Chapter 1: The Dry Bones Speak

Human Origins in Myth and HistoryEarly Myths

• “Myth” is an interpretative story with a moral message that cannot be verified historically

• One of earliest myths is Enuma Elish (Mesopotamia), dating to approximately 2000 B.C.E.

• Rigveda (India) dates to 1000 B.C.E.• Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible• All define creation and the role of people

1. The Dry Bones Speak

Human Origins in Myth and HistoryThe Evolutionary Explanation

• Drawn from direct observations from the 18th century

• Relied on the scientific method

• The most influential theorists were Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace

• Rejected the simultaneous creation of all species in favor of the cumulative creation of species, which reflected natural selection

1. The Dry Bones Speak

The Evolutionary ExplanationThe New Challenges

• Changes in species not the result of a grand teleological design with ethical goals but that reflected improved ability to survive and reproduce

• Newer organisms that were simply “fit” to survive• These organisms evolved from earlier forms of life rather

than as the result of a separate creation• Darwin’s The Descent of Man cements evolutionary

explanation in 1871

1. The Dry Bones Speak

Fossils and Fossil HuntersThe Puzzling Neanderthals

• Found in 1856, they were identified as the missing link between humans and ape ancestors

• Research suggests Neanderthals made tools and adapted to changing climates

• May also have been cannibals

• More discoveries showed that Neanderthals were not the missing link

1. The Dry Bones Speak

Fossils and Fossil HuntersHomo Erectus: A Worldwide Wanderer

• Earliest discoveries of this species were in Java and China

• Similarities among archaeological finds led to the designation of homo erectus

• Few initial ideas of the relationship among the finds led early experts to regard each find as a separate species

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Fossils and Fossil HuntersThe Search Shifts to Africa

• Louis Leakey made a major breakthrough in understanding based on skeletal findings in the Olduvai Gorge in East Africa (after 1959)

• Studies now involve paleoanthropology, the study of the tools, species and plants included in the locale of each find

1. The Dry Bones Speak

Fossils and Fossil HuntersHomo habilis

• Name means “handy person”

• Existed 1.5 million to 2.5 million years ago

• Possessed opposable thumbs

• Walked in upright position

1. The Dry Bones Speak

Fossils and Fossil HuntersAustralopithecus afarensis was discovered in 1974 by Donald Johnson; the first find was named “Lucy” and dates to 3.2 million years ago

Ardipithecus ramidus was discovered in 1994; the skeleton dates to 4.4 million years ago

Recent discovery of “Toumai” moves date of earliest hominid to 6-7 million years ago.

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Fossils and Fossil HuntersDebate Over African Origins

• Multiregionalists argue that Homo sapiens evolved after emigration of Homo erectus out of Africa

• Out-of-Africa proponents believe Homo sapiens evolved in Africa and then migrated to rest of world

• Both sides agree that racial differences are simply adaptations to climate and are superficial

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Fossils and Fossil HuntersReading the Genetic Record

• Study of genetics rather than fossils largely supports Out-of-Africa theorists

• Genetic dating suggests that humans, gorillas and chimpanzees shared common ancestors until 5-7 million years ago

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Fossils and Fossil HuntersThe Theory of Scientific Revolution

• Thomas Kuhn’s theory of normal science and paradigm shift fits well with developing understanding of evolution

• The paradigm shift was Darwin’s theory of evolution

• Subsequent paleoanthropological findings represent additions achieved through “normal science”

1. The Dry Bones Speak

Humans Create CultureBiological Evolution and Cultural Creativity

• Homo habilis began cultural adaptations by developing simple tools

• Additional developments of tools, rituals, art, language, settlements and concepts mean that today culture is more important than biology in determining how humans cope with nature

• Cultural evolution may have been encouraged by biology due to brain development

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Humans Create CultureBiological Evolution and Cultural Creativity

• Cultural transmission tied to infant need for long-term nurturing

• Burst of creativity 100,000 years ago has led scientists to identify today’s people as Homo sapiens sapiens

• This new subspecies is distinctive for its symbolic expression that is spiritual and cultural in nature

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Humans Create CultureHow Did Humans Survive?

• Three explanations for success of Homo sapiens sapiens success over other hominids

– Aggression, warfare and murder

– Mating and reproduction

– Success in competition for ecological niches

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Humans Create CultureGlobal Migration

• Modern humans spread out from Africa to Europe and Asia between 90,000 and 120,000 years ago

• Migrations were stimulated by climate change

• Ice ages lowered water levels and made migration easier

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Humans Create CultureIncreased Population and New Settlements

• Early groups competed with one another for ecological niches

• Hunter-gatherer tribes probably averaged five hundred, divided into nineteen bands

• Each band needed 7-8 square miles of fertile or 77 square miles of unfertile land

• Movement to small settlements took advantage of water resources

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Humans Create CultureLanguage and Communication

• No physical evidence for language development• Language began as soon as brain was large enough?• Brain had to be reorganized for language?• Language is both a biological and cultural development• Language promoted development of concepts and

reflective thought

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Humans Create CultureAgriculture: From Hunter-Gatherer to Farmer

• Began as experimentation with plants near settlements• Humans had ability to farm 12,000-17,000 years ago• Permanent sources of food were crucial to decision to

farm• Population pressure may have added to impetus• Actual use of extensive agriculture began 10,000 years

ago

1. The Dry Bones Speak

Prehistory: What Difference Does It Make?Myth and Science are partners in this analysis

Analysis is an example of “normal science” in action

Legacies of this period include a) migration; b) tools; c) formation of ever larger groups; d) communication through language; e) self-expression through art; and f) shifting between acceptance and attempted control of nature