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Chapter 7Lecture

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7.1: Introduction

• Human skeleton initially cartilages and fibrous membranes

• Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage

• By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened

• 206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body mass)

• 80 bones of the axial skeleton• 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton

3

Bone Classification

• Bone Classification:

• Long Bones• Short Bones• Sesamoid Bones• Flat Bones• Irregular Bones• Wormian Bones (sutural)

(a) (e)

(b)

(c)

(d)


4

Parts of a Long Bone• Epiphysis

• Distal• Proximal

• Diaphysis• Metaphysis• Compact bone• Spongy bone• Articular cartilage• Periosteum• Endosteum• Medullary cavity• Trabeculae• Bone marrow

• Red marrow and yellow marrow

Femur

Periosteum

Yellow marrow

Medullary cavity

Space containingred marrow

Spongy bone

Compact bone

Articular cartilage

Epiphyseal plates

Proximalepiphysis

Distalepiphysis

Diaphysis

Endosteum


5

Microscopic Structure

• Bone cells are called osteocytes• in a lacuna

• Osteocytes transport nutrients and wastes by cellular processes in canaliculi• The extracellular matrix of bone is largely collagen and inorganic salts

• Collagen gives bone resilience & strength• Inorganic salts make bone hard

6

Compact Bone

• Osteonaka Haversian System• Central canal• Perforating canal aka Volkmann’s canal• Osteocytes• Lamellae• Lacunae• Bone matrix• Canaliculi

Nerve

Osteon

Nerve

Nerve

Canaliculus

Osteocyte

Periosteum

Endosteum

Trabeculae

Pores

Bone matrix

Bloodvessels

Spongybone

Compac

t

bone

Compactbone

Lacuna(space)

Bloodvessels

Perforatingcanal

Central canalcontaining bloodvessels and nerves

Centralcanal


7

Spongy Bone• Spongy bone is aka cancellous bone

(a)

(c)

Spongy bone Compact bone

(b)

Spongybone

Compactbone

Remnant ofepiphyseal plate

Spongybone

Compactbone


a: © Ed Reschke; b,c: Courtesy of John W. Hole, Jr.

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7.3: Bone Development and Growth

• Parts of the skeletal system begin to develop during the first few weeks of prenatal development

• Bones replace existing connective tissue in one of two ways:

• As intramembranous bones• As endchondral bones

9

Intramembranous Bones

• Intramembranous Bones• These bones originate within sheetlike layers of connective tissues• They are the broad, flat bones

• Skull bones (except mandible)• Are known as intramembranous bones

10

Endochondral Bones

• Endochondral Bones• Bones begin as hyaline cartilage

• Form models for future bones• These are most bones of the skeleton• Are known as endochondral bones

11

Endochondral Ossification• Hyaline cartilage model• Primary ossification center• Secondary ossification centers

• Epiphyseal plate• Osteoblasts vs. osteoclasts

(b) (c) (d) (e) (f)(a)

Cartilaginousmodel

Calcifiedcartilage

Articularcartilage

Developingperiosteum

Compact bonedeveloping

Primaryossificationcenter

Medullarycavity

Medullarycavity

Medullarycavity

Secondaryossificationcenter

Secondaryossificationcenter

Bloodvessel

Epiphysealplate

Remnant ofepiphysealplate

Remnants ofepiphysealplates

Epiphysealplates

Compactbone

Spongybone

Articularcartilage

Spongybone


12

Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate

• First layer of cells• Closest to the end of epiphysis• Resting cells• Anchors epiphyseal plate to epiphysis• Zone of resting cartilage

• Second layer of cells• Many rows of young cells• Undergoing mitosis• zone of proliferating cartilage

1

2

3

4

(a) (b)

Bone tissueof epiphysis

Zone ofrestingcartilage

Zone ofproliferatingcartilage

Zone ofhypertrophiccartilage

Zone ofcalcifiedcartilage

Ossifiedbone ofdiaphysis


b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer

13

Growth at the Epiphyseal Plate

• Third layer of cells• Older cells• Left behind when new cells appear• Cells enlarging and becoming calcified• zone of hypertrophic cartilage

