Chapter 1 Life Span Development

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DevelopmentalPsychology

Chapter 1


2/24he Life-Span Perspective

The Importance of Studying Life-Span

Development

Development is thepattern of change that begins at the

conception and continues through the life span.

Life-Span Perspective is the perspective that:

1. Development is Lifelong

2. Multidimensional

3. Multidirectional

4. Plastic

5. Multidisciplinary

6. Contextual

7. Involves growth, maintenance and regulation

8. Constructed through biological, sociocultural and individualfactors




Development

1. Development is Lifelong

No age period dominates development, early adulthood is not

the endpoint of development

2. Development is Multidimensional

Your relationships, your emotions and everything are changing

and affecting each other

Development consists of biological, cognitive and

socioemotional dimensions

3. Development is Multidrectional

Some components of a dimension shrink whilst others expand

Eg. During late adulthood, older adults might become wiser bybeing able to call on experiences to guide their intellectual

decision making, but they perform more poorly on tasks that

require speed in processing information

4. Development is Plastic

Plasticity means the capacity for change

Researches have found that the cognitive skills of older adults

can be improved through training and developing better

strategies, however, possibly, we possess less capacity for

change when we become old




Development

5. Development Science is Multidisciplinary

Cut across fields

6. Development is Contextual

All developments occur within a context or setting and these

settings are influenced by historical, economic, social, and

cultural factors

Contexts exert three types of influences:

1) Normative Age-graded influences

Similar for individuals in particular age groups (puberty

and menopause)

They also influence sociocultural, environmental

processes (beginning formal education and retirement) 2) Normative History-graded influences

Common to people of particular generation because of

historical circumstances (baby boomers)

Other influences: economic, political and social

upheavals

Long term changes in the genetic and cultural makeup ofa population (due to immigration or changes in fertility

rates)

3) Nonnormative or highly individualized life events

Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the

individuals life (natural disasters)




Development

7. Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation

of Loss

mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition

among 3 goals of human development: growth, maintenance

and regulation of loss (Baltes and his colleagues,2006)

Different goals take point at different point in life

8. Development is Co-Construction of Biology, Culture, and the

Individual

All three of those points work together

We can author a unique developmental path by actively

choosing from the environment the things that optimize our

lives (Rathunde & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006)



Some Contemporary Concerns

1. Health and Well-Being

Power of life-styles and psychological states in health and well-being is

recognized

2. Parenting and Education

Child care, effects of divorce, parenting styles, child maltreatment,

intergenerational relationships, early childhood education, bilingualeducation

3. Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity

Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a

particular group of people that are passed on from generation to

generation.

Can result from interaction of people over many years

Cross-Cultural Studies: compare aspects of two or more cultures

Ethnicity: rooted in cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and

language

Socioeconomic Status (SES) refers to persons position within society

based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics

Gender: research found that higher percentage of girls than boys

around the world have never had education

Social Policy: governments course of action designed to promote the

welfare of its citizens

The more years a child spent living in poverty, the more their

physiological indices of stress is elevated

Some children overcome this: RESILIENCE

Resilience (individual): good intellectual functioning, appealing,

sociable, easygoing, self confidence, high self-esteem, talents and

faith (p13)



Some Contemporary Concerns1. Health and Well-Being

Power of life-styles and psychological states in health and well-being is

recognized

2. Parenting and Education

Child care, effects of divorce, parenting styles, child maltreatment,

intergenerational relationships, early childhood education, bilingual

education

3. Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity

Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a

particular group of people that are passed on from generation to

generation.

