Section 1: Learning

Meghan Fraley, PhD

Theories and Principles of Learning and Behavior

Review

What were your independent and dependent variables?

Questions & Insights from Yesterday?

Discuss: Would this be an experiment you would enjoy conducting? Why or why not?

Learning Autobiography

Difficulties

Joys

Passions

Future

How did you learn?

Are you a self-motivated learner?

Learning Concepts to Know

Concepts

Habituation

Classical Conditioning

Instrumental Conditioning

Observational Learning

Varieties of Learning

Theories of Learning

LearningClassical

Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Social Learning Theory

Learning Theorists

P

• Pavlov: Classical Conditioning; Salivating Dogs (1901; 1927)

W• Watson: Behaviorism founder, Little Albert (1913;

1920s)

T• Thorndike: Law of Effect; Cats Puzzle Box (1898)

S• Skinner: Operant Conditioning; Pigeons (1938;

1953)

Pavlov, Classical Conditioning; Thorndike & Skinner, Operant Conditioning

The BehavioristsPavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

We learn new things when they are connected or paired.

• Respondent conditioning (i.e. involuntary)

• Pavlov and Watson

• Reflexes: stimulus-response links

• Unconditioned reflex:Unconditioned stimulus evokes unconditioned response (US UR); inborn

• Conditioned reflex: Conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response (CS CR); learned

Altoid?

Pavlov: Reflexes and Dogs

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning Essentials

PAIRING!

The CS might precede the US½ Second and Overlapping is Best!

Pavlov’s Dogs…

Unconditioned Stimulus and Response

Methods of Classical Conditioning1. Delay Conditioning (Standard Pairing): CS precedes US and overlaps

2. Trace Conditioning: CS precedes Us with short break

3. Temporal Conditioning: Time is the CS. US is presented at a time interval

4. Simultaneous Conditioning: NS and US completely overlap

5. Backward Conditioning: US precedes NS

True conditioning only occurs when the CS is presented before the US

Key Concepts of Classical Conditioning

1. Stimulus Generalization

2. Higher Order Conditioning

3. Classical Extinction

4. Spontaneous Recovery

5. Stimulus Discrimination

6. Pseudoconditioning

7. Habituation

S R

A stimulus is

presented

in order to get

a response:

Stimulus Generalization

Watson and Little Albert: Little Albert was afraid of bunnies!

Stimulus Generalization

Occurs when the stimuli similar to the CS also elicits the CR

Strength of the CR diminishes as the similarity between the stimuli and the original CS decreases

Higher-Order Conditioning

Two Steps

• 1) Ordinary classical conditioning

• 2) Original CS is treated like a US and paired with neutral, so neutral begins to also stimulate CR.

i.e. opening the cabinet door to get the food out for the kitties

2 order works, 3rd doesn’t

Bio-preparedism: Why animals will respond to the CS prior to the US

CR elicited

Higher Order Conditioning

Deliberate process where CS are paired with NS up to three levels.

An animal might first learn to associate a bell with food (first-order conditioning), but then learn to associate a light with the bell (second-order conditioning). Honeybees show second-order conditioning during proboscis extension reflexconditioning.[1]

Is Fear a Conditioned Response?Watson and Baby Albert

Discuss: Phobias

Based on classical conditioning, why do objects become more fearful over time?

Does anyone have a phobia that

How does this discussion map on to the research projects?

What might be problems with our study?

Classical Extinction

Unlearning a conditioned response. Repeatedly presenting conditioned stimulus with unconditioned stimulus

Extinction

CS ALONE = EXTINCTION

Once the conditioned response has been established, it will eventually disappear when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

Ahhh… but the behavior is inhibited, not eliminated

Inhibited Extinction

You still remember the former pairing… which sets the stage for spontaneous recovery.

Spontaneous Recovery

Durin extinction trials, after a brief rest period, the conditioned response often briefly reappears.

Stimulus DiscriminationLearning to discriminate between two similar neutral stimuli when only one is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (US)

Experimental Neurosis: Making stimulus discrimination too difficult may cause agitation. Later, if returned to original mastered discrimination, dog is no longer able to discriminate.

Blocking and Overshadowing

Pseudoconditioning

Accidental learning caused by inadvertant pairing or heightenedarousal.