• Fourth layer of cells• Thin• Dead cells• Calcified extracellular matrix• zone of calcified cartilage

1

2

3

4

(a) (b)

Bone tissueof epiphysis

Zone ofrestingcartilage

Zone ofproliferatingcartilage

Zone ofhypertrophiccartilage

Zone ofcalcifiedcartilage

Ossifiedbone ofdiaphysis


b: © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer

14

Homeostasis of Bone Tissue

• Bone Resorption – action of osteoclasts and parathyroid hormone aka parathormone aka PTH• Bone Deposition – action of osteoblasts and calcitonin• Occurs by direction of the thyroid and parathyroid glands


© Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Developingmedullarycavity

Osteoclast

15

Factors Affecting Bone Development, Growth and Repair

• Deficiency of Vitamin A – retards bone development• Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile bones • Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets, osteomalacia• Insufficient Growth Hormone – dwarfism• Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism, acromegaly • Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth• Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate ossification of epiphyseal plates• Physical Stress – stimulates bone growth

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Animation:Bone Growth in Width

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7.4: Bone Function

• Bones shape, support, and protect body structures

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Support, Protection, and Movement

• Support, Movement & Protection• Gives shape to head, etc.• Supports body’s weight• Protects lungs, etc.• Bones and muscles interact • When limbs or body parts move

19

Blood Cell Formation

• Blood Cell Formation• Also known as hematopoiesis• Occurs in the red bone marrow

20

Inorganic Salt Storage

• Inorganic Salt Storage• Calcium • Phosphate• Magnesium• Sodium• Potassium

21

7.5: Skeletal Organization

• The actual number of bones in the human skeleton varies from person to person

• Typically there are about 206 bones

• For convenience the skeleton is divided into the:• Axial skeleton• Appendicular skeleton

22

Divisions of the Skeleton

• Axial Skeleton• Skull • Spine • Rib cage

• Appendicular Skeleton• Upper limbs• Lower limbs• Shoulder girdle• Pelvic girdle

Hyoid

Cranium

Face

Clavicle

Scapula

Sternum

Ribs

Humerus

Ulna

Hipbone

Radius

Femur

Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals

Metatarsals

Phalanges

Phalanges

Skull

Vertebralcolumn

Vertebralcolumn

Sacrum

Coccyx

Carpals

Metacarpals

(a) (b)


23

7.6: Skull

• Is composed of the cranium (brain case) and the facial bones

24

Cranium

• Frontal Bone (1)• Forehead• Roof of nasal cavity• Roofs of orbits• Frontal sinuses• Supraorbital foramen• Coronal suture

Parietal bone

Frontal bone

Coronal suture

Lacrimal bone

Ethmoid bone

Squamous suture

Sphenoid bone

Temporal bone

Perpendicular plateof the ethmoid bone

Infraorbital foramen

Vomer bone

Mandible

Supraorbital foramen

Nasal bone

Sphenoid bone

Middle nasal conchaof the ethmoid bone

Inferior nasal concha

Maxilla

Mental foramen

Zygomatic bone


25

Cranium

• Parietal Bones (2)• Side walls of cranium• Roof of cranium• Sagittal suture

Coronal suture

Frontal bone

Sphenoid bone

Ethmoid bone

Lacrimal bone

Nasal bone

Zygomatic bone

Maxilla

Mental foramen

Mandible

Coronoid process

Styloid process

Mandibular condyle

Mastoid process

External acoustic meatus Temporal processof zygomatic bone

Zygomatic processof temporal bone

Occipital bone

Temporal bone

Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture

Squamous suture


26

Cranium

• Occipital Bone (1)• Back of skull• Base of cranium• Foramen magnum• Occipital condyles• Lambdoidal suture