Can result from interaction of people over many years

Cross-Cultural Studies: compare aspects of two or more cultures

Ethnicity: rooted in cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and

language

Socioeconomic Status (SES) refers to persons position within society

based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics

Gender: research found that higher percentage of girls than boys

around the world have never had education

Social Policy: governments course of action designed to promote the

welfare of its citizens

The more years a child spent living in poverty, the more their

physiological indices of stress is elevated

Some children overcome this: RESILIENCE

Resilience (individual): good intellectual functioning, appealing,

sociable, easygoing, self confidence, high self-esteem, talents and

faith (p13)



Biological, Cognitive and Socioemotional

Processes

1. Biological Processes

Produce changes in an individuals physical nature

2. Cognitive Processes

Refers to changes in the individuals thought, intelligence, and

language

3. Socioemotional Processes

Changes in individuals relationships with other people, changes in

emotions, and changes in personality

Connecting Biological Cognitive and Socioemotional Processes

Baby smiling in response to parents tough

- Physical nature of touch and responsiveness to it (Biological)

- Ability to understand intentional acts (Cognitive)

- Act of smiling that often reflects a positive emotional feeling and helps

to connect us in positive ways with others (Socioemotional)

- Developmental cognitive neuroscience explores links between

development, cognitive processes, and the brain

- Developmental social neuroscience examines connection between

socioemotional processes, development, and the brain



Periods of Development1. Prenatal Period

Conception to birth

involves tremendous growth

2. Infancy

18-24 months

Many psychological activities (language, symbolic thoughts, sensor motor

coordination, social learning)

3. Early Childhood

2-5 years old

Learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves

Develop school readiness skills and spend many hors in play with peers

4. Middle and Late Childhood

6-11 years old

Fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered

Child formally exposed to larger world and its culture

Achievement becomes a more central theme of the childs world and self-

control increases

5. Adolescence

10-21 years old

Rapid physical changes

Pursuit of independence and an identity are prominent

Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic

6. Early Adulthood

Early 20s to 30s

Establish personal and economic independence, career development and

selecting mate

7. Middle Adulthood

40s to 50s

Expand personal and social involvement and responsibility

8. Late Adulthood

60s to end

Time of review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles involving

decreasing strength and health

Longest span of any other period

Oldest-Old: average 85, where major changes happen

Young-Old: 65-84, have substantial potential for physical and cognitive

fitness



Periods of DevelopmentFour Ages

1. First Age: Childhood and Adolescence

2. Second Age: Prime Adulthood, 20s to 50s

3. Third Age: Approximately 60-79

Healthier and can lead more active, productive lives

4. Fourth Age: Approximately 80 years and older

Health and well-being declines

Connections Across Periods of Development

There are many connections between periods of human life span

How development in one period is connected to the development in another

period

Eg. If an adolescent girl becomes depressed, might her depression be linked to

development early in her life?



Significance of AgeAge and Happiness

Studies found that level of happiness increases with age

Despite the physical problems and losses older adult experience, they are more

content with what they have

They have better relationships with the people who matter to the

Less pressured to achieve and have more time for leisurely pursuits

Have many years of experiences to help them adapt to their circumstances

Baby Boomers reported being less happy than individuals born earlier, possibly

because they are not lowering their aspirations and idealistic hopes as they age

Conceptions of Age

Chronological age may not be relevant to understanding a persons

psychological development

1. Biological Age: persons age in terms of biological health (functional capacities

of persons vital organs)

2. Psychological Age: individuals adaptive capacities compared with those of other

individuals of the same chronological age

3. Studies showed that personality trait of conscientiousness predicted lower

mortality risk

4. Social Age: social roles and expectations related to persons age. Consider the

role of mother and behaviors that accompany the role



Developmental IssuesNature and Nuture

Whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nuture

Stability and Change

Involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early

experience (stability) or whether we develop into someone difference from who

we are at an earlier point in development (change)

Increasing age and on average older adults often show less capcity for change in

sense of learning new things than younger adults

Continuity and Discontinuity

The degree which development involves either gradual, cumulative change

(continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)

Is the development gradual or abrupt>

Evaluating the Developmental Issues

- How strongly development is influenced by each of these factors?

