Changes in Waste Recycling and Composting Practices ... INTRODUCTION So much is happening on solid waste management ... a copy of the daily newspaper that I have completed reading

Changes in Waste Recycling and Composting Practices Associated with the Stages of Economic Development

A.T.M. Nurul Amin

Urban Environmental Management Field of Study School of Environment, Resources and Development

Asian Institute of Technology P. O. Box: 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand

E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: Changes in the composition of solid waste, associated with the level of economic development, have been well-documented in waste management literature. Documentation of the association between resource recovery (resulting in recycling and/or composting) from waste and the level of development however is limited. While the changes in consumption baskets and life-style associated with a higher level of development make waste more resource-rich, the demographic (e.g., decline in population growth rate) and economic (e.g., the rise in wage rate and better employment opportunities) changes make resource recovery by the informal sector eventually unviable. In the absence of appropriate public policy and action, this process increases the financial and environmental costs of solid waste management that ultimately poses a serious threat to sustainable urban development. This paper seeks to illustrate this concern with evidence from several cities of Asia. Keywords: Stages of economic development, informal sector, recycling, composting 1 INTRODUCTION

So much is happening on solid waste management (SWM) all over the world – in terms of economic, social and environmental desirability – and so much still needs to be done. From an economic viewpoint, the striking development is turning of waste into resource by the informal sector (Furedy, 1990; Amin, 1992; Sinha and Amin, 1995; and Amin, 2000). From a social viewpoint, the striking development is increasing attention to reduce health-hazards associated with waste-related economic activities and occupations. From an environmental viewpoint, the salient development is unprecedented awareness and concerns with respect to affluent life-styles, and huge increase in waste generation and disposal that have fortunately resulted in an environmentally-sensitive young generation who tend to consume less, generate fewer waste, and engage in recycling of waste wherever and whenever it is possible. The positive developments in the above line, however varies from country to country and city to city, depending on the level of development (World Bank, 1999; AIT, 2004; and Terazono et al., 2005), resource endowments and the strength of social and environmental movements in a given country or

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city. For example, in labor-abundant and material resource-scarce countries, waste economy has become one of the most vibrant economic sectors and it is still growing, e.g., in Bangladesh (Amin, 1987; Sinha and Amin, 1995; and Waste Concern, 2005). In contrast, in the capital-surplus and material resource-abundant economies, waste recycling has been growing as a result of their citizens’ serious concerns for environment and quality of life, e.g., Japan (Terazono et al., 2005). Other than these different sources of impetus to the environmentally sound waste reuse and recycling practices, another powerful impetus to the growth of such practices are the environmental and social movements/activism. Despite all that is happening on resource recovery from waste and their reuse, almost no city is coping that well in dealing with waste collection, transportation and disposal. Expenditure on solid waste management has been increasing steadily, whereas collection and disposal remain incomplete. On the other hand, all that appears to be possible for reducing, reusing and recycling waste, and thereby reducing the cost and improving SWM are still not fully realized (World Bank, 1999). In the above background, this paper seeks to take a stock of the situation in the region with a focus on recycling and composting (R&C) practices with the assumption that these twin strategies bear the greatest potential for local governments to cope with huge financial and management burden for SWM. Its contents are divided as follows: a brief note on methodology (Section 2); an overview of waste recycling/composting and practices by stages of development (Section 3); a discussion on social and environmental activism centering waste and their impacts (Section 4); some observations on ironies, trade-offs and synergies associated with waste recycling and composting (Section 5); and finally the paper draws its conclusion on the basis of the presented evidence and discussions (Section 6). 2 METHODOLOGY

The paper is essentially based on the author’s insights on the topic as a development economist, particularly from the perspective of the stage theory of development. All data and information presented are from quick review of secondary source materials available to the author. In this regard the four most relevant sources are: World Bank (1999), AIT (2004), Terazono et al. (2005), Website of Waste Concern, and several master theses of AIT supervised by the author (e.g., Thepkunhanimitta, 1998 and Chanthy, 1999). The author’s own works on the informal sector’s role in waste recycling have also been used (e.g., Amin, 1992). 3 RECYCLING AND COMPOSTING BY STAGE OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 3.1 In agricultural societies As I read, reflect and write on waste recycling, my memory flashes back nearly 50 years to a grandmother asking me (when I returned to our village home during a school break from Dhaka) for a copy of the daily newspaper that I have completed reading and for an emptied Horlicks bottle (which she expected me to have as a school-going urbanite) that she could use for preserving pickles she had made. On composting, my similar recollection is that of many farm households using food waste (after some slight processing) and cow-dung to fertilize their farmland. These remain to my

Changes in Waste Recycling and Composting Practices 8

mind to date as examples of waste reuse, recycling and composting in a predominantly agricultural society. By no means, this experience of the author, who was born in a rural-agricultural society of Bangladesh, is atypical. Household-based composting is still observed among farm households in rural areas of many developing countries in Asia. Even in a country like Singapore (without much rural-agricultural economy), waste recycling and composting practices “were a way of life” in the 1960s and 1970s. Foo (1997) reports that many Singaporeans “eked out a living by retrieving recyclable from the waste stream”. He observes that recycling in this stage was done for “economic reasons” rather than “environmental reasons”. The organic content of the kitchen waste was collected as “swill” for animal feed. Plastics were a rarity. Glass bottles were retrievable and seldom entered the waste stream. Cans were washed and used as containers or collected as scrap metal (Foo, 1997). Furedy (1990) also contains some examples of the traditions of waste recovery in developing countries in general and Asian cities in particular. 3.2 In transitional societies In transitional societies (i.e., societies in which a duality of large city-centered urban-industrial development and vast rural area-centered agricultural, agro-processing and cottage industries co-exist – much of the developing world still reflects such duality in technology, production and consumption), recycling and composting have got a new momentum with waste increasingly becoming a resource. It is to be noted that in agricultural societies, the distinction between waste and resource either did not exist or was not seen essential. The material basis of this fundamental change in the nature of waste as a resource is the dichotomy in economy – between the poor and the affluent; the rural and the urban economy; the waste-based raw materials and the industrial raw materials; and between the cheap raw materials and the costly raw materials/intermediate products. In short, a discarded material is a “waste” to the upper echelon of the all-encompassing hierarchical production and consumption structure, and a “resource” to those who belong to the lower echelon of that hierarchy. In the transitional phase of development, economic reasons become the prime mover of resource recovery from wastes and recycling of the recovered resources. On the supply side, the upper echelon in a society produces (at least primarily) the waste and the lower echelon (particularly those who are in the lowest tier of the hierarchical production and consumption order) get engaged in search for resource in the heaps of waste and recycle them for reuse or using as raw materials or intermediate products in the production process. As the labor power and human ingenuity for survival make a discarded waste a resource, market economy with all its constituents - buyers and sellers, marketplaces, profit, and competition – set a motion and dynamics that is largely similar to any other commodity. Of course, a significant difference is the low esteem associated with the waste-related occupations, particularly the ones at the lowest tier of the occupational hierarchy. From the above practices of individuals, households, and enterprises, a distinct pattern has emerged in the relationship between the level or the stage of development (low, medium and high) and


municipal solid waste (MSW) characteristics, which may be described in the following order: First, MSW generation rate (per capita) increases with the level of development. All documented data are consistent with this pattern (Tables 1 - 3 and Figures 1 and 2). Although data vary depending on the sources, they consistently point to the same pattern: about 0.50 kg for the cities of the low level countries, below 1.0 kg for the mid level, and around 1.5kg for the cities of the developed countries. Second, municipal collection rate of waste also increases with the level of development: less than 70% in the cities of the less developed countries, 80-95% in the cities of the developing countries, and 95-100% in the cities of the developed countries. Third, available data are not enough to indicate a clear pattern in terms of proportion of waste recycled (Table 4), but it is clear that the informal sector is primarily involved in recycling in the less developed country cities, both the informal and formal sectors coexist in the medium development countries (MDCs), and the formal sector does the recycling in the developed country cities (Table 3). An overall status on MSW practices by level of development can be seen from table 5. Also see box 1 for a summary note on two unambiguous facts that standout from this review and their corresponding policy implications.

Table 1. Economic development, urbanization and municipal solid waste generation

Country Level of economic

development (GDP per capita US$)

Level of urbanization (% of urban population)

MSW generation

(kilotons/year)

MSW generation per capita

(kg/capita-day)

Singapore 23,052 100.0 - - Malaysia 3,915 57.4 - 0.88-1.44 Thailand 2,012 19.8 14,317 0.62 Philippines 989 58.6 10,670 0.50-0.70 China 856 35.8 130,320 1.70 Indonesia 710 41.0 - 0.76 Vietnam 401 24.1 - - Laos 328 19.3 - - Cambodia 256 16.9 - -

Source: Asia-Pacific in Figures, 2004 http://www.unescap.org/stat/data/apif/index.asp for GDP per capita, UNCHS, 2003 for level of urbanization; and Terazono et al., 2005 for MSW generation and per capita generation.

