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7/31/2019 Changing Paradigms Quickly: Reforms in Worldview during the Reformation Period
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DeLancett, Heather
2003
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Changing Paradigms Quickly:
The Reform of Worldview in the Reformation Period
The Reformation period was a cataclysmic stage of history filled with stress, violence and great
anxiety. The most exemplified parts of this period fit into the realm of the Reformation Period
of Christian History, and even these pieces which focus on the changing religious attitudes and
religious protest movements of the time are most accurately described in the plural, as
reformations. The traumatic change in religious attitudes, in hindsight, may be viewed as a
major cultural reaction or backlash as society sought to adjust from the medieval ideals of
tradition and authority to a new set of Humanistic ideals introduced by the Renaissance. This
adjustment, of reformation of worldview, while being the most visible in the religious arena, wasalso culminating in other areas of contemplative inquiry. These challenges to the medieval
paradigm and the traditional way of explaining things, as well as questions regarding the ideals
of human purpose, were abundant in the time leading up to the Reformation period, and flowed
in constant onslaught throughout.
In many cases, it seems that the Reformation period was the crux in history between the ancient
and medieval world and our current relative post-modernity. Undeniably, it is the point where
the world got a lot bigger in a myriad of ways. As the medieval focus on the heavenly hereafter
shifted to matters more terrestrial, people started looking around them with a new confidence
inspired by the ideal that life on earth mattered also. In particular, three areas of growth in
human knowledge well personify the magnitude of the changes in worldview taking place
during the Reformation. It is not my purpose to disregard the immense impact of the protests
directed at the Church, and the various reformations and breaks that occurred within the
religious attitudes and practices during the period. It is my intention to broaden the horizon of
our understanding of the Reformation Period by showing some of the other areas in which
reformations were also taking place, specifically in geography, social criticism in art, and
astronomy.
Enough for us that the hidden half of the globe is brought to light, and the
Portuguese daily go farther and farther beyond the equator. Thus shores unknown
will soon become accessible; for one in emulation of another sets forth in laboursand mighty perils. Peter Martyr (1493)
Common misconceptions abound regarding the journeys of Christopher Columbus and his
discovery of the Americas. This explorer, Columbus, did not need to revolutionize the masses
with ideas of a spherical earth, nor did he fight the Church much about the hermeneutics of
Biblical geography. The spherical nature of the earth was a commonly accepted belief by most
educated people of the 15th CE, thought it was not known that the earth revolved on its axis.
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Despite the lack of knowledge of the latter, through the contributions of Arabic astronomers
and navigators, the circumference of the globe had been calculated to a nearly exact degree
(Odell- Geographical Background of the First Voyage of Columbus). Columbus, a strong
Christian, had ready access to many of the translated Arabic texts housed in the great libraries,
the flowers of Spains brilliant Muslim-Christian-Jewish culture but seems to have purposefully
chosen to ignore some contemporary calculations in favor of the inaccurate traditional
estimates of Ptolemy (Vincent-Barwood, Columbus: What If?). Perhaps it was Columbus
reliance on faulty antiquity that encouraged funding for the expedition and optimism for the
supposed short duration of the mission intended to sail west and establish a new trade route to
the West Indies.
The landmasses that Columbus discovered in his four expeditions westward were never referred
to as the New World during his lifetime. Columbus was looking for the West Indies and the
shores of Asia, and convinced himself that he had found them, all the while exploring Jamaica,
Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles and Cuba and setting up the first permanent European
settlement in the New World (Boorstin, 239). Though Columbus did not accept his discoveriesas being anything but the Orient which he had sought, within a month after he had returned
from his first voyage and written a letter to his patrons describing his findings, Rome was privy
to the possible implications. On May 3rd of 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued a papal bull
regarding the newly discovered and unchristian lands, mapping out authority of ownership to
Spain, (Borgias bribing patrons), in vague demarcations that would allow for even more new
lands near the West Indies to be discovered under her flag (Boorstin, 248).
The New World would come to be named America after the Florentine Amerigo Vespucci. In
1501, Vespucci repeated Columbus voyage and reported what he found there to his friend and
patron Lorenzo de Medici. Soon he had been commissioned as pilot major of Spain, a
position that he held until his death of malaria (contracted on a voyage to the New World) in1512 (Boorstin, 251). An obscure clergyman, Martin Waldseemuller, made the christening of the
New World naming it America due to reports that Amerigo Vespucci had discovered a new
land. Waldseemuller had a printing press at his disposal and a love of geography, leading him
to publish a new text Cosmographiaein 1507 that included a new mapping with the fourth
continent making an appearance and named America. This first book was so popular that
another edition was published four months later (Boorstin, 253). By the time Waldseemuller had
realized his mistake in crediting the discovery of America to Vespucci, the misinformation had
already been so far disseminated that it could not be stopped (Boorstin, 253).
The newly developed power of the printing press had another great contribution to the rising
Reformation Period. The 15th century had been a major turning point in the development of art
as a social message, and as the 16thcentury began, the artists role broadened greatly into the
realm of social critic (Shikes, 4, 10). The Reformation invoked many artists in northern Europe to
provide a new type of commentary to the illiterate, and create caustic images to accompany the
texts to reform protests, such as Martin Luthers pamphlets (Shikes, 10, 14). Many artists, swept
up in the struggle of the Protestant Reformation against the established church and papacy,
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were in effect attacking an important aspect of society itself, rather than engaging only in a
purely religious quarrel. The Catholic Church and the papacy werethe social order (Shikes, 13).