Scientific Method:

1. Conceptualize process/problem to be studied

2. Collect Research information

3. Analyze Data

4. Draw Conclusion

Theory is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and

make predictions

Hypotheses are specific assertions and predictions that can be tested



Psychoanalytic TheoriesPsychoanalytic Theories describes development as primarily unconscious and heavily

colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic and that a true

understanding of development requires analyzing the symbolic meanings of

behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind.

Freuds Theory

Oral (infants pleasure centers on the mouth), birth to 1.5 years

Anal (childs pleasure focuses on anus), 1.5 to 3 years

Phallic (childs pleasure focuses on the genitals), 3 to 6 years

Latency (child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual

skills), 6 to puberty

Genital (time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes

someone outside the family), puberty onward

*Freud may have overemphasized sexual instincts whilst other psychoanalytic

theorists place more emphasis on cultural experiences as determinant of

individuals development

Freud versus Erikson

Erikson Freud

We develop in psychosocial stages We develop in psychosexual stages

Primary motivation for human behavior is

social and reflects a desire to affiliate with

other people

Primary motivation for human behavior is

sexual in nature

Developmental change occurs throughout the

life span

Our basic personality is shaped in first 5 years

Emphasizes that both early and later

experiences are important

Views early experience as far more important

than later experiences



Psychoanalytic TheoriesEriksons Theory

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Experience in first year of life

Trust in infancy sets the stage of lifelong expectations

2. Autonomy vs. Shame

1-3 years old

Starts to assert their sense of independence or autonomy

Realizes their will and discover that they have their own behaviors

If restrained too much or punished too harshly, they will develop sense of shame

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Preschool years

Faces new challenges that require active, purposeful, responsible behavior

Feelings of guilt may arise if child is irresponsible and made to feel too anxious

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Elementary school years Direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills

Negative outcome is to feel inferior

5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion

Adolescent years

If they explore roles in healthy manners and arrive at positive path, they will achieve

positive identity, if not, confusions reigns

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Early adulthood

Form intimate relationships is healthy friendships and relationships are formed7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle Adulthood

Generativity: primarily a concern for helping the younger generation to develop and

lead useful lives

Feeling of having nothing done to help next generation: stagnation

8. Integrity vs. Despair

Late Adulthood

Person reflects on the past

Advantages Disadvantages

Emphasis on developmental

framework

family relationships

unconscious aspects of the mind

Lack of scientific support

Too much emphasis on sexual

underpinnings

Image of people too negative

Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories



Cognitive TheoriesPiagets Cognitive Developmental Theory

Children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct

their understanding of the world

1. Sensorimotor Stage

Birth to 2 years old

Constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory

experiences with physical motoric actions

2. Preoperational Stage

2-7 years old

Begins to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with physical

action and represent the world with words

Still lack the ability to perform what he calls operations

3. Concrete Operational Stage

7-11 years

Can perform operations involving objects

Reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete

examples

4. Formal Operational Stage

11-15 years old +

Think in abstract and more logical terms

Adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances

Being to entertain possibilities for the future and are fascinated with what

they can be

Become more systematic in solving problems

Vygotskys Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

Emphasizes on how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development

Childs development is inseparable from social and cultural activities

Childrens social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers is indispensable

to their cognitive development

Learn to use the tools that will help them adapt and be successful in their

culture



Cognitive TheoriesThe Information-Processing Theory

Individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it

Like Piagets and Vygotskys theory, information-processing theory does not

describe development as stage-like

Develops a gradual increase in capacity for processing information which allows

them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills


Positive view of development

Emphasis on the active

construction of understanding

Skepticism about the pureness of

Piagets stages

Too little attention to individual

variations

Evaluating Cognitive Theories



Behavioral and Social Cognitive TheoriesSkinners Operant Conditioning

Rewards and punishments shape development

Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought

about by rewards an punishment

Eg. Shy people learned to be shy as a result of experiences that they had while

growing up and modification in environment can help shy person become more

socially oriented

Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

Behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in the development

People cognitively represent the behavior of others and then sometimes adopt

this behavior themselves

Social Cognitive Model: (1) Behavior, (2) Person/Cognition, (3) Environment


Emphasis on scientific research

and environmental determinants

of behaviors

Too little emphasis on cognition

in Skinners view

Gives inadequate attention to

developmental changes

Evaluating Behavioral & Social Cognitive

Theories



Ethological TheoryEthologystresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution

and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods.