Zygomatic bone

Palatine process of maxilla

Palatine bone

Occipital bone

Foramen magnum

Lambdoid suture

Zygomatic arch

Mandibular fossa

Styloid process

Occipital condyle

External acoustic meatus

Sphenoid bone

Vomer bone

Temporal bone

Mastoid foramen

Frontal boneMedian palatine suture

Incisive foramen

Greater palatine foramen

Stylomastoid foramen

Foramen spinosum

Carotid canalJugular foramen

Foramen ovale

Foramen lacerum

Condylar canal


27

Cranium

• Temporal Bones (2)• Side walls of cranium• Floor of cranium• Floors and sides of orbits• Squamous suture• External acoustic meatus• Mandibular fossa• Mastoid process• Styloid process• Zygomatic process

Coronal suture

Frontal bone

Sphenoid bone

Ethmoid bone

Lacrimal bone

Nasal bone

Zygomatic bone

Maxilla

Mental foramen

Mandible

Coronoid process

Styloid process

Mandibular condyle

Mastoid process



Occipital bone

Temporal bone

Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture

Squamous suture


28

Cranium

• Sphenoid Bone (1)• Base of cranium• Sides of skull• Floors and sides of orbits• Sella turcica• Sphenoid sinuses

Transverse section

Lesser wingOptic canal

Greaterwing

Sella turcica Foramen ovale

Foramen spinosumForamen rotundum

Lesser wing

Greater wing

Superiororbital fissure

Foramenrotundum

Lateral pterygoid plate

Medial pterygoid plate(b)

(a)

29

Cranium

• Ethmoid Bone (1)• Roof and walls of nasal cavity• Floor of cranium• Wall of orbits• Cribiform plates• Perpendicular plate• Superior and middle nasal conchae• Ethmoid sinuses• Crista galli

Transverse section

Crista galli

Orbitalsurface

Ethmoidalsinuses

Cribriformplate

Crista galli

Perpendicularplate

Superiornasal concha

Middle nasalconcha

Perpendicularplate

(a) (b)

30

Facial Skeleton

• Maxillary Bones (2)• Upper jaw• Anterior roof of mouth• Floors of orbits• Sides of nasal cavity• Floors of nasal cavity• Alveolar processes• Maxillary sinuses• Palatine process

Coronal suture

Frontal bone

Sphenoid bone

Ethmoid bone

Lacrimal bone

Nasal bone

Zygomatic bone

Maxilla

Mental foramen

Mandible

Coronoid process

Styloid process

Mandibular condyle

Mastoid process



Occipital bone

Temporal bone

Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture

Squamous suture


31

Facial Skeleton

Frontal sinus

Ethmoidal sinuses

Sphenoidal sinus

Maxillary sinus


32

Facial Skeleton

• Palatine Bones (2)• ‘L’ shaped bones located behind the maxillae• Posterior section of hard palate• Floor of nasal cavity• Lateral walls of nasal cavity

Coronal section

Horizontal portion

Perpendicularportion


33

Facial Skeleton

• Zygomatic Bones (2)• Prominences of cheeks• Lateral walls of orbits• Floors of orbits• Temporal process

Coronal suture

Frontal bone

Sphenoid bone

Ethmoid bone

Lacrimal bone

Nasal bone

Zygomatic bone

Maxilla

Mental foramen

Mandible

Coronoid process

Styloid process

Mandibular condyle

Mastoid process



Occipital bone

Temporal bone

Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture

Squamous suture


34

Facial Skeleton

• Lacrimal Bones (2)• Medial walls of orbits• Groove from orbit to nasal cavity

• Nasal Bones (2)• Bridge of nose

Coronal suture

Frontal bone

Sphenoid bone

Ethmoid bone

Lacrimal bone

Nasal bone

Zygomatic bone

Maxilla

Mental foramen

Mandible

Coronoid process

Styloid process

Mandibular condyle

Mastoid process



Occipital bone

Temporal bone

Parietal bone

Lambdoid suture

Squamous suture


35

Facial Skeleton

• Vomer Bone (1)• Inferior portion of nasal septum


Coronal suture

Frontal bone

Nasal bone

Palatine bone

Vomer bone

Alveolar processes


Maxilla

Palatine processof maxilla

Styloid process

Sphenoidal sinus

Mandible

Perpendicular plate(nasal septum)

