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Unit 1: Chapters 1, 2, and 3 Dr. Joseph A. Mayo
Professor of Psychology
HUSV 3001
Chapter 1: Research in the Human Services
Opening Remark:
• “Designing research is not a series of isolated tasks; it is a process of interconnected parts” (Loseke, 2013, p. 81).
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Social Research Approach
•Exploration: Empirical
Systematic
Focuses on human social life
•Basic (pure) vs. applied research
Goals of Social Research1. Description
2. Prediction
3. Explanation
4. Evaluation
Therefore, there is a cumulative approach to social research in this ascending order…
1. Descriptive
2. Relational
3. Causal
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Chapter 2: The Logic of Social Research
How Do We Come to Know the World?• Epistemology: The philosophy of knowing
(sources of knowledge)
Common-Sense Approach• Practical experience• Talking with people we know• Information from people we do not know:
Bloggers Anonymous web-page authors Authors of non-scholarly printed and electronic media Journalists Talk-show hosts Public speakers Social and community organizations
• Conventional wisdom• Traditional practices• Pure logic
Class Activity: Common Sense vs. Research-Based Knowing
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Common Sense vs. Research-Based Knowing
• Unless we decide not to, we usually observe inaccurately.
• We consciously decide what and how to observe.
Common Sense:
Research:
• We observe selectively to find what we’re seeking.
• Once again, we consciously decide what and how to observe.
Common sense:
Research:
• We usually generalize from only a few cases.
• We explicitly sample for generalizing.
Common sense:
Research:
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• We make things up to fill in the gaps. (1) (2) (3)
• We base conclusions only on supporting evidence.
Common sense:
Research:
• We believe in luck.
• We have to document and back up conclusions.
Common sense:
Research
• We get personally and emotionally involved.
• We have to respect scientific norms, regardless of our personal opinions.
Common sense:
Research:
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• We form our views prematurely with little or no revision.
• We can constantly revise our views.
Common sense:
Research:
• Some things we just can’t know.
• We can’t rule out any area as unknowable (e.g., ESP).
Common sense:
Research:
• Is more conscious.
• Is more careful.
• Often refutes common sense.
• Is not generated by the same methods or evaluated by the same criteria.
Therefore, compared to common-sense
knowing, research knowledge…
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The Study of Social Research
1. Social research design: • Forming research questions
• Showing why these questions are important
• Conceptualizing and operationalizing major concepts
• Choosing a sample
• Selecting techniques for data collection and analysis
• Writing a report of results
Hourglass Metaphor for Research Methods
2. Methodological thinking:
• Think critically.
• Treat all knowledge as tentative.
• Understand importance of each element of research design.
• Think both as scientist and artist.
• Know appropriate uses of research tools.
• Understand characteristics and consequences of methodological diversity
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• Components of social research:
1. Data
o Content
o Origin
o Form
2. Concepts
3. Theories
Direction of Reasoning between Data and Concepts/Theories
• Deduction (theory testing)
• Induction (grounded theory)
Deductive Thinking
Theory
Hypothesis
Observation
Confirmation
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Inductive Thinking
Theory
Tentativehypothesis
Observation
Pattern
Interconnected Framework for Social Research
Models of social life Research designs1. Positivist 1. Qualitative2. Interpretive 2. Quantitative3. Critical
4. Pragmatist
Research methods1. Research questions2. Data collection3. Data analysis4. Interpretation5. Validation
Competing Models of Social Life Underlying Human Service Research
• Eclecticism
• Four models:
1. Positivist/Postpositivist
2. Interpretive/Constructivist
3. Critical/Transformative
4. Pragmatist
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Social science = natural science (naturalistic)
• Objective and value-free
• Empirical observation and measurement
• Theory verification
• Rejecting absolute truth of knowledge
• Gaining knowledge to improve the world
Social world = deterministic
• Predictable order and cohesion
• Causes determining effects or outcomes
The Positivist/Postpositivist View of Research
The Interpretive/Constructivist View of Research
Social science = rooted in humanities
• Max Weber