Table 2. Municipal solid waste generation by level of development

Level of development Municipal solid waste generation (kg/cap./day)

Low income 0.64 Medium income 0.73 High income 1.64

Source: Bennagen et al., 2002


Table 3. Typical characteristics of municipal solid waste management in Asian cities by level of development

Source: Imura et al., 2005

Level of development MSW

characteristics Less-developed

cities (Less than 2,000)

Rapidly developing cities

(2,000-15,000)

Developed cities

(16,000-30,000) MSW generation (kg/capita-day) 0.3-0.7 0.5-1.5 >1.0

MSW collection rate <70% 80-95% 95-100% Recycling Informal Formal and informal Formal Expenditure from municipal budget (%) 15-40 5-25 1-5

Table 4. Solid waste disposal characteristics by city in the countries of Southeast Asia

Percentage solid waste disposal

Country/City Incinerated Sanitary

landfill Open

dumping Recycle Open burning Other

1. Thailand Bangkok - 99.0 - - - 1.0 Chiang Mai 2 98.0 - - - -

2.Cambodia Phnom Penh - - 74.0 15.0 5.0 6.0

3. Indonesia Bandung - 78.6 - - 16.3 5.1 Jakarta - 77.7 - - - 22.3 Semarang - 74.3 - - - 25.7 Surabaya - 70.0 - 30.0 - -

4. Laos - - - - - - 5. Malaysia

Penang 10 - 80.0 10.0 - - 6. Philippines

Cebu - 100 - - - - 7. Vietnam

Hanoi - 65.0 - 15.0 - 20.0 8. Singapore 66.3 33.7 - - - - 9. China - - - - - -

Source: UNCHS, 2003


MSW

(kg

/ per

son

/ day

)

Figure 1. Relationship between MSW generation rate and per capita GDP in Asia

Per capita GDP (1995 US$)

(Source: Imura et al., 2005)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Hong Kong Rep. of Korea Turkey Japan

Paper and paperboard Organic materialPlasticsGlassMetals (steel cans)Metals (aluminium cans)

Figure 2. Recycling rate of each materials from MSW in Asian countries/regions (Source: Terazono et al., 2005)


Box 1. Two unambiguous facts and their policy implications

• Level of development and municipal solid waste (MSW) generation rate is positively correlated: Higher the level of development, higher is the MSW generation rate. Implication: MSW generation will continue to grow in the developing countries for considerable period in future and thus the waste management problem will continue to mount. Policy implication: Public policy and actions are to be top priority to reduce, reuse and recycle waste.

• Proportion of organic waste in developing country cites account for nearly 80% of the total MSW, whereas, in developed county cities, inorganic waste account for near about 78%. Implication: Organic waste will remain a large proportion of MSW in developing countries. Policy implication: For the developing countries, composting needs to be a top priority, whereas, for the developed countries the policy should be to send the resource-rich inorganic waste (of course not the hazardous waste) to the developing countries.

Table 5. Comparison of typical solid waste management practices

Activity Low income Middle income High income Source reduction

No organized programs, but reuse and low per capita waste generation rates are common

Some discussion of source reduction, but rarely incorporated into any organized program

Organized education programs are beginning to emphasize source reduction and reuse of materials

Collection Sporadic and inefficient. Service is limited to high visibility areas, the wealthy, and the businesses willing to pay.

Improved service and increased collection from residential areas. Larger vehicle fleet and more mechanization.

Collection rate greater than 90%. Compactor trucks and highly mechanized vehicles are common.

Recycling Most recycling is through the informal sector and waste-picking. Mainly localized markets and imports of material for recycling.

Informal sector still involved, some high technology sorting and processing facilities. Materials are often imported for recycling.

Recyclable material collection services, and high technology sorting and processing attention towards long-term markets

Composting Rarely undertaken formally even though the waste stream has a high percentage of organic material.

Large composting plants are generally unsuccessful; some small-scale composting projects are more

Becoming more popular at both backyard and large-scale facilities. Waste stream has a smaller portion of compostables


Activity Low income Middle income High income sustainable than low or middle income

countries. Incineration Not common or

unsuccessful because of high capital and operation costs, high moisture content in the waste, and high percentage of inerts.

Some incinerators are used, but experiencing financial and operational difficulties; not as common as high income countries.

Prevalent in areas with high land costs. Most incinerators have some forms of environmental control and some types of energy recovery system

Land filling Low-technology sites, usually open dumping of wastes.

Some control and sanitary landfills with some environmental controls. Open dumping is still common.

Sanitary landfills with a combination of liners, leak detection, and leachate and gas collection and treatment systems.

Costs Collection costs represent 80-90% of the municipal solid waste management budget. Waste fees are regulated by some local governments, but the fee collection system is very inefficient.

Collection costs represent 50-80% of the municipal solid waste management budget. Waste fees are regulated by some local and national governments; more innovation in fees collection.

Collection costs can represent less than 10% of the budget. Large budget allocations to intermediate waste treatment facilities. Upfront community participation reduces costs and increases options available to waste planners (e.g., recycling and composting)

Source: World Bank, 1999 3.3 In the era of postmodernist enlightenment Although there has been an initial skepticism in the developing countries about the environmental movement (which originated in the developed countries), there is a growing realization that the spread of this movement will not necessarily hurt development but rather it bears the potential of altering the content of development for better for the developing world. This movement has originated from the critique of the urban-industrial development in which mass production and consumption for profit has been the guiding light. Monopolistic production structure and absence of an egalitarian distribution system, particularly from the global viewpoint, have led to centralization of production and an unequal distribution system with the resulting effect of an affluent life-style that has become environmentally unsustainable and lack of meaning in the quality of life. The above concern has given rise to a generation of men or women who are not only environmentally conscious and aware, but also practice and promote environmentally desirable life-style. They are also for social justice and peace. This generation may be denoted as the one that do not take urban-industrial development uncritically but also do not necessarily reject it. Indeed, they are seen to be engaged in promoting development for the millions of poor people who have not tasted development


yet. Their environmental activism, anti-war demonstrations, pro-poor activities, peace rallies – all seem to be arising from a profound understanding of the basic needs of individuals, humanity and threats to quality of living. The influence of this enlightenment is yet to be documented, particularly with respect to our present interest – incidence of waste R&C. But available evidence does suggest that recycling has become a strong practice in most of the developed countries. For example, a United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) document reports that “in the economically more advanced urban centers of Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea and New Zealand a high degree of waste reduction, separation at source, and recycling is being brought about through public education, new practices (e.g., curbside collection), and volume-based collection fees” (UNEP, 2005). In all likelihood, such practices will be even more commonplace examples in the developed countries of Europe and the America. More importantly, the postmodernist view, attitude and enlightenment have been changing the life-style of a good proportion of citizens who tend to consume less, generate less waste, discard less, reuse more, recycle more and give more to others who do not have enough. Of course, the capitalistic mode of production, distribution and consumption does impose a limit to the full realization of the potential of this enlightenment. It is worth noting here that “Postmodernism grew out of modernism in the second half of the 20th century, continuing some of its trends, such as stylistic experimentation, while discarding others, such as concern with purity of form”. It reflects an “artistic and critical tendency characterized by eclecticism, relativism and criticism, the rejection of intrinsic meaning and reality, the repudiation of progress and cultural cohesion, and an ironic embrace of ambiguity...” (Rohmann, 2000). Here postmodernism is, however, seen and interpreted as an encouraging development, particularly in the context of attitude towards consumerism and concerns for the environment. 4 ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ON RECYCLING

The environmental movement in the developed world has also given rise to environmental activism in the developing world. This is particularly evident in the establishment of numerous environmental NGOs in the developing world and many of their good works. Some of these have become internationally known (Box 2). Other prominent examples are the Garbage-for-Egg Project in Bangkok’s Klong Toey slum area; Bangkok School Garbage Project; and the Community Garbage Banks; also in Thailand based on the success of the first Garbage Bank in Dan Khun Tod, Nakhon Ratchasima. As of 2001, the latter has been replicated to 87 municipal areas of the country. A total of 2,500 tons of recyclables are processed annually by this initiative. In Cambodia two prominent NGOs engaged in recycling and composting are: Community Sanitation and Recycling Organization (CSARO) and Cambodia Education and Waste Management Organization (COMPED). The CSARO, supported by Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), has organized waste-pickers for collecting recyclable waste in Phnom Penh. It has succeeded in collecting about 10% of the total solid waste generating in the city. Its collection is primarily in the area where PSBK Company (the private company contracted by the Phnom Penh


Municipality) cannot go to collect. Similarly, COMPED, supported by German funding, processes waste into compost. In fact, both CSARO and COMPED are engaged in composting. JICA (2005) reports these two NGOs produce six and one to two tons of compost fertilizer per month respectively, and sell at a price of 250 and 350 riels/kg respectively. It is to be noted that 85% of MSW in Phnom Penh comprises organic waste (Chanthy, 1999). Thus, the scope of composting is indeed wide. In Lao PDR, the Ministry of Construction, Transport, Post and Communication (MCTPC)/ UNDP/NORAD Solid Waste Management Project has developed and implemented waste management system in four secondary towns which focuses on implementation of strategies for composting, recycling and privatization (MCTPC/UNDP/NORAD, 2000). The Philippines is acclaimed for NGO activism. Some of the original NGO initiatives have been formalized by local governments. The Materials Recovery Facility (MRF), a community-based solid waste management approach, is a prominent example. It is a facility for recovery, warehousing and treatment of recyclable and biodegradable wastes which is required to be adopted by all barangays (either by each barangay or a cluster of barangays, it implies a lowest tier of local government administration in the Philippines). The facility includes solid waste transfer station or sorting station, drop-off center, a composting facility and a recycling facility (Santos, 2005). As a result of different programs, projects, activism, education and awareness campaigns, the rate of waste recycling has increased dramatically in recent years in the Asia-Pacific region from 10% in 1990 to 22% in 1998 (UN, 2000 cited in AIT, 2004). A similar trend is also seen in composting (Box 2 and JICA, 2005). Terazono et al. (2005) report that around 10% of the generated waste is composted in India, Indonesia and the Philippines. All signs point to its increase of recycling in the days ahead. One reason that waste R&C has been growing fast in the developing world perhaps has to do with the combined effect of economic and environmental reasons for undertaking R&C (Table 6). The countries which have taken the course of urban-industrial development but still have surplus labor and struggle with the scarcity of capital required for investment in various development and physical infrastructure projects, benefit from resource recovery, reuse, recycling and composting because those activities offer an economic opportunity for the many unemployed labor and enterprising businesses. This trend is further strengthened by the environmental NGOs and environmentally aware citizen groups (the post-modernists in the developed countries) and many government-supported programs. In a way both economic/business and environmental enlightenment have found a common ground in R&C in the developing world. This is not to deny that there are no points of tension or even conflict. They are indeed discussed briefly in section 5.