Frontal sinus

Crista galli

Cribriform plate

Foramen magnum

Jugular foramen

Internal acoustic meatus

Sella turcica

Occipital bone

Parietal bone

Temporal bone

Lambdoid suture

Squamous sutureSphenoid bone

Hypoglossal canal

Mastoid process

Ethmoidbone

36

Facial Skeleton

• Inferior Nasal Conchae (2)• Extend from lateral walls of nasal cavity


Coronal suture

Frontal bone

Nasal bone

Palatine bone

Vomer bone

Alveolar processes


Maxilla

Palatine processof maxilla

Styloid process

Sphenoidal sinus

Mandible

Perpendicular plate(nasal septum)

Frontal sinus

Crista galli

Cribriform plate

Foramen magnum

Jugular foramen

Internal acoustic meatus

Sella turcica

Occipital bone

Parietal bone

Temporal bone

Lambdoid suture

Squamous sutureSphenoid bone

Hypoglossal canal

Mastoid process

Ethmoidbone

37

Facial Skeleton

• Mandible Bone (1)• Lower jaw• Body• Ramus• Mandibular condyle• Coronoid process• Alveolar process• Mandibular foramen• Mental foramen

Coronoidprocess

Mandibularforamen Mandibular condyle

Ramus

Alveolarborder

Mental foramen

Body

Body Alveolararch

Mandibularforamen

Coronoid process

(a)(b)


38

Infantile Skull

• Fontanels – fibrous membranes

(b)

Anterior fontanel

Posterior fontanel

Frontal bone

Frontal suture(metopic suture)

Sagittal suture


39

7.7: Vertebral Column

• The vertebral column, or spinal column, consists of many vertebrae separated by cartilaginous intervertebral discs.

40

Vertebral Column

• Cervical vertebrae (7)• Thoracic vertebrae (12)• Lumbar vertebrae (5)• Sacral (4-5 fused segments)

• Sacrum is fused bone• Coccygeal (3-4 fused segments)

• Coccyx is fused bone

(b)(a)

Cervicalcurvature

Thoraciccurvature

Lumbarcurvature

Lumbarvertebrae

Thoracicvertebrae

Cervicalvertebrae

Sacralcurvature

Vertebraprominens

Rib facet

Intervertebral

Intervertebralforamina

Sacrum

Coccyx


41

Vertebral Column

• Cervical curvature• Thoracic curvature• Lumbar curvature• Sacral curvature• Rib facets• Vertebral prominens• Intervertebral discs (IVD)• Intervertebral foramina (IVF)

(b)(a)

Cervicalcurvature

Thoraciccurvature

Lumbarcurvature

Lumbarvertebrae

Thoracicvertebrae

Cervicalvertebrae

Sacralcurvature

Vertebraprominens

Rib facet

Intervertebral

Intervertebralforamina

Sacrum

Coccyx


42

Typical Vertebrae

• Includes the following parts:• Vertebral body• Pedicles• Lamina• Spinous process• Transverse processes• Vertebral foramen• Facets

43

Cervical Vertebrae

• Atlas – 1st; supports head• Axis – 2nd; dens pivots to turn head• Transverse foramina• Bifid spinous processes• Vertebral prominens – useful landmark

(b) (c)

(a)

Anterior

Posterior

Atlas

Axis

Body

Dens (odontoidprocess)

Spinous processDens

Inferior articularprocess

Facet that articulateswith dens (odontoid process)of axis

Facet that articulateswith occipital condyle

Spinousprocess

Anterior articularfacet for atlas

Transverseforamen

Transverseprocess

Superiorarticular facet

Vertebralforamen

Transverseprocess

Transverseforamen


44

Thoracic Vertebrae

BodySuperiorarticularprocess

Spinousprocess

Transverseprocess


Intervertebraldisc

Anterior

Posterior

Body

Pedicle

Vertebral foramen

Superior articular process

Facet for tubercle of rib

Transverse process

Lamina

Spinous process


Intervertebral notchBody

Pedicle

Superiorarticularprocess

Transverseprocess

Facet fortubercle of rib

Spinousprocess

(a)