Habituation

Becoming accustomed to an unconditioned stimulus (US). It no longer evokes the unconditioned response (UR).

• Only related to unconditioned stimuli/response

Wolpe: Reciprocal Inhibition

Although Wolpe originally developed systematic desenstiziation as an application of reciprocal inhibition.

Research using the “dismantling strategy” found that repeated exposure to the CS without the US (extinction) is responsible for th reduction of the anxiety response

SUD Scale

Different levels of anxiety

Aversive Counterconditioning

Aversive counterconditioning (aversion therapy) uses counterconditioning to eliminate undesirable self-reinforcing behaviors such as drug use or a paraphilia

Imaginary Aversive Conditioning: Covert sensitization

In Vivo Exposure with Response Prevention (Extinction)

Minimum amount of time is 45 minutes for flooding

Based on the assumption that an anxiety arousing object or situation is a CS and that repeated exposure to the CS will result in extinction of the CR

• Expose individual to anxiety-arousing object or situation while prohibiting him/her from making the usual avoidance response

Applications of this technique include flooding and graduated (graded exposure)

OPERANT CONDITIONING

We learn as a result of reward and punishment. Operant conditioning explains Voluntary behavior

AKA: Instrumental Conditioning

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Thorndike: Law of Effect

How is a new skill learned?

Skinner & Operant Conditioning

How Pigeons Learn Self Control

Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive Reinforcement = Reward

Negative Reinforcement = Relief

Positive Punishment = Pain

Negative Punishment = Loss

Positive = AddedNegative = Taken Away

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Continuous- Satiation

- Thinning

2. Intermittent- Fixed Interval (FI)

- Variable Interval (VI)

- Fixed Ratio (FR)

- Variable Ratio (VR)

Satiation

Thinning Graduate!

Continuous Reinforcement

Intermittent: Fixed-Ratio

Intermittent: Variable-Ratio

Combined Fixed-Ratio Schedules

Rates and Patterns of Responding

Rates during Acquisition

Variable and Ratio greatest operant strength

VR, FR, VI, FI

Resistance to Extinction

Variable and Ration most resistant to extinction

VR, FR, VI, FI

Pattern of Responding

Fixed schedules result in pauses after reinforcement

Fixed graphs appear scalloped

Reinforcement Schedules Graph

Matching Law

When concurrent schedules of reinforcement are used, subject will match the relative frequency of reinforcement obtained

Key Concepts of Operant Conditioning

Operant Extinction (response burst)

Superstitious Behavior (accidental/non-contigent reinforcement)

Discrimination Learning (Discriminate stimulus and S Delta)

Stimulus Generalization

Response Generalization

Prompting (cueing subject, fading = reducing prompting)

Shaping by Successive Approximations (

Chaining (stringing behaviors to accomplish goal)

Premack Principle (Pairing high frequency and low frequency)

Behavioral Contrast (increasing reinforced behavior of previously equally reinforced)

Operant Extinction

Ceasing to reinforce behavior that has previously been reinforced.

Behavior will diminish/extinguish

Use of extinction involves removing reinforcement from a previously reinforced behavior in order to eliminate that behavior

No longer reinforcing something that was once reinforced

Thin the reinforcement ratio

You will get an extinction burst!

Escape versus Avoidance Conditioning

Escape and avoidance conditioning are both applications of negative reinforcement, but avoidance conditioning combines negative reinforcement with classical conditioning

Differential Reinforcement

ASK THE PERSON NOT TO DO ONE THING

Combines extinction with positive reinforcement for other (alternative) behaviors

Just asked NOT to do one thing

Response Burst & Superstitious Behavior

Discrimination LearningIn each of these cases which of the cards on the desk is the discriminative stimulus (SD) and which is the stimulus delta (SΔ)?

Under stimulus control, example of two-factor learning

Stimulus and Response Generalization

Prompting

Cueing subject, Fading = reducing prompting

Operant Postiive Reinforcement

Premack Principle:

• Do less likely behavior, and reward yourself with more likely behavior. Something you love.

Shaping:

• Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations to the desired behavior

Chaining:

• Chaining is used to establish complex behaviors that consist of responses that must be linked together to form a “behavior change”

Shaping by Successive