Box 2. Waste Concern composting projects in Bangladesh to draw global attention

The Matuail solid-waste dumpsite is just outside of the city of Dhaka, Bangladesh. It has gone awry. Sprawling mountains of garbage rot on 52 acres of land, producing a toxic brew of greenhouse gases and bacteria. The waste here represents less than 40% of the 3,200 tons produced each day, since the municipality lacks the funds and manpower to collect it all. The rest is left in the streets and already-strained sewers. But A. H. Md. Maqsood Sinha and Iftekhar Enayetullah, founders of the innovative nongovernmental organization Waste Concern, have shown that, with a simple technology, all this trash can not only be managed, but also can be turned into a profitable resource. At the Green Road Government Colony in downtown Dhaka, five Waste Concern employees go door to door collecting refuse from 800 households, collectes 2 tons of waste everyday by rickshaw vans to a nearby shed. There they sort out any inorganic material before placing the trash into five brick compost bins. With a little help from microorganisms, the natural climate here takes care of the rest, turning the heaps of rotting garbage into a valuable product: bio-fertilizer. Each month, the plant produces 15 tons of bio-fertilizer, which sells for about US $ 40 per ton. The idea, the first of its kind in Bangladesh, makes use of a hidden benefit of the waste itself: "Bangladesh's food habits help make waste a resource," explains Sinha, an architect and urban planner. "Most food is fresh and not packaged, meaning the waste is 80% organic" — perfect for composting. Today, the model has proven so successful that the government has helped Waste Concern replicate it in 14 cities across the country, bringing waste services to 100,000 people, 30,000 of whom live in slums. Building on their success, the two founders have now initiated projects financed under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), a Kyoto Protocol initiative that allows industrialized countries to finance projects in developing countries and receive credit toward their own emission reduction targets. Using this CDM opportunity, Waste Concern initiated a 700 tons capacity compost plant for Dhaka city. This project will be divert 700 tons of waste per day from dumping. This plant will produce 50,000 tons of organic fertilizer a year, which farmers across the country are increasingly demanding because the soil is exhausted from overuse of chemical fertilizers. Experts warn that dumps like Matuail account for up to 30% of a country's emissions of methane, a greenhouse gas 21 times more harmful than carbon dioxide. But Waste Concern's plan "will reduce about 1 million tons of greenhouse gas over an eight year period," says Enayetullah. Source: Based on Montero, 2005


Table 6. Economic and environmental motivations/reasons in waste recycling and composting

Economic gain Environmental benefit

At micro level At micro level • Provides work and earning

opportunity to the urban poor. • Factories’ manufacturing costs get

reduced as the cost of recycled material is less than the use of virgin or industrial raw material.

• Cleaner neighborhood and streets. • Increases residents’ happiness and enhances the

quality of life. • Reduce factories’ extent of energy consumption

by self-produced energy from waste.

At macro level At macro level • Reduces municipal cost of garbage

collection and disposal. • Saves foreign exchange which would

otherwise be used to import expensive technology and machinery (e.g., including machine and costly fancy vehicles).

• Reduces the quantum of garbage. • Reduces environmental pollution. • Reduces other environmental costs. • Reduces blocking of drains and sewers. • Improves sanitation. • Increases the aesthetic beauty of city. • Saves resources which add significantly in a

positive way to sustainable urban development. 5 IRONIES, TRADE-OFFS AND SYNERGIES IN RECYCLING AND COMPOSTING 5.1 Ironies Countries or cities with more recoverable resource in their waste do not have labor to recover it and enterprises to make use of the recovered resource. In contrast, countries with more people, labor and enterprises do not have much resource to recover from their wastes. This ironical situation, however, does not stop people, labor and enterprises of low-income countries to toil hard to recover whatever resource may be available in their wastes. If a waste item is not readily a resource, it is turned into one by sheer survival instinct and ingenious enterprising spirit. Labor and enterprise mobility between countries and allowing international trade in resource-rich waste can ease this ironical situation. This however, should not become a license for the developed countries to transport hazardous waste to the developing countries. Also, turning waste-related economic activities and occupations to ‘decent work’ (i.e., hazard-free and of good income) both in the developed and developing countries will make these activities and occupations similar to any other respectable work (Amin, 2002). For the low-income countries, the specific need in this respect is to adopt a two-prong strategy: Public policy and actions by the local governments and NGOs/CBOs for providing protective gears to the labor engaged in all waste-related activities, particularly for those who work in the dumpsites; and promoting composting so that more and more waste becomes a resource. Such policy bears potential in turning organic waste (which accounts for the vast proportion of total municipal solid waste in the low-income countries) into resource.


5.2 Trade-offs The discussion in section 5 may be seen as an overly optimistic or unreal depiction of R&C activities. It is not that all activities centering waste recycling and composting are mutually reinforcing from both economic and environmental considerations. Instances of trade-offs are by no means rare. For example, as separation of waste are promoted at household level or at source, informal waste pickers or even municipal waste collectors are left with limited, if no resource at all, to be recovered from the primary collection point, transfer station or dumping site; whereas, without separation of waste at source making, recycling and composting are bound to remain incomplete and also hazardous to deal with. Another source of tension is observed between the informal waste pickers and municipal waste collectors. With the turning of more and more waste into resource by labor via market mediation, such tensions are bound to increase. In a recently concluded study on junk business in Olongapo city in the Philippines, Santos (2005) has documented the complexities and sources of conflicts in MRF activities arising from bureaucratic interventions. Her illustration of “different pathways of transition between the formal and informal components” suggests that MRF activities are hurting the itinerant waste pickers (Santos, 2005). 5.3 Synergies The economic and environmental reasons (as summarized in table 6), to the extent they exist simultaneously (as indeed they do in many developing country cities), denote R&C activities of synergic nature. A more specific example of synergy in R&C would be: with more waste separation at source, organic waste becomes more suitable for composting, and a higher supply of organic waste (with necessary nutrient enhancement) allows replacement of chemical fertilizer use in farming, which in turn would yield more organic food, hence higher income to the farmers (at least as long as the supply of organic food remains limited). The synergy in R&C is even more persuasive and convincing with respect to the working poor’s role in this. Assuming that the world’s attention to poverty reduction is genuine, the poor’s labor and enterprises are readily available tools for which investment can be made for R&C activities to flourish so that these activities will increase income, hence, reduce poverty. It will also reduce the cost of waste management, and reduce land use for waste dumping with an ultimate contribution to sustainable development. 6 CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of the paper’s discussions and presented evidence the following conclusions are drawn. First, waste-resource distinction has been limited, if not absent in the agricultural societies. The nature of consumption and waste generation (mostly organic) in peasant societies have been such that waste disposal has never been an economic or environmental burden. Second, in the transitional period of transformation from largely rural-agricultural to an urban-industrial economy, waste does


not impose a huge burden either to the individual or the society as a whole because the very hierarchical order and structure in such economies create mutually beneficial linkages. With policy support, these linkages can be reinforced for sustainable R&C practices. Third, in the industrially developed countries, technology, financial and human resource capabilities and above all postmodernist enlightenment are good safeguards for R&C to make SWM sustainable. Fourth, for the developing countries, the boon centering R&C originates from both economic and environmental fundamentals (Table 6). Thus, there is some good objective basis for mitigating the mounting economic burden and environmental cost of huge increase in waste in these economies. The above optimistic scenario associated with each socio-economic epoch however, is not to suggest that the waste problem will get solved automatically because of the material condition associated with each socio-economic stage of development. Well-targeted public policy and actions, which would take into account the economic and environmental factors associated with R&C and the stakeholders involved in these processes, are rather indispensable. They are to be based by recognizing the intrinsic human behavioral norms (i.e., fear, material motivation and goodness intrinsic in human mind and soul). Tools for influencing these norms and behaviors are time-tested regulatory, economic and suasive measures (Amin et al., 2006). REFERENCES

• Amin, A.T.M.N. (1987). The Role of the Informal Sector in Economic Development: Some Evidence from Dhaka, Bangladesh, International Labor Review, Vol. 126, No. 5 (September - October), pp. 611-623.