(c)

(b)

• Long spinous processes• Rib facets


45

Lumbar Vertebrae

• Large bodies• Thick, short spinous processes

(c) Lumbar vertebra

Lamina

Pedicle

Body

Vertebral foramen

Spinous process

Superior articularprocess

Transverse process


46

Sacrum

• 4-5 fused segments• Median sacral crest• Posterior sacral foramina• Posterior wall of pelvic cavity• Sacral promontory aka base• Area toward coccyx is the apex

Sacral canal

Tubercleof mediansacral crest

Auricularsurface

Posterior sacralforamen

Sacral hiatus

Coccyx

Sacrum

Superior articular processSacral promontory

Anterior sacralforamen

(a) (b)


47

Coccyx

• Aka tailbone• 3-4 fused segments

Sacral canal

Tubercleof mediansacral crest

Auricularsurface

Posterior sacralforamen

Sacral hiatus

Coccyx

Sacrum

Superior articular processSacral promontory

Anterior sacralforamen

(a) (b)


48

7.8: Thoracic Cage

• The thoracic cage includes the ribs, the thoracic vertebrae, the sternum, and the costal cartilages that attach the ribs to the sternum.

49

Thoracic Cage

• Ribs (12)• Sternum• Thoracic vertebrae (12)• Costal cartilages• Supports shoulder girdleand upper limbs• Protects viscera• Role in breathing

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

True ribs(vertebrosternalribs)

VertebrochondralribsFalse

ribs

(a)

Floating ribs(vertebral ribs)

SternumBody

Manubrium

Ribs

Costalcartilage

Xiphoid process

Thoracic vertebra

Clavicular notch

Sternal angle

Jugular notch(suprasternal notch)

(b)b: © Victor B. Eichler, PhD


50

Ribs

• Humans have 12 pairs of ribs:• True ribs (7)• False ribs (5), of which:

• Floating (2)

• There are some anomalies:• Cervical ribs• Lumbar ribs

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12



ribs

(a)


SternumBody

Manubrium

Ribs

Costalcartilage

Xiphoid process

Thoracic vertebra

Clavicular notch

Sternal angle




51

Rib Structure

• Shaft• Head – posterior end; articulates with vertebrae• Tubercle – articulates with vertebrae• Costal cartilage – hyaline cartilage

Anterior end(sternal end)

Shaft

Facet

Head

Neck

Tubercle

Facet

Spinous process

Costal groove

ShaftAnterior end

Head

Tubercle

Neck

(a)

(b)


52

Sternum

• Three (3) parts of the sternum:

• Manubrium• Body• Xiphoid process

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12



ribs

(a)


SternumBody

Manubrium

Ribs

Costalcartilage

Xiphoid process

Thoracic vertebra

Clavicular notch

Sternal angle




53

7.9: Pectoral Girdle

• Also known as the shoulder girdle • Clavicles• Scapulae• Supports upper limbs• True shoulder joint is simply the articulation of the humerus and scapula

Sternum

CostalcartilageRibScapula

Humerus

Ulna

Radius

Clavicle

(a)

Coracoidprocess

Head ofhumerus

Acromionprocess

Acromial endSternal end


54

Clavicles

• Articulate with manubrium• Articulate with scapulae (acromion process)• A-C joint

Sternum

CostalcartilageRibScapula

Humerus

Ulna

Radius

Clavicle

(a)