• “Anti-positivist”
• Personal values and biases
• Understanding complexities of human experience
Social world = natural world
• Focusing on personal meanings
• Cognitive and social constructivism
The Critical/Transformative View of Research
Social science = driven by social inequality
• Derived from critical theorists
• Participatory action research
• Conflict and domination
• Society’s material conditions
Social world = oriented around power relations
• Oppressors and the oppressed
• Value-engaged research aimed at reform
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The Pragmatist View of Research
Social science = applied and utilitarian
• Charles S. Peirce, William James, George Herbert
Mead, & John Dewey
• Selecting varied research designs to best meet needs
• Truth = what works at any given time
Social world = context-specific
• Research occurring in multiple contexts
• Open to both qualitative and quantitative methods
Two Research Designs1. Qualitative research (interpretive & critical):• Individual meanings• Open-ended questions (see Q-chart)• Data collection in participant’s setting• Induction• Words as preferred data type• Social complexity and what is distinctly human• Final report flexible
2. Quantitative research (positivist):• Testing relationships among measurable variables• Closed-ended questions• Numbered data• Statistical analysis of data generated• Deduction for theory testing• Discovering social patterns/relationships• Predicting causes & consequences of behavior• Final report structured
NOTE: Qualitative & quantitative designs can be mixed (pragmatist).
Criteria for Selecting a Research Design
Qualitative approach is best when:• Researcher uncertain about importance of variables
• New topic
• Unexplored sample of population
• Dominant explanations not applying to sample of population
Quantitative approach is best when:• Testing causal relationships
• Evaluating success of intervention
• Establishing which factors best predict an outcome
• Testing theories
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Types of Variables
Independent variable: Leads to or causes
an observed outcome/effect
(often called the treatment)
Dependent variable: Is potentially affected by the
independent variable
Family structure
Economic status
Schooling
Special tutoring
Academic achievement
Independent Dependent
Manipulable
Notmanipulable
Dimensions in Defining Variables
Socioeconomic Status
Dimension 1: Income
Dimension 2: Education
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SAT Scores: Correlation vs. Causation
Types of Relationships between Variables
Positive
Negative
None
A Positive Relationship
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Class Activity: Correlation vs. Causation
Types of Hypotheses
• Null hypothesis = predicts no observed change or effect (presumed true until evidence refutes it)
• Alternative (directional) hypothesis = predicts the direction of an observed change or effect (one-tailed)
• Alternative (nondirectional) hypothesis = predicts an observed change or effect, but not its direction (two-tailed)
Employee training program will reduce employee
absenteeism.
There will be no change in absenteeism due to
employee training.
One-tailed hypothesis:
Null hypothesis:
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One-Tailed (Directional) Hypothesis
Our new drug treatment will lead to an
observed change in depression.
There will be no change in depression as a
result of treatment.
Two-tailed hypothesis:
Null hypothesis:
Two-Tailed (Nondirectional) Hypothesis
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Statistical Hypothesis Testing
• Types of statistical errors:
• Type I error = probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis
• Type II error = probability of failing to reject a false null hypothesis
• Alpha level (α)= probability at which null hypothesis will be rejected (“statistical significance” usually expressed in & set at p < .05 or < .01)
• Setting alpha levels too low (.10 or .20) increases likelihood of a Type I error
• Setting extremely rigorous alpha levels (.001) increases the likelihood of a Type II error
Chapter 3: Ethical Issues in Social Research
• Infamous trigger events:o Watson’s (1920) early psychological study of “Little Albert”o Nazi experiments (WW II)
o Tuskegee syphilis study (1932 – early 1970’s)
• Controversial social psychological research involving intentional deception:o Stanley Milgram’s “shock experiment”o Philip Zimbardo’s “Stanford prison experiment”
• Deception in contemporary social and behavioral research:o Hawthorne effecto Debriefing
Historical Context: Why Do Human Research Subjects Need Protection?
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NOT JUST AN ISSUE OF THE DISTANT PAST….