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• JICA. (2005). The Study on Solid Waste Management in the Municipality of Phnom Penh in the Kingdom of Cambodia, Municipality of Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

• MCTPC/UNDP/NORAD (2000). Composting Recycling Privatization in Four Towns in Lao PDR – A Feasibility Study.

• Montero, D. (2005). Cash for Trash in Bangladesh, The Christian Science Monitor and USA Today, Available in the website: http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-06-07-bangladesh-trash_x.htm?POE=click-refer. (June 2005).

• Rohmann, C. (2000). The Dictionary of Important Ideas and Thinkers, Arrow Books. ISBN 009 9415682.

• Santos, B. C. (2005). Effects of Bureaucratic Regulation in Solid Waste management: A Case Study of Junk Business in Olongapo City, Philippines, M. Sc. Thesis, Asian Institute of Technology.

• Sinha, A.H.M.M. and Amin, A.T.M.N. (1995). Dhaka's Recycling Economy: A Focus on the Informal Sector Labor Groups and Industrial Districts, Regional Development Dialogue, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 173-195.

• Terazono, A., Moriguchi, Y., Yamamoto, Y. S., Sakai, S., Inanc, B., Yang, J., Siu, S., Shekdar, A. V., Lee, D., Idris, A. B., Magalang, A. A., Peratla, G. L., Lin, C C., Vanapruk, P., and Mungcharoen, T. (2005). Waste Management and Recycling in Asia, International Review for Environmental Strategies, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 477-498.

• Thepkunhanimitta, P. (1998). Formal and informal sector linkages in waste recycling: A case study at Prawate District in Bangkok, Thailand, M. Sc. Thesis, Asian Institute of Technology.

• UNCHS (2003). The Challenge of Slums, Global Report on Human Settlements, United Nations Human Settlements Programme.

• UNEP (2005). Municipal Solid Waste Management. Division Technology, Industry and Economic, Available in the website: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/estdiv/pub/msw/index.asp.

• Waste Concern (2005). Available in the website: http://www.wasteconcern.org


• World Bank (1999). What a Waste: Solid Waste Management in Asia (Washington D.C.: Urban Development Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region, World Bank).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author gratefully acknowledges the patient and intelligent research support of Ms. Trinh Thi Bich Thuy, Ms. Worawan Thanaprayochsak, Ms. Pranee Muenthaisong and Ms. Chou Putheany in preparing and processing the paper. He also thankfully acknowledges the generous CIDA funding for the AIT project on UEM applications in Southeast Asia (SEA-UEMA Project) that has been the source of inspiration to the author for writing this paper to present in the International Conference on Integrated Solid Waste Management in Southeast Asian Cities at Seam Reap, Cambodia.


Comparison of Waste Management Practices in Thailand and Sri Lanka and Management Steps to Improve Present Waste Management Practices in

Colombo, Sri Lanka

Yasantha Abeysundra1 & Sandhya Babel*2

1Environmental Technology Program

Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology Thammasat University

P. O. Box 22, Pathumthani 12121, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]

*Corresponding Author, 2Environmental Technology Program

Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology Thammasat University

P. O. Box 22, Pathumthani 12121, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Thailand generates 14.4 million tons of municipal solid wastes per year while Sri Lanka generates 2.4 million tons. Bangkok Metropolitan Administration area generates about 45% of Thailand’s wastes while Colombo generates about 23% of Sri Lanka’s wastes. In Thailand, 33% of wastes are disposed in landfills, 1% incinerated and the remainder dumped or openly burnt. But in Sri Lanka almost all are disposed in open dumpsites. A very small quantity is used for making compost. There are several drawbacks in the present waste management practices of the Local Authorities in Sri Lanka. As a response to this, the government has introduced a National Strategy for Solid Waste Management (NSSWM). The drawbacks of the present waste management practice of the Colombo Municipal Council (CMC), which is the largest local authority of the country, are analyzed. Authors suggest several strategies and management steps to improve the present practice of the CMC according to the NSSWM. These management steps are presented as a model. This model may also be applied in similar institutions in Thailand for better waste management. Keywords: Municipal solid waste, waste management, management steps 1 INTRODUCTION

Waste management in urban areas of low and middle income countries in Asia is a real challenge for the governments of those countries. According to Global Environment Outlook (2003), a large amount of the solid waste generated in urban centers of these countries is not collected and either deposited in surface waters or empty lots or burned in streets. This problem has worsened over the past 30 years. These open dumpsites are not operated and maintained properly, and hence pose a

23

serious threat to public health. It is reported that around 84% of the generated wastes are collected by the municipalities and 64% of the collection is dumped openly in Thailand (Thongkaimook, 2004), while in Sri Lanka, around 39% are collected and almost all of the collection is open dumped. Only few Asian cities, such as Hong Kong and Singapore, have adequate solid waste disposal facilities, but even these cities have problems in dealing with the increasing volumes of waste (ADB, 2001). In the mid-1990s, Metro Manila generated 6,300 tons of solid waste daily, but its landfills could accommodate only a little more than half that amount (ADB, 1996). The treatment and disposal of industrial, toxic and hazardous waste should be done with great care as that causes serious problems as well. Dumping of hazardous waste is common in South and Southeast Asia (Global Environment Outlook, 2003). Many stakeholders such as government, public and private sectors, and non-governmental organizations are involved in waste management. When the management is completely handled by the government, as in Sri Lanka, inefficiencies in many activities; especially during collection and disposal, are observed. Waste management services have been privatized in countries like Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia and Thailand (Global Environment Outlook, 2003). It appears that this has been done to improve the efficiency of the services and may lead to effective waste management. This paper discusses the present waste management practices in Thailand and Sri Lanka and compares the situation in both countries. Further, it suggests several management steps to improve waste management in Colombo, Sri Lanka, which can also be applied to similar situations in Thailand. 2 WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN THAILAND AND ITS DRAWBACKS

Thailand generates about 14.4 million tons of municipal solid waste, 22,500 tons of infectious waste and 0.4 million tons of household hazardous waste per year. About 45% of above the wastes are from Bangkok Metropolitan Administration area. The collected wastes are disposed as follows: 33% in landfills, 1% by incineration and the remaining is dumped or burned openly (Thongkaimook, 2004). Municipal solid waste in Thailand comes from major sources such as residential, commercial, tourism and agriculture. This waste consists of kitchen waste [51%], plastic and foam [22%], paper [13%] and glass [3%] (TEM, 2003). Figure 1 shows the progress of the solid waste management in the country from 1993 to 2003. Waste generation did not increase significantly after 1998 as can be seen from figure 1. Also it clearly shows that the efficiency of waste collection has increased from 50% (1993) to 84% (2003). Although, collection increased significantly, proper disposal of waste increased slightly from 23% in 1993 to 34% in 2003 (Figure 1). This shows that there are some drawbacks in the present system which are: disposal of most of the municipal solid waste without adequate environmental controls; absence of regulatory oversight of municipal landfills; presence of under-serviced areas in waste collection; siting new landfills are barricaded by the syndrome of Not In My Backyard (NIMBY); illegal dumping (especially hazardous wastes from industries); and disposal of clinical wastes with municipal solid wastes under unsanitary conditions (TEM, 2003).

Comparison of Waste Management Practices in Thailand 24

As a response to these drawbacks, TEM (2003) suggests several steps to be taken that include: development of large shared landfills; upgrading of existing sites; establishing correspondingly good institutional and financial mechanisms for financing, operation, collection and transfer; allowing local people to participate in the siting of the landfill; and exploring ways/facilities that can provide revenues/benefits to the local people. Education of the local people to get their participation meaningfully for solid waste disposal, a licensing system for open dumping and implementing tough penalty for illegal dumping, training of hospital personnel in segregation, pollution prevention, and regulatory over-sighting for incinerator operation in hospitals have also been suggested by TEM.

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

45000

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Year

Tons

/ Day Proper Disposal

Collected Waste

Solid Waste Quantities

Figure 1. Progress of the solid waste management in Thailand from year 1993 to 2003

(Source: Thongkaimook, 2004) The Pollution Control Department has setup the National Solid Waste Management Plan (NSWMP) in response to the above drawbacks. NSWMP includes three goals to be achieved by the year 2006 such as decreasing the generation rate of waste not exceeding 0.4 to 1.0 kg/person/day; increasing the utilization of organic wastes and recycled materials up to 30% of wastes generated; and encouraging local administrations for establishing a network of waste treatment and disposal centers in each province (Thapinta, 2004). 3 WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN SRI LANKA AND DRAWBACKS