Coracoidprocess

Head ofhumerus

Acromionprocess

Acromial endSternal end



Acromionprocess

Coracoidprocess

Spine

Glenoidcavity

Suprascapularnotch

Superiorborder

Supra-glenoidtubercle

Infra-glenoidtubercle

Coracoidprocess

Acromionprocess

Supraspinousfossa

Infraspinousfossa

Glenoidcavity

Lateral(axillary) border

Subscapularfossa

Medial(vertebral)border

(a) (b) (c) 55

Scapulae• Spine• Supraspinous fossa• Infraspinous fossa

• Acromion process• Coracoid process• Glenoid fossa or cavity

56

7.10: Upper Limb

• Humerus• Radius• Ulna(Interosseous membrane)• Carpals• Metacarpals• Phalanges

Olecranonprocess

Head of radius

Neck of radiusUlna

Olecranonfossa

Carpals

Metacarpals

Phalanges

Humerus

Humerus

Ulna

Ulna

Radius

(c)

(d)(a) Hand (palm anterior) (b) Hand (palm posterior)


d: © Martin Rotker

57

Humerus

• Head• Greater tubercle• Lesser tubercle• Anatomical neck• Surgical neck• Deltoid tuberosity• Capitulum• Trochlea• Coronoid fossa• Olecranon fossa

CapitulumTrochlea

Deltoid tuberosity

Head

Lesser tubercle

Greater tubercle Greater tubercle

(a) (b)

Lateralepicondyle

Coronoidfossa

Intertuberculargroove

Medialepicondyle

Olecranonfossa

Anatomicalneck

Surgicalneck

Lateralepicondyle


58

Radius

• Lateral forearm bone• Head• Radial tuberosity• Styloid process

Styloid process Ulnar notch of radius

Styloid process

Head of ulna

Ulna

Radius

Radial tuberosity

Head of radius

Coronoid process

Trochlear notch Olecranonprocess

(b)

(a)

Olecranonprocess

Trochlearnotch

CoronoidprocessRadialnotch


59

Ulna

• Medial forearm bone• Trochlear notch• Olecranon process• Coronoid process• Styloid process

Styloid process Ulnar notch of radius

Styloid process

Head of ulna

Ulna

Radius

Radial tuberosity

Head of radius

Coronoid process

Trochlear notch Olecranonprocess

(b)

(a)

Olecranonprocess

Trochlearnotch

CoronoidprocessRadialnotch


60

Wrist and Hand

• Carpal Bones (16 total bones)• Scaphoid• Lunate• Triquetral• Pisiform• Hamate• Capitate• Trapezoid• Trapezium

• Metacarpal Bones (10)

• Phalangeal Bones (28)• Proximal phalanx• Middle phalanx• Distal phalanx

TrapeziumTrapezoid

CapitateScaphoid

Trapezium

(a) (b)

Trapezoid

CapitateScaphoid Ulna

Radius

LunateHamateTriquetrum

Pisiform

Phalanges

55 44 3322

11

Distalphalanx

Middlephalanx

Proximalphalanx

Metacarpals(metacarpus)

Carpals(carpus)


61

7.11: Pelvic Girdle

• Coxal Bones (2)• Supports trunk of body• Protects viscera• Forms pelvic cavity

Sacrum

Sacral promontory

Sacroiliac joint

Acetabulum

Pubis

Symphysispubis

(a)

Pubic arch

IschiumPubic tubercle

Ilium

Obturator foramen

Ischium

Coccyx

Sacral hiatus

Sacrum

(b)

Ilium

Sacral canal

Pubis


(c)c: © Martin Rotker

62

Hip Bones

• Also known as the coxae:• Acetabulum • There are three (3) bones:

1. Ilium• Iliac crest• Iliac spines• Greater sciatic notch

2. Ischium• Ischial spines• Lesser sciatic notch• Ischial tuberosity

3. Pubis• Obturator foramen• Symphysis pubis• Pubic arch

Iliac crest

Iliac crestIliac fossa

IliumIlium

Ischium

IschiumPubis

Pubis

Ischial spineObturator foramen

Acetabulum

Pubic crest

Pubic tubercle

(b)(a)


Anteriorsuperioriliac spine

Anteriorinferioriliac spine

Posteriorsuperioriliac spine

Posteriorinferioriliac spine

Greatersciatic notch

Lessersciatic notch

Ischialtuberosity

Obturatorforamen

63

Greater and Lesser Pelves

• Greater Pelvis• Lumbar vertebrae posteriorly• Iliac bones laterally• Abdominal wall anteriorly

