Chapter 10 Thinking and Chapter 10 Thinking and Language:Language: Cognition, Problem Cognition, Problem

Solving, and Causes of Solving, and Causes of IrrationalityIrrationality

The Cognitive PerspectiveThe Cognitive PerspectiveCognitionCognition refers to mental refers to mental

activities associated with activities associated with processing, interpreting, processing, interpreting, understanding, and understanding, and communicating information. communicating information.

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology studies: studies: Concept Formation Concept Formation Problem SolvingProblem SolvingDecision MakingDecision MakingJudgment FormationJudgment Formation

How We ThinkHow We ThinkFor For

Classification/Efficiency Classification/Efficiency Purposes Humans Purposes Humans Create:Create:

Symbols:Symbols: object or an act object or an act

that stands for something that stands for something elseelseThink about things that are Think about things that are

not presentnot present

How We ThinkHow We ThinkFor Classification For Classification

/Efficiency Purposes /Efficiency Purposes Humans Create:Humans Create:

Concepts:Concepts: mental mental

grouping of similar grouping of similar objects , events, ideas, or objects , events, ideas, or people. people. Concepts are often Concepts are often

organized into hierarchies.organized into hierarchies.

Types of ConceptsTypes of Concepts

Prototype Activity Prototype Activity (Myers)(Myers)

How We ThinkHow We Think

Humans usually form concepts by Humans usually form concepts by creating a:creating a:

Prototype:Prototype: mental image or best example mental image or best example of a category. Allows us to incorporate of a category. Allows us to incorporate items easily.items easily.

To most people, a robin is “birdier” than a Penguin

An ItemAn Item’’s Failure To Match A s Failure To Match A Prototype Leads to Trouble Prototype Leads to Trouble

Classifying It.Classifying It.

Methods of Problem SolvingMethods of Problem Solving

2. 2. Algorithm:Algorithm: methodical, logical methodical, logical pattern or procedure pattern or procedure that that guarantees a guarantees a solutionsolution to a particular to a particular problem.problem.

Looks at all possible Looks at all possible combinations or has a combinations or has a SPECIFIC FORMULA to solve SPECIFIC FORMULA to solve the problem. the problem.

Methods of Problem SolvingMethods of Problem Solving3. 3. Heuristics:Heuristics: mental shortcut, rule of mental shortcut, rule of

thumb strategies which allow us to solve thumb strategies which allow us to solve problems efficiently and usually quickly.problems efficiently and usually quickly.Short-cuts that involve our preconceptions.Short-cuts that involve our preconceptions.

Who would you rather have baby sit your child? Answer is based on your heuristic for appearance.

Algorithms vs. HeuristicsAlgorithms vs. Heuristics

Unscramble Unscramble

S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H Y G

--AlgorithmsAlgorithms go through all 907,208 go through all 907,208 combinationscombinations

--Heuristics Heuristics would take out YY, etc.would take out YY, etc.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0xgjUhEG3Uv=k0xgjUhEG3U

Algorithms vs. HeuristicsAlgorithms vs. Heuristics

Advantages and Advantages and Disadvantages?Disadvantages?

Methods of Problem SolvingMethods of Problem Solving

1. 1. Trial and Error: guess and Trial and Error: guess and checkcheck

Methods of Problem Methods of Problem SolvingSolving

Insight:Insight: sudden sudden realization of how realization of how to solve a problem to solve a problem without a real without a real strategy involved. strategy involved. The Light-Bulb The Light-Bulb

going off when you going off when you get an idea.get an idea.

““A-ha moment”A-ha moment”

KohlerKohler’’s Chimpanzee Study s Chimpanzee Study Illustrates InsightIllustrates Insight

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fPz6uvIbWZE

Kohler and Chimp InsightKohler and Chimp Insighthttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fPz6uvIbWZE

Kohler and Chimp InsightKohler and Chimp Insight

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XcMI1NAew3o

Insight Problems PowerPointInsight Problems PowerPoint

Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving

Confirmation Bias:Confirmation Bias: human human tendency to search for information tendency to search for information that confirms your preconceptions that confirms your preconceptions (we don’t search out information (we don’t search out information that refutes them)that refutes them)

Saddam Hussein & WMDsSaddam Hussein & WMDs

Your own examples?Your own examples?