Sri Lanka generates around 6,400 tons of municipal solid waste per day (2.3 million tons per year) and the daily collection by the Local Authorities (LAs) is estimated as 2500 tons (MOFE, 1999). The daily collection is approximately 39% of the generated quantity. This big gap between


waste generation and collection indicates the seriousness of the problem. However, in the Western Province where Colombo is located, the collection is about 57% (SoE, 2001). It is reported that Colombo area itself generates around 1,500 tons of solid waste per day, which is equivalent to 23% of the country’s solid waste generation. Approximately 80-85% of domestic municipal solid waste in Sri Lanka consists of organic waste, including food and garden wastes. The remaining 15%-20% consists of paper, plastics, glass, metals and other inorganic materials (Perera, 2003). Waste management in Sri Lanka is fully controlled by Local Authorities (LAs). The LAs are responsible for the collection and disposal of solid waste from residential and commercial (including market waste) areas, hospital waste (clinical and non-clinical), industrial waste, slaughterhouse waste, drain clearings and street sweepings. Local Authorities dispose this waste in open dumpsites. Some LAs have initiated composting projects, which use very small quantities of collected wastes. In Colombo area, there is one centralized composting project operated by one of the LAs and it is estimated that 0.2% of the collected waste is used for this project (SoE, 2001). There are no sanitary landfills or incinerators operated by the LAs. Drawbacks of the present waste management practice can be given as: inefficiency of waste collection, tipping wastes haphazardly in open dumpsites without environmental controls, and non-availability of sanitary landfills for safe disposal. Available open dumpsites are also not engineered to minimize or control pollutants released from the decomposition of waste, sitting landfills are prevented by the syndrome of NIMBY, illegal dumping on road sides, vacant land or river/stream banks, storing hazardous waste on site in industries without adequate management, and disposing of these wastes and some clinical wastes with other municipal wastes. Some solutions for the above drawbacks given by LAs and other stakeholders, and implemented at some places are: composting and anaerobic digestion for biodegradable components of the waste, carrying out recycling and resource recovery through an informal market driven system, and disposal of clinical waste by incineration. Also, in 2002, the Ministry of Forestry and Environment (MOFE) introduced the National Solid Waste Management Strategy (NSWMS) which encourages waste segregation at source, waste avoidance/ reduction, reuse and recycling rather than disposal. It appears that this strategy has not been implemented successfully yet and this paper discusses the management steps that should be taken to implement this strategy by the Colombo Municipal Council (CMC), the largest municipality in the country. 4 COMPARISION OF WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN THAILAND AND

SRI LANKA

Some facts and figures of Thailand and Sri Lanka are given in table 1 for comparison. This indicates that the population density in Sri Lanka is approximately 2.4 times higher than that of Thailand, but the annual waste production per person is nearly two times higher in Thailand. The average increase of waste generation is same in both the countries for a period of five years. Thailand’s efforts to manage its solid waste are remarkable compared to Sri Lanka, especially the waste collection rate (84%) is much higher than that of Sri Lanka (33%). Thailand has landfills that


dispose 33% and incinerators treat 1%. Sri Lanka does not have any landfill or incineration facility. Thailand’s management practices are better compared to Sri Lanka as Thailand gets all stakeholders’ participation including private sector at a satisfactory level. Reducing and recycling wastes, providing safe and cost-effective collection and disposal, and control of illegal dumping, are common challenges for both the countries.

Table 1. Facts and figures of Thailand and Sri Lanka

Indicator Thailand Sri Lanka Population (2002) 63.4 million 19.6 million Land Area 515,113.6 sq. km 65,610 sq. km Population density 123 persons/ sq. km 298 persons/ sq. km Annual Waste Production 237 kg/ person 117 kg/ person Average increase of waste generation 6% for five years 6% for five years Annual solid waste generation 14.4 million tons (2002) 2.4 million tons (2002)

Source: TEM, 2003, Perera, 2003 and SACEP, 2005 5 PRESENT WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN THE CITY OF COLOMBO

AND ITS DRAWBACKS

Colombo city is situated in the west of Sri Lanka and it is an important Port City for the South Asian region. It is now the commercial capital of the country as well. Colombo Municipal Council (CMC), the largest LA in Sri Lanka and one of the oldest in South Asia governs the city (FAO, 2005). Established in 1865, it has grown into a large organization catering to the needs of a resident population of 637,865 (2001 census) and a floating population of nearly four hundred thousand (estimated), and it covers an area of 37.31 sq km (CMC, 2005). The amount of waste generated daily in Colombo municipal council area has been estimated as 680 tons/day (SoE, 2001). The largest sources of waste are households and markets, and CMC is responsible for managing this waste. There are several shortfalls of the CMC’s waste management practices that can be stated as follows: inefficiencies in waste collection, lack of waste treatment, and open dumping without environmental controls. Reasons for this situation are absence of adequate support from the public, commercial sector, institutions and non-government organizations (NGO’s) for managing waste; inadequate funds for waste management; low priority from the government for waste management projects; and poor law enforcement in waste practices. The functional elements of the present waste management practice in the city of Colombo are; waste generation, handling and storage, collection, transporting and open dumping. It is reported that none of the municipal sites are qualified to be sanitary landfill. One private agency operated a composting plant with the support of the CMC and has stopped its operation since March 2005 due to some disputes between the parties.


6 PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS TO THE PRESENT SITUATION IN COLOMBO

The National Strategy for Solid Waste Management of Sri Lanka proposes that LAs should follow the hierarchy of waste management as given in the figure 2 with the most desirable option as waste avoidance and reduction and the least desirable option as waste disposal. Although this hierarchy already exists, it is not followed by the LAs at a satisfactory level.

Least desirable option

Most desirable option

Waste disposal (Sanitary-

Land filling)

Waste avoidance/ reduction Waste reuse/ recycling

Waste treatment (Incineration)

Figure 2. Waste management hierarchy (Source: MENR, 2002) Attempts are being made by the authors to analyze the drawbacks in the existing system and propose some solutions (Table 2) so that waste management practice of the CMC can be improved as discussed below. 7 HOW TO IMPROVE?

To start these improvements, the government should take initiative and provide sufficient funds to the CMC to develop infrastructure/facilities. These developments are waste collection, transport and disposal facilities. After taking initiatives, the CMC can gradually reduce the cost of investment to a certain limit while encouraging private sector involvement for waste collection, transportation, treatment and disposal. Further efforts should be made to get the involvement of the private sector to establish a Material Recovery Facility (if feasible) and sanitary landfills as in Thailand, where the involvement of the private sector has been successful. Industries should be encouraged to build several recycling plants of glass, aluminum, plastic etc. The concepts of reduce; reuse or recycling of wastes cannot be done without the active participation of the public. Sorting waste at source has to be done by the community members. Therefore, community participation for the program should be encouraged through education and building awareness. Composting of waste should be promoted among households and by the private sector. To make composting technique popular, people should be educated to use compost as a soil conditioner. Private industries could support this initiative by manufacturing and providing compost boxes to the public. Either the CMC or the Ministry of Environment should give the required technology to the industries. The CMC should take several management steps to achieve these planned improvements. These are identification of key players with specific roles to play; identification of obstacles; selection of available tools, strategies and technical options to respond to these obstacles; checking whether these



tools, strategies and technical options are comply with the country’s legislation; applying these tools, strategies and technical options; implementing the program to achieve planned improvements; and monitoring the processes.


Table 2. Suggested strategies for improvement of waste management of the CMC and methods for implementation

Waste management

step Present situation Strategy for improvement Methods for improvement

Responsible agency/

authority Waste avoidance and minimization

* Environmental awareness among the public is poor

* Consumption patterns (Throw-away) negatively contribute

* Low priority for waste management (the government)

* Industries, institutions and NGOs do not play a significant role

* Basic environmental education from the grassroots level

* Change in consumption patterns * Promotion of eco-friendly products

and packaging * Promotion of cleaner production

techniques * Involvement of industries,

institutions and NGOs for waste management.

* Starting effective environmental education from the grassroot level

* Establishment of the State of Environment reporting system

* Motivating industries, institutions etc. to implement Cleaner Production technologies

* Prioritizing waste management programs

* Government * Public * Industries * Institutions * NGOs.

Reuse and recycling of waste

* No separation at the source * Inefficient collection * At the dumpsites reusable and

recyclable materials are separated and collected by waste pickers for their private earnings

* No Material Recovery Facility * Infrastructure is not adequate * Lack of financial and other

resources * Some industries practice

recycling of paper, glass, aluminum etc.

* Waste separation at the source * Improvement of waste collection

system * Establishment of a MRF (if

feasible) * Promoting participation of the

private sector for collection, transportation, disposal etc. (Thailand has succeeded in this exercise)

* Encouraging of the industries to produce more recyclable and reusable materials.

* Facilities such as bags, different color bins etc. should be provided for waste separation

* Strengthening of government decision making process to privatize waste management practices under the control of the CMC

* Providing incentives for industries who produce recyclable and reusable products

* Should prioritize waste management by the government

* Strict law enforcement.

* Public * Industries * Government

Treatment No regular waste treatments are carried out.

* Promoting composting of biodegradable waste

* Private sector participation * Provide assistance to the public

for composting.

-do-

Disposal Open dumping * Constructing sanitary landfills and leachate collection and treatment

* Appropriate environment protection from open dump sites

* Biogas/landfill gas recovery

* Funding for the landfill sites * Encouraging private sector

participation for construction and operation of the landfill.