On April 20, 2010, Arizona State University (ASU) agreed to pay $700,000 to 41 members of the Havasupai Indian tribe to settle legal claims that university researchers improperly used
tribe members' blood samples in genetic research.
Source: http://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2010/04/21/us/0421DNA_7.html
Ethical Issues
• Voluntary participation
Ethical Issues• Voluntary participation
• Risk of harm
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Ethical Issues
• Voluntary participation
• Risk of harm
• Anonymity
Ethical Issues
• Voluntary participation
• Risk of harm
• Anonymity
• Confidentiality
Ethical Issues
• Voluntary participation
• Risk of harm
• Anonymity
• Confidentiality
• Right to services
Tuskegee syphilis study
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Ethical Issues
• Voluntary participation
• Risk of harm
• Anonymity
• Confidentiality
• Right to services
• Informed consent
Informed Consent Process• Informed consent is information exchange including
subject recruitment materials, verbal instructions, written materials, question and answer sessions, and signature documenting consent with date. Subjects are given opportunity to choose involvement based on information, comprehension, and voluntariness.Is the key to respecting autonomy
Provides a reasonable assurance that the subject has not been deceived or coerced
Special considerations required with those who are considered vulnerable
Vulnerable Populations & Informed Consent
• Persons who may not be able to make free and informed decisions about their participation in research or medical care are considered vulnerable.
• Vulnerable populations may be easily coerced or have limited freedom to choose.
• Persons identified as vulnerable require additional safeguards in the research informed-consent process:Pregnant women and fetuses
Children and wards of the state (e.g., foster children)
Prisoners
Cognitively impaired
Non-English speaking persons
Illiterate persons
Terminally ill
Financially impaired
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Steps in the Informed Consent Process
1. Starts with an exchange of essential information about the research (e.g., interview)
2. Allows an opportunity for the subject to ask questions and have them answered
3. Is evidenced by the signing of an informed consent form
4. Is documented in record5. Requires giving a copy of the informed consent
form to the subject6. Continues at each interaction by providing the
subject new information as it develops before, during, and after the study
Required Elements of Informed Consent
Statement that the study involves research
Description of research
Description of potential risks
Description of potential benefits
Financial compensation to participant (if applicable)
Disclosure of alternatives (if applicable)
Guarantee of privacy
Participation voluntary
Parental/guardian permission if subjects are legal minors
Whom to contact [include name and contact information for principal investigator & faculty supervisor (if applicable)]
Additional Elements of Informed Consent
Unforeseeable risks
Early termination
Additional costs to subjects
Consequences of a subject's decision to withdraw from study participation
Disclosing new findings that may impact a subject's willingness to continue participation
Number of subjects involved
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Generic Sample: Informed Consent Form
Institutional Review Boards (IRB)
• Reviewing proposed research
• Protecting participants, institution/organization, and researcher
IRB has authority to…
Approve the research.
Require modifications before approving the research.
Disapprove the research.
Table the research protocol until changes are made.
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Criteria for IRB Approval 1. Risks minimized
2. Risks reasonable relative to anticipated benefits and importance of knowledge to be gained
3. Subject selection equitable
4. Informed consent sought & properly documented
5. Data collection monitored to ensure safety
6. Protecting subject privacy
Common Mistakes to Avoid When
Submitting IRB Applications
Indicating that data is anonymous when it is actually confidential.
Stating that there are no risks involved in the activity. Even though the risks may be low, they need to be listed in the application.
Consent form, survey, and/or interview instruments are not attached for review.
Ethical Issues in Sponsored Research
• Third-party sponsors controlling release of collected data
• Researcher heavily modifies the study to examine matters not in the research agreement
• Revealing the sponsor’s identity as part of informed consent
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Ethical Challenges in Internet-Based Research
• “Public” and “private” as a continuum:oPublic
o Semipublic
o Semiprivate
oPrivate
• Important considerations:o Intrusiveness
oPerceived privacy
oVulnerability and harm
oConfidentiality and anonymity