Child Custody HandoutChild Custody Handout (Myers) (Myers)

Obstacles to Problem Obstacles to Problem SolvingSolving

Fixation:Fixation: refers to the inability to refers to the inability to see a problem from a new see a problem from a new perspective.perspective.

How would you arrange six matches to form 4 equal lateral triangles?

Solution to Matchstick Solution to Matchstick ProblemProblem

Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving

Mental Set:Mental Set: tendency to tendency to approach a particular problem in a approach a particular problem in a particular way.particular way.

You usually use strategies that You usually use strategies that have been successful in the past have been successful in the past at solving problems even though it at solving problems even though it may not be most efficient strategy may not be most efficient strategy for the new problem. for the new problem.

The Three Jugs ProblemThe Three Jugs Problem

Solution to the Jugs Solution to the Jugs ProblemProblem

B-A-2C=desired B-A-2C=desired amount of water.amount of water.

Problem 6 & 7 Problem 6 & 7 had easier had easier solutions though solutions though which were which were probably blocked probably blocked by mental set.by mental set.

6 & 7 Solution6 & 7 Solution

Candle Mounting Candle Mounting ProblemProblem

Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

Candle Mounting Candle Mounting SolutionSolution

Inability to solve this problem may result from functional fixedness. Have to recognize that a box need not always serve as a container

Obstacles to Problem SolvingObstacles to Problem Solving

Functional Fixedness:Functional Fixedness: tendency to think of objects only tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions.in terms of their usual functions.

CAN EQUAL

OverconfidenceOverconfidence

We tend to overconfident in our thinking We tend to overconfident in our thinking and our decision making because we:and our decision making because we:1.1.do not realize how flimsy our evidence do not realize how flimsy our evidence isis

2.2.ignore examples that conflict with our ignore examples that conflict with our opinions.opinions.

3.3.tend to bring about things they believe tend to bring about things they believe in.in.

OverconfidenceOverconfidence

Can you think of a time you were Can you think of a time you were overconfident in a decision/answer?overconfident in a decision/answer?

Examples from history…Examples from history…

Possible Obstacles to Possible Obstacles to Problem SolvingProblem Solving

Representative Heuristic:Representative Heuristic: is a is a MENTAL SHORTCUT for judging the MENTAL SHORTCUT for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to match our well they seem to match our prototypes.prototypes.

May lead us to make incorrect May lead us to make incorrect assumptions.assumptions.

Possible Obstacles to Possible Obstacles to Problem SolvingProblem Solving

A stranger tells you about a A stranger tells you about a person who is short, slim, and person who is short, slim, and likes to read poetry. Is this likes to read poetry. Is this person more likely to be a person more likely to be a professor or a truck driver?professor or a truck driver?

Example of Representative Example of Representative Heuristic ErrorsHeuristic Errors

Below is Fred. He is muscle-bound, Below is Fred. He is muscle-bound, uses steroids, and enjoys getting uses steroids, and enjoys getting into fights. Is he more likely to be a into fights. Is he more likely to be a high school teacher or a wrestler high school teacher or a wrestler from the WWE. from the WWE.

Possible Obstacles to Possible Obstacles to Problem SolvingProblem Solving

Availability Heuristic:Availability Heuristic: is a is a MENTAL SHORTCUT where we judge MENTAL SHORTCUT where we judge the likelihood of an event based on the likelihood of an event based on how readily the event comes to how readily the event comes to mind.mind.

What types of things can effect the What types of things can effect the availability of things in our memory? availability of things in our memory?

Is the letter k more likely to occur as Is the letter k more likely to occur as the first or third letter in a word? the first or third letter in a word?

Availability Heuristic Can Availability Heuristic Can Lead Us to Irrationally Fear Lead Us to Irrationally Fear Things Which Are Unlikely.Things Which Are Unlikely.

EX:EX: People tend to be more fearful of People tend to be more fearful of the dangers of airplane travel than of the dangers of airplane travel than of traveling in an automobile. traveling in an automobile.

EX:EX: People tend to be more fearful of People tend to be more fearful of being raped by a stranger even though being raped by a stranger even though it is more likely they will be raped by it is more likely they will be raped by someone they know. someone they know.

Discovering Psychology Movie on Decision Making and Judgment

(15 min.)(15 min.)