* Government * Industries

7.1 Key players and their roles to play The most significant key players are the government, general public, industries and the NGOs. 7.1.1 Government The Colombo Municipal Council is a government organization with a major role to play, as it is responsible for the waste management in the city. CMC should initiate learning programs to educate people on various issues of managing waste. This can be done by using different media such as posters, publishing papers, books, newspaper advertisements, and conducting seminars and workshops at various public forums. Parallel to this, the government ministries such as the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Health should take initiatives to build up a very strong knowledge base among the public on the prevailing environmental issues including waste management. The government should strengthen the independent Police Commission and the Public Service Commission that have been established a couple of years ago for strict law enforcement in the country and providing effective public service. The officers of the government organizations may then be able to work without any influence from the politicians or any other party. There are several past experiences of project failure due to such influences on project implementing officials.. It is believed that these commissions may play a significant role to implement the planned improvements of waste management practices effectively. 7.1.2 General public General public is one of the main contributors of waste generation. Without their support, no waste management program could be implemented successfully. The CMC should be able to get their full support, if they need to implement planned improvements effectively. 7.1.3 Industries In supporting the NSWMS, industries should develop their manufacturing and packaging systems to produce more reusable and recyclable products. They should incorporate cleaner production techniques in their product cycle and thus be able to avoid or reduce some wastes. Since the government has already established a National Center for Cleaner Production (NCCP), industries can get services from it. Further, the industries can participate in waste management activities for which the government should take initiatives to get industries involved as contractors for its waste management programs. 7.1.4 NGOs NGOs can play a major role in mobilization of the public and the industries to participate in waste management programs. They should support the government to implement its environmental education programs. Since most of the NGOs have the capacity to provide advisory services on various subjects, they can use their resources to build the people’s environmental knowledge base, especially when implementing community-based programs. They can approach various forums of the society with their well-trained staff for such purposes. 7.2 Obstacles Several obstacles have been identified that need to be overcome in implementing the planned improvements. These can be listed as lower priority by the government for waste management


projects, inadequate environmental education, political interference and ad-hoc decisions, inefficient law enforcement and poor contribution from the public, industries and the NGOs. Improvements in waste management practices have been given lower priority as compared to the government’s other development programs. Most of the government programs involve development of infrastructure facilities such as roads, housing schemes, water supply systems, provision of electricity etc., but not waste management projects. The current situation of waste management reflects that awareness and education on environmental issues is poor. There are experiences that unnecessary changes and ad-hoc decisions made for development programs for political benefits have resulted into failures of such projects. Though, several environmental and local government acts have been passed by the parliament for protecting the country’s environment, such acts are not significant in many cases due to poor law enforcement in the country. The present situation also reflects that the contribution from the public, industries and NGO’s is insignificant. 7.3 Selection of available tools, strategies and technical options To improve environmental education of the society, environmental reporting system is very important. State of Environment (SoE) reporting is a recognized tool in this respect. SoE provides an overview of the environment within the geographical boundary discussed in the report. The report, prepared at many levels (i.e. National, State, Regional, Local etc.) provides accurate up-to-date accessible information on natural environment (Gamacharige, 2001). CMC should take such an initiative to publish a report periodically to improve environmental knowledge of the society. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is another useful tool which industries can use and identify opportunities for reducing emissions, energy consumption and material use. LCA consists of four basic components which are goal definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment and improvement assessment (Ayres, 1995). Improvement assessment is to evaluate opportunities for improvements in products and processes of an industry. One of the recognized techniques used is Cleaner Production (CP) that could be mainly used in industries and institutions to minimize waste generation and develop production cycle accordingly. Industries are rapidly becoming aware of the advantages of cleaner production, which can produce economic benefits while preventing negative environmental impacts. Several industrial sectors in Sri Lanka (hotel and catering, metal, fiber, food, tea, chemicals, textiles and printing) have already implemented CP solutions and obtained successful results (Abeysekera, 2002). If the Public Service Commission and Police Commission play an active role, it will help to overcome political interference, ad hoc decisions and poor law enforcement. These commissions could allow the police and other government officers to work without any political interference and therefore can foster improvements in waste management. 7.4 Compliance of tools, strategies and technical options with country’s legislation The country’s legislation consists of Laws, Acts, Constitution and Common Law. The SoE reporting and the LCA are recognized environmental tools everywhere in the world and there should not be


any problem of using them in Sri Lanka, too. However, the Ministry of Environment could check if these tools comply with the present Environmental Acts. If not, they can take necessary actions to incorporate them into a relevant Act. The government has established a National Center for Cleaner Production to promote CP techniques among industries and other institutions. Its characteristics comply with the country’s legislation. The Public Service Commission and the Police Commission are commissions formed by a parliament Act. 7.5 Monitoring board Monitoring is must when a new strategy or a plan is implemented. This is to check if the processes are running according to the set goals and suggest necessary alternatives/improvements, if required. This can be done by a monitoring board which consists of members from all-relevant parties who will contribute to the planned waste management process. Thus, the monitoring board should consist of the Mayor /Municipal Commissioner (chairperson); Chief Municipal Engineer, one representative each from the Ministries of Local Government, Environment, Education and Health (preferably an officer of the rank of Additional Secretary); representatives from the community (one person from each zone, not influenced by politics); representatives from the industries (one person from each zone may represent a major industry producing more waste in that zone); and representatives from NGOs (one person from each NGO working in CMC’s jurisdiction) to ensure that the waste management is done as planned. 7.6 Management model The overall management steps can be modeled as below (Figure 3). It shows how the management steps can be combined together and applied in the real situation in order to improve the solid waste management.

Figure 3. Management steps to achieve planned improvements


8 CONCLUSIONS

Waste management practices are better in Thailand compared to Sri Lanka. Though Thailand has succeeded in organizing significant waste collection, disposal in open dumpsites without environmental controls exists to a large extent. Thailand has set some goals to protect the environment and improve waste management practices and the current challenges are to work towards the achievement of the set goals by the year 2006. To overcome drawbacks of the present waste management practices of the Colombo Municipal Council, there should be a collective effort from all significant key players - government, public, industry and NGOs. The model (Figure 3) indicates how the proposed management steps can apply in the real scenario for improving the present waste management practices of CMC. This model may be applied in institutions, which face similar problems in Thailand also for better waste management. REFERENCES

• Abeysekera, N. (2002). Cleaner Production in Sri Lanka, Industry and Environment Vol. 25, No. 3-4, UNEP, Paris.

• ADB (1996). Mega City Management in the Asian and Pacific Region. Asian Development Bank , Manila

• ADB (2001). Asian Environment Outlook 2001. Asian Development Bank, Manila. • Ayres, R. U. (1995). Life Cycle Analysis: A Critique, Resource, Conservation and Recycling,

Vol. 14, pp.199. • CMC (2005). City Profile, Colombo Municipal Council. Available in the website:

http://www.cmc.lk/cityProfile.asp (May 2005). • FAO (2005). Challenges and Constraints Faced by Colombo Municipal Council in Supplying

Meat and Poultry to the City, Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations. Available in the website: www.fao.org/ag/ags/agsm/sada/asia/DOCS/DOC/Eleperuma1.doc (May 2005).

• Gamacharige, Y. A. U. (2001). My Earning Journey for Structuring Date to a State of Environment Report for Hambantota District, Sri Lanka, Project Report of the Master Degree in Environmental Management, University of Western Sydney, NSW.

• Global Environment Outlook (2003). Urban Areas: Asia and the Pacific, Global Environment Outlook 3, United Nations Environment Program, Nairobi, Kenya.

• MENR (2002). National Strategy for Solid waste Management, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Sri Lanka.

• MOFE (1999). Database of Municipal Waste in Sri Lanka, Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Sri Lanka.

• Perera, K. L. S. (2003). An Overview of the Issue of Solid Waste Management In Sri Lanka, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Environment and Health 15 -17 December, 2003, Martin J. Bunch et al., eds., University of Madras and Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University, pp. 346-352.


• SACEP (2005). Sri Lanka Key National Environmental Issues; Waste Disposal, South Asia Co-operative Environment Program (SACEP). Available in the website: http://www.sacep.org/html/mem_srilanka.htm (May 2005).

• SoE (2001). State of Environment Sri Lanka 2001, United Nation Environment Programme, Regional Resource Center for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand.

• TEM (2003). Solid and Hazardous Wastes; Challenges, Thailand Environment Monitor 2003, World Bank Country Office, Bangkok, Thailand.

• Thapinta, A. (2004). The National Solid Waste Management Plan, Seminar on Waste Management, 29- 30 April 2004, Bangkok, Thailand.

• Thongkaimook, A. (2004). Solid Waste Management in Thailand: Seminar on Waste Management, 29- 30 April 2004, Bangkok, Thailand.


Solid Waste Management in Least Developed Asian Countries: A Comparative Analysis

Ulrich Glawe*1, Chettiyappan Visvanathan2 & Mohammed Alamgir3

*Corresponding Author, 1Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engineering Program

Asian Institute of Technology, P. O. Box 4, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]

2Environmental Engineering and Management Field of Study

Asian Institute of Technology, P. O. Box 4, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand

3Department of Civil Engineering Khulna University of Engineering & Technology, Khulna, Bangladesh

Abstract: Presently, the World Bank has designated 50 countries as the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), out of which 8 countries are from Asia - Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Laos PDR, Maldives, Myanmar and Nepal. This paper highlights the present status of municipal solid waste management in these Asian LDCs including legal, social and financial issues. It is also envisaged to expose the solid waste generation rate, its composition, collection systems, and areas of responsibilities (public / private sector), transfer and treatment sites and waste disposal systems used. Furthermore, the necessity of the involvement of NGOs, CBOs and private sector for better understanding and sustainability of related projects is illustrated. Finally, some successful project stories are discussed which may be good examples for other least developed countries with similar climatic condition and waste composition. Keywords: Solid waste, least developed country, management, disposal 1 INTRODUCTION

The World Bank has categorized some countries as Least Developed Countries (LDCs) in terms of the following criteria: low-income, human resource weakness and economic vulnerability. At present, 50 countries are designated as LDCs, out of which 8 countries are from Asia (LDAC) - Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Laos PDR, Maldives, Myanmar and Nepal. These countries have a number of priority issues pertaining to the country’s development. Among them, management of municipal solid waste is one of the priority urban issues. Common problems for MSW management in LDACs include institutional deficiencies, inadequate legislation and resource constraints. Long and short term plans are inadequate due to capital and human resource limitations. There is a need for financing equipment for MSW management, training specialists and capacity building. The governments have formulated policies for environmental

37

protection, but they were only implemented in the national capital cities. In rural areas, open dumping is still considered the most popular method of solid waste disposal. Thus, the prevailing issues and conditions in these countries demand extensive studies and research on solid waste management to significantly improve the local environment for more sustainable living conditions. In urban solid waste management planning, many of these LDACs adopt a segmental ad hoc approach. However, it is important to practice the integrated solid waste management approach such as: Incorporation of more environmental and economic friendly concepts of source separation; recovery of waste; legitimization of the informal systems; partial privatization and public participation.