• Lesser Pelvis• Sacrum and coccyx posteriorly• Lower ilium, ischium, and pubic bones laterally and anteriorly

Sacral promontory

Flared ilium

Pelvic brim

Symphysis pubis

Pubic arch

Pubic arch

(a) Female pelvis

(b) Male pelvis

Sacral promontory

Sacral curvature


64

Differences Between Male Female Pelves

• Female pelvis• Iliac bones more flared• Broader hips• Pubic arch angle greater• More distance between ischial spines and ischial tuberosities• Sacral curvature shorter and flatter• Lighter bones• Why?

Sacral promontory

Flared ilium

Pelvic brim

Symphysis pubis

Pubic arch

Pubic arch

(a) Female pelvis

(b) Male pelvis

Sacral promontory

Sacral curvature


65

7.12: Lower Limb

• Femur• Patella• Tibia• Fibula• Tarsals• Metatarsals• Phalanges

Metatarsals

Fibula

Tibia

Tibia

Patella

Femur

Fibula

(c) Lateral view

Fibula

Tibia

Lateralcondyle

(d) Posterior view

(b)

Medialcondyle

Femur

Tarsals

Phalanges

Femur

Patella


66

Femur

• Longest bone of body• Head• Fovea capitis• Neck• Greater trochanter• Lesser trochanter• Linea aspera• Condyles• Epicondyles

Neck Head

Fovea capitis

(a) (b)


Lateralcondyle

Medialcondyle

Intercondylarfossa

Medialepicondyle

Patellarsurface

Lateralepicondyle

Greatertrochanter Gluteal

tuberosity

Lessertrochanter

Lineaaspera

67

Patella

• Aka kneecap• Anterior surface of the knee joint• Flat sesamoid bone located in the quadriceps tendon

Metatarsals

Fibula

Tibia

Tibia

Patella

Femur

Fibula

(c) Lateral view

Fibula

Tibia

Lateralcondyle

(d) Posterior view

(b)

Medialcondyle

Femur

Tarsals

Phalanges

Femur

Patella


68

Tibia

• Aka shin bone• Medial to fibula• Condyles• Tibial tuberosity• Anterior crest• Makes the medial malleolus

Tibia

Fibula

Medialmalleolus

Tibialtuberosity

Anteriorcrest

Medialcondyle

Intercondylareminence

Lateralmalleolus

Lateralcondyle

Head offibula


69

Fibula

• Lateral to tibia• Long, slender• Head• Makes the lateral malleolus• Non-weight bearing

Tibia

Fibula

Medialmalleolus

Tibialtuberosity

Anteriorcrest

Medialcondyle

Intercondylareminence

Lateralmalleolus

Lateralcondyle

Head offibula


70

Foot

• Tarsal Bones (14)• Calcaneus• Talus• Navicular• Cuboid• Lateral (3rd) cuneiform• Intermediate (2nd) cuneiform• Medial (1st) cuneiform

• Metatarsal Bones (10)

• Phalanges (28)• Proximal• Middle• Distal

(b)

Tibia

Fibula

Talus

Navicular

Phalanges

Calcaneus


Medialcuneiform

Metatarsals(metatarsus)

Tarsals(tarsus)

Calcanealtuberosity

71

Foot

Calcaneus

Talus

Navicular

Cuboid

Lateral cuneiform

Intermediate cuneiformMedial cuneiform

Proximal phalanx

Middle phalanx

Distal phalanx Phalanges

Metatarsals(metatarsus)

Tarsals(tarsus)

54

32 1

(a)


72

7.13: Lifespan Changes

• Decrease in height at about age 30• Calcium levels fall• Bones become brittle• Osteoclasts outnumber osteoblasts• Spongy bone weakens before compact bone• Bone loss rapid in menopausal women• Hip fractures common• Vertebral compression fractures common

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Animation:Osteoporosis

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Chapt07 holes lecture_animation