Famous European Zoologist: Konrad Lorenz helped bring ethology to prominence.

- Imprinting: the rapid, innate learning that involves attachment to the first

moving object seen.

John Bowlby illustrated the application of ethological theory to human development.

- Stressed that attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important

consequences throughout the life span


Focus on the biological and

evolutionary basis of

development

Use of careful observations in

natural settings

Too much emphasis on biological

foundations

Belief that the critical and

sensitive period concepts might

be too rigid

Evaluating Ethological Theory



Ecological TheoryBronfenbrenners Ecological Theory

Development reflects the influence of several environmental systems

1. Microsystem

Setting in which individual lives

Individual is not a passive recipient of experiences in these settings, but

someone who helps to construct the settings

Family, school, peers, health services

2. Mesosystem

Relations between microsystems or connection between contexts

Eg. Relation of family experiences to school experiences

3. Exsosystem

Links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an

active role and the individuals immediate context

Neighbors, friends of family, mass media, social welfare services

Eg. Mother might receive promotion that requires more travel increase

conflict with husband change patterns of interactions with child

4. Macrosystem

Culture in which individuals live

5. Chronosystem

Patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course as

well as sociohistorical circumstances

Eg. Divorce: negative effects of divorce on children often peak in the first

year after the divorce


Include systematic examination

of macro and micro dimensions

of environmental systems

Attention to connections

between environmental systems

Emphasis on range of social

contexts beyond the family

Inadequate attention to biological

factors

Too little emphasis on cognitive

factors

Evaluating Ecological Theory



An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

No single theory can describe the complexity of life-span

development by itself.

Psychoanalytic theory best explains the unconscious mind

Eriksons theory best describes the changes that occur in adult

development

Piagets, Vygotskys and Information-processing theory provides

the most complete description of cognitive development

Behavioral, social cognitive and ecological theories have been

the most adept at examining the environmental determinants of

development

Ethological theories have highlighted biologys role and the

importance of sensitive periods in development


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DevelopmentalPsychology

Chapter 1A: Research

Methods



Methods for Data Collection

Observation:

Laboratory vs natural setting

Survey & Interview:

Obtain peoples self-reported attitudes and beliefs

Standardized Tests:

Uniformed procedures for administration and scoring

Case Study:

In-depth look at a single individual

Physiological Measure:

Neuroimaging, fMRI



Research Designs

Descriptive Research

Aims to observe and record behavior

Cant prove what causes some phenomena, but it can reveal

important information about peoples behavior

Correlational Research

Provides information that will help us to predict how people will

behave

Describes the strength of the relationship between two or more

events or characteristics

Does not mean causation

Experimental Research

Studies causalityIndependent vs dependent variable

Independent (manipulated, influenced, experimental factor)

Dependent (resulting effect)


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Time Span of Research

Cross-Sectional Approach

Simultaneously compares individuals of different ages

Researches does not have to wait for individuals to grow upBut gives no information about how individuals change or about the stability of

their characteristics

Longitudinal Approach

Same individuals studied over a period of time

Provide wealth of information about vital issue

Cohort Effects

Cohort effects are due to a persons time of birth, era, or generation but not actual

age

Conducting Ethical Research

1. Informed Consent2. Confidentiality

3. Debriefing

4. Deception

Minimize:

- Gender Bias

- Cultural and Ethnic Bias

Documents

Chapter 1 Life Span Development