NGO’s & CBO’s Waste

Separation Waste Transport Involvement

Waste Generation Waste

Treatment & Disposal

ISWM

Figure 1. Integrated solid waste management 2 SOLID WASTE CHARACTERIZATION

Although cities of LDACs have a lower rate of waste generation compared to the cities of the developing countries, their quantum of waste is high owing to their higher levels of population density. Tropical climates with a high degree of rainfall and humidity aggravate the problem of solid waste disposal. As cities are becoming more urbanized, their waste composition also changes. Substantial increase in the use of paper and packaging is probably the most obvious change. Other significant changes are due to the higher proportion of plastics and consumer products and their related packaging material in the solid waste. The negative side of greater affluence is that it brings greater volume of wastes, making it more expensive for management.

Public & CommunityParticipation

Waste Composition

& Characteristics

Waste Reduction, Waste

Collection Reuse & Recycle

Legal, Economic, Financial &

Health Aspects

Solid Waste Management in Least Developed Asian Countries 38

2.1 Solid waste generation Accurate information on waste generation is necessary to monitor existing management systems and to make regulatory, financial and institutional decisions. However, reliable data are difficult to obtain in less developed and developing cities. Solid waste generation is based on the economic development, density of population, size of the urban habitation and consumption rate of commercial goods. Figure 2 shows the comparison of solid waste generated per capita (kg/day) in different LDCs and developing countries. It is observed that the generation rate ranges from 0.3 to 1.0 kg/capita/day. Due to the less industrialized and low income levels, the corresponding figure is less than 1 kg/capita/day. The higher level of waste generation in Maldives is due to rapidly developing construction and tourism industries of the country. However, it is interesting to note that the per capita solid waste formation in Cambodia is as high as its industrializing neighbor Thailand.

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Figure 2. Comparison of solid waste generated per capita in kg/day 2.2 Waste composition A comparison of the current waste composition in LDACs (Figure 3) shows that about 70% or more (by weight) of the waste is combustible (i.e. organics and paper). However, the composition differs depending on the economic level of countries as well as other factors such as geographical location, energy resources, climate, living standards and cultural habits, and the sources of waste that are considered as MSW.


Figure 3. Comparison of organic and inorganic components of MSW

The ratio of paper and plastics including voluminous materials such as food containers and wrapping materials is higher in some countries where tourism industry is expanding; however organic waste is still the dominating factor in all of the countries being studied. The high content of biodegradable matters results in high waste density (weight to volume ratio) and high moisture content. These physical characteristics indicate the necessity of waste treatment prior to disposal. As waste comprises a high organic content and a low calorific value; biological treatment such as composting and bio-gasification (i.e. anaerobic digestion) are thus more suitable. Incineration would not be a good option due to extreme moisture content and low calorific value. In Bangladesh, the lower percentage of plastic is due to the restrictions of using thin plastics. Cambodia, with its slower urbanization growth, also has the same trend with Bangladesh in terms of paper and plastic wastes. Whereas, the low content of the organic material in Laos PDR is mainly due to the agricultural lifestyle where a large scale of the food waste is used as an animal feed. On the other hand, agricultural countries like Myanmar and Nepal, high percentage of their waste is organic, which is contrary to the waste in Maldives. In Maldives, with its rapidly developing construction industry, which is contributing significantly to the composition of their waste, has also lower organic waste composition. This is similar to the situation in Kabul, Afghanistan where 50-60% of their waste content comes from construction debris or white waste. Since suitable treatment methods are different for different waste compositions, thus differ among cities with different levels of economic development. However, other factors have to be taken into account while choosing the most appropriate waste treatment method.


3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Nowadays, capital cities of LDACs are challenged by urbanization and industrialization trends, population increase and consequent rise in waste generation. Poor government policy and response, lack of political will, lack of appropriate economic and human resources, and weak local institutions result in poor waste management (especially in large cities). These cities therefore face major problems relating to public health and environmental pollution. 3.1 Collection and transport Generally speaking, significant amount of the solid waste generated in urban centers are uncollected and either burned in the streets or end up in rivers, creeks, marshy areas and empty lots. The collected waste is mainly disposed off in open dump-sites, many of which are not properly operated and maintained, thereby posing a serious threat to public health (UMP, 1999). The collection rate varies from city to city and collection facilities are either inadequate or inefficient in almost all of the cities (Mendes and Imura, 2004). Figure 4 describes the collection efficiency of various capital cities in Asia. Bangkok, being one of the fastest developing cities in Asia, exhibited the highest collection efficiency followed by Phnom Penh and Thimphu.

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Figure 4. Comparison of collection efficiencies

MSW management services account for a high percentage of municipal budgets. Expenditure on MSW management can reach up to 40% of the municipal operating budget and, 70-90% of this is spent on collection. For instance, Kathmandu spends 38% of the municipal budget on MSW management; 93% of this is spent on sweeping, collection, transfer and transport. In Phnom Penh,


part of the collection service is performed by a private company, which demands waste collection fees from households which is directly deducted in their electricity bill. Since the economic and climatic conditions of LDACs are similar, the system provided for MSW management is somehow similar in most of the countries. Door to door collection services may not be as efficient as the services in most urban areas of the developed countries, but it is also available in LDACs. Others are curbside collection and communal site collection. Mostly, wastes are collected from the curb site. The frequency of collection differs from place to place; at the core areas and commercial areas, collection is done daily while in the low population density areas and residential areas it is done at intervals of 2 or 3 days. Typical collection fleets used are trucks and pushcarts. Usually in smaller cities pushcarts, and rickshaws (three wheeler carts) are the most popular vehicles for collection, while in larger cities trucks (Figure 5) with capacity of 7 – 21 m3 are used. There are hardly any transfer stations, which can collect and handle waste more scientifically. There is a wide practice of using streets as a secondary transfer station (Figure 5). In Kathmandu, construction of a well equipped transfer station is in progress which may carry on its work after the next few months. Table 1 shows the volume of waste generated and collected in Kabul, Afghanistan. It is evident that only about 25% of the total waste generated in Kabul is being collected. In addition, figure 5 also shows that 6-8 persons are assigned for each truck in Kabul whereas in Bangkok, Thailand only 2 persons are responsible per truck.

Table 1. Volume of waste generated and collected in Kabul, Afghanistan

Generated Collected Uncollected Volume (m3) 1540 360 1180 Weight (tons) 1080 250 830

(a) (b) Figure 5. Afghanistan: (a) Waste disposal on the banks of the stream

(b) Waste collection scenario (approx 6-8 persons per truck)


3.2 Processing and disposal of MSW 3.2.1 Landfill In majority of the cities of LDACs, landfill is the most preferred method for the final disposal of solid waste. Most of these sites practice open dumping, with no regards to the requirements for a sanitary landfill. However, government and municipalities are already working to develop the sanitary landfill sites in few urban areas. Since land is fast becoming scarce within city limits, new sanitary landfills are often too distantly located compared to open dumpsites within municipal limits, thereby making longer the collection and delivery time, which is ineffectively more costly. In many islands of Maldives organic wastes are composted at home backyards and non-biodegradable waste (such as plastics) is dumped near the beach or buried in a few islands. Burning of combustible waste at designated areas is also widely practiced. In Nepal, after the closing of Gokarna landfill site in 1994, the collected waste is just haphazardly dumped along the banks of Bagmati river. In the case of Bangladesh, most open dumps are in open land of low lying areas, which usually cause problems during heavy rainfalls and flooding. Landfills, being the typically used method for final disposal in most LDACs, the overall condition of any given landfill is still unsatisfactory. 3.2.2 Composting Composting is the second preferred method of solid waste disposal in LDACs, mainly due to the high percentage of organic material in the waste composition. There are some small-scale composting plants in Dhaka, which has shown more success such as windrow composting, however composting in bigger scale is not that popular in the whole region. The main reason why centralized composting plants are not functioning effectively includes: (a) high operating and maintenance costs compared to open landfilling; (b) higher cost of compost than commercial fertilizers; and (c) incomplete separation of materials such as plastics and glass, making the compost poor for agricultural applications. 3.2.3 Recycling and recovery Recycling is generally carried out by the informal sector. There are no policies that promote recycling or resource conservation, and the municipalities do not have the expertise to launch recycling activities. In several places, such as Kathmandu, more waste could be recycled if there was better infrastructure for collecting recyclables. However, collection of recyclable waste is done in several steps such as door to door collection, collection at the primary and secondary transfer stations, and even at the disposal sites. Due to the faulty collection systems and low quality of scrap, the recycling rate is low despite a high number of waste pickers involved in the process. In Cambodia, even though waste separation at the source is not practiced, still some valuable waste is sorted out prior to collection and some during transportation. About 12% of the total wastes are collected from household and from commercial areas by the informal groups for recycling. The main items are soft and hard plastics, glass, steel, paper, cardboard, aluminium and alloys etc. Some of the items are also exported to Vietnam and Thailand for recycling. In Bhutan, around 20% of the