Besides the deep desire to reform the Church and the papal indulgences, there were other
conditions woven into the new social criticism of art. Major issues focused on were the misery
and horrible living conditions of the peasants and working class, and the root causes underlyingcivil, national and religious wars generally owing to the greed of the Church and the abusive
national rulers (Shikes, 10). During these early years of printmaking, the easily mass-produced
black and white print, (made with woodblock engravings or an etching upon a metal plate), was
the artists main means of self-expression because painting was generally done on commission
by the church or wealthy patrons (Shikes, xxiv). Efforts by the Church to stop the flow of anti-
propaganda were made in 1521 at the Edict of Worms. The Diets of Nuremburg of 1524 and
Augsburg in 1530 sought to strengthen these new censorship laws with little success (Shikes,
15). These efforts of censorship were met with increasingly brutal and mocking images, such as
Lucas Cranach the Elders series of woodcuts. Cranach certainly upped the ante on artistic self-
expression with On the Origin and Arrival of the Antichrist, (which he designed to accompanyLuthers Abbildung des Papstum), which illustrates the origins of the Pope as spawned by a
female demon and wearing a triple crown, being nurtured by various agents of the devil
(Shikes, 15).
Not everyone at the time was so eager to fall out of Church favor. Nicolaus Copernicus had
attended the University of Cracow, and was taught (as every student in every university was)
from the accepted authority Aristotle. Aristotles treatise On the Heavens propounded the
commonly accepted beliefs, including the theory of concentric spheres made of unchanging
aether, which moved the planets and the stars uniformly in circles around the universes center
i.e. the Earth. There had been problems noted with this theory, especially regarding the orbits
of Venus and Mercury when they seemed to move backwards. To save the great philosopherstheory, a number of inventive geometrical devices had been employed, beginning in the 1 st
century B.C. (Burke, 89). Copernicus was struck by a seemingly natural inclination that physics
and mathematics should be mutually synchronous. Sometime between 1508 and 1515, he
composed a short treatise, Commentariolus, which he did not publish due to the upheaval his
new calculations and theories might bring as well as fear of papal disapproval (Burke, 89-90).
Eventually, his close circle of friends encouraged him to publish his work, and he did so under
the name of his friend, Georg Joachim Rheticus, in 1540. The preface of Copernicus next work
On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres, was addressed to Pope Paul III, pleading for papal
approval in his attempts to restore symmetria to the universe. (Burke, 90). The reactions to his
new ideas were strange. Mathematical astronomers used pieces of Copernicus calculations fit
into the old Aristotelian order, while ignoring or rejecting his more radical statements.
However, by the 1570s, his fellow mathematical astronomers were well acquainted with his
works and theories, often passing heavily annotated copies between themselves. One of these
annotated copies passed to the hands of Johannes Kepler when he was a young student (Burke,
90-91).
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Kepler was quite taken with the works of Copernicus, and wrote his first book The
Cosmographic Mystery in 1596 describing the Copernican world system (Burke, 91). Many
regard Kepler as a true revolutionary in early modern astronomy because it was his works, unlike
Copernicus and Tycho Brahe before him, that broke conclusively with the ancient axiom that all
celestial motions are both uniform and circular (Burke, 102). The Heavenly reforms introduced
by the Catholic Copernicus and the Lutherans Brahe and Kepler culminated with the dramatic
scientific contributions of an Italian natural philosopher and mathematician named Galileo
Galilei (Burke, 91). Though it was Kepler, with the help of Brahes observations, who laid the
foundations for a heliocentric universe, it was Galileo who put together the missing pieces of
the theory and announced it to the world in 1610. Galileo did engage in dispute of Biblical
hermeneutics with the Church regarding his new discoveries, and many questions arose as to
whether the Bible could continue in a tradition of literal translation as scholars protested that
Galileos theory was probably true (Burke, 91-92).
The discovery and excitement of the NewWorld, a new freedom of thought and artistic
expression with widespread dissemination of influence, and a new modeling of the cosmos andour place on Earth in it; these three issues alone indicate major paradigm shifts. When
considered in the wider sphere of all the other types of reformations occurring in and around
the 16thcentury, it is no wonder that the Reformation Period was a tumultuous time in history.
Unlike most other periods of history, it was not a few main ideas leading a thematic change in
worldview. The Reformation Period was a time to break down the authoritative structures which
the individual minds and societies rested on in previous centuries. It was a time period to find
new, nearly unthinkable ways to perceive God, the world, the universe, and individual purpose
within this new framework.
With Luthers affection for printing Protestant propaganda, perhaps it should not be surprising
that he gets most of the press in regard to this time period. With the various churches thatmake up Christianity still holding so much sway over reality in our society today, perhaps it is
not surprising that the study of the Reformation Period focuses almost entirely on the protests
against the Church. However, I think it is wise to keep our perspective within our eyes of the
time as broad as possible, to question what else was going on in the world at the time, to look
for other significant ideas in the historical period, and to try to understand how events played
into conditions which we may be tempted to take for granted. The Reformation Period seems
the most valuable to study when trying to break-up our own reliance on authoritative historical
perspective and tradition.