDM 6402 Qualitative Method in Educational Research Lecture 6 Comparative-Historical