collected wastes are sent for recycling. Most of the recyclable wastes collected in Nepal and Bhutan are sent to India due to insufficient and inadequate recycling facilities in these countries. 3.2.4 Incineration Due to the high capital, operation and maintenance costs involved for the installation of incineration plants, incineration is not popular as a waste disposal system in the countries being studied. In addition to these, a major portion of the MSW is organic with relatively high moisture content which leads to a low calorific value. In Afghanistan, due to inadequate incineration facilities at Kabul hospital, medical wastes are improperly disposed off haphazardly along the city streets thereby putting people at risk of exposure to bacteria, viruses and toxic materials. In Bangladesh, some NGOs are operating incineration plants, especially for handling clinical and hospital wastes, yet still the system is inadequate and inefficient. 4 LEGAL, SOCIAL AND FINANCIAL ISSUES Due to the similarity in economical and infrastructural development, all LDACs are facing more or less similar legal, social and financial problems in terms of solid waste management. Considering the necessity of environmental issues in the country’s development, the government and the municipalities are working hard to extend environmental legislation.

Table 2. Responsible organization and current situation of MSW in study countries

Country Responsible Organization Current situation Current action Afghanistan Ministry of Irrigation, Water

resources and Environment, and Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority

No environmental legislation

Started to develop legislations since 2001

Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forests

No separate policy or handling rules for solid waste

Preparing a comprehensive solid waste management handling rules

Bhutan Municipalities Fails to enforce the law Enforcing the law Cambodia Ministry of Environment N/A Improving the waste

management facilities and educating people

Lao PDR Ministry of Communications, Transport, Post and Construction

N/A Establishing a waste management system

Maldives Ministry of Home Affairs N/A N/A Myanmar Pollution Control and

Cleansing Department The regulation is outmoded

None

Nepal Municipalities Fail to implement the national policy

Improving the waste management facilities and educating people


Co-operation from the citizens is a vital aspect in managing solid wastes of a city. Habits and attitudes of inhabitants of a city largely affect waste management systems. Hence, social aspects cannot be separated from the overall waste management system. Public awareness and public participation is a major step in effective implementation of a solid waste management system. Therefore, the governments of LDACs are giving importance for environmental education from schools to develop the awareness of the general public. Financial issues are the main problems for the least developed countries to carry out any kind of development programs. In most of the LDACs donors such as United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), ADB, JICA, and the German government are helping the local governments for establishing an environmentally sustainable solid waste collection and disposal system. 5 STAKEHOLDERS AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

To achieve sustainability in waste management, it is important to look at the roles, interests and power structures prevalent in waste management. Experience in several countries has shown that cooperation and coordination between the different stakeholder groups like city council, provincial government, service users, NGOSs, CBOSs, the private sector (formal and informal), and donor agencies, will ultimately lead to increased sustainability of the waste management system, such as changes in behavior and sharing of financial responsibilities. On the other hand, ignoring certain activities or groups will result in decreased sustainability of the system, for example in the form of negative public health effects or increased unemployment (Klundert and Anschiitz, 2000). 5.1 Community based organizations (CBOs) Unless and until the whole community do not involve in solid waste management with respect to source segregation, recovery of reusable and recyclable materials and storage of waste prior to collection, the management will not be successful. So the community based organization is an essential element in ensuring the effectiveness of the solid waste management projects in LDACs and increasing the likelihood of its sustainability. One such example of a successful community based (CB) scheme is the CB pilot project in solid waste management in Khulna city in Bangladesh (KCC and SDC, 2000). 5.2 Private sector participation The private sector has played an important role in MSWM in some of the countries mentioned in the paper. In Katmandu, the capital of Nepal, the private sector is participating more in door-to-door collection, street sweeping and waste transfer. Due to the involvement of the private sector, collecting garbage is found to be more efficient and in addition the burden on Katmandu Municipal Corporation (KMC) is reduced both in terms of financial and of human resources. Approximately 50% of the people surveyed replied that services provided by the private sector were more effective. Therefore, KMC is gearing towards the involvement of the private sector in all aspects of solid waste management.


5.3 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) The NGOs play a vital role in developing awareness on the environmental impacts associated with the management of wastes. One such example of non-governmental organization is “Zero Waste Nepal” in Nepal. Zero Waste Nepal is currently working towards community based solid waste management through application of Zero Waste Concept comprising the following principles:

• Do not take home unwanted materials • Produce clean waste through segregation of waste at source • Send the waste back to its source of generation • Ban disposal of waste in public places or leave to nature • Encourage community participation through NGOs and the private sector.

Zero Waste Nepal is trying to develop a new attitude and behaviour of the people towards handling waste and converting the existing “Throw Away” culture to “Zero Waste” culture. It is taking the initiatives towards solid waste management through the development of partnership with local clubs for execution at grassroots level through interaction with the neighbourhood, ward level, local NGO level, international development agencies and Rotary Clubs for resource mobilization (Nyachhyon, 2004). In Bangladesh, NGOs like Waste Concern, Prodipan, and Environmental and Geographic Information Systems (EGIS) are coming up with strategies to manage the solid waste properly. Prodipan is working from collection of solid waste to composting and runs a small-scale incineration plant. 6 SUCCESS STORIES

Even though the overall management of municipal solid waste in the countries being studied is not adequate, there are also some successful projects mainly run by NGOs and CBOs. In Bangladesh, Waste Concern, one of the NGOs, initiated the first pilot project in 1995 with the help of UNDP and Lions Club. They started a public awareness campaign for the separation of waste at source and minimal payment scheme for door-to-door collection. Due to the high demand of good quality compost, Waste Concern started to collect the domestic organic waste (free from toxic and clinical wastes) from houses for composting. The collection rose to 2 tons of solid waste per day with the help of modified rickshaw vans. The number of household participation also began to increase, which were paid about Bangladeshi TK 15 (US$ 0.224) per month. In Lao PDR, a non-government organization introduced Nongnak village solid waste collection project. The project proposed to collect and dispose municipal solid waste from the local market and promote hygiene practice. This project covered 11 villages with a population of 12,000 people. It tried to upgrade the urban environment and reduce environmental health hazards caused by garbage accumulation and lack of proper disposal systems. Implementing this project alleviate sanitation standards for the urban poor. The project has enabled the collection and transport of a large amount of solid waste to the dumpsite away from the village. After the establishment of the project in March 2003, the urban environmental quality has improved considerably.


The Women's Environment Preservation Committee (WEPCO) in Lalitpur, Nepal started a pilot project supported by DANIDA with waste reduction as its main objective. The group is working for source segregation and composting and is already servicing 500 households with primary collection. Sweepers sort out the recyclables and sell them to waste traders while the organic waste is composted. The organization sells 1200-1500 kg of compost monthly. This method had picked up extensively in Nepal and has set an example for the other LDACs that produce major fractions of organic waste (UNEP-IETC, 2003). 7 CONCLUSION Management of municipal solid wastes in LDACs still has many problems. The current regulation system is not perfect, and the existing management system with its collection facilities does not fit the present requirements at all. Municipal solid wastes are still collected without separation at source, treatment facilities are limited and the collected wastes are mostly dumped haphazardly in open areas. The government, NGOs, CBOs and private sectors are working hard in this field but still the action is not adequate. The main management strategies to remedy this should include the amendment of current laws and regulations, improve current management systems and introduce classified collections. Effective implementation of these strategies will help extensively to solve the environmental pollution problems caused by municipal solid wastes in LDACs. It is also important to observe that there are possibilities for research implementations, collaborations between the developing and the LDACs (south to south), which have similar climatic conditions and solid waste characteristics. REFERENCES

• UMP (1999). Solid Waste Disposal in Asian Cities. Urban Management Program Asia News. incomplete

• Mendes, M. R. and Imura, H. (2004). Eastern Prospect: Municipal Solid Waste Management in Asian Cities. Waste Management World Magazine. July- Aug 2004. incomplete

• Klundert, A. van de and Anschiitz, J. (2000). The Sustainability of Alliances between Stakeholders in Waste Management. Working paper for UWEP/CWG, 30 May 2000 – Draft. Available in the website: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/ISWM.pdf (July 2005)

• KCC and SDC (2000). Field Note: Community Based Pilot Project on Solid Waste Management in Khulna City: General Project Description, Khulna City Corporation and Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. Available in the website: http://www.wsp.org/publications/sa_community_khulna.pdf (July 2005)

• Nyachhyon, B. L. (2004). Zero Waste Approach-A New Culture for a New Century, WASTE 2004 Conference incomplete

• UNEP-IETC (2003). Urban Waste Management Strategy, United Nation Environment Program-International Environment Technology Centre. Available in the website: http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/focus/waste-strategy.doc (July 2005)


Documents

Changes in Waste Recycling and Composting Practices ... INTRODUCTION So much is happening on solid waste management ... a copy of the daily newspaper that I have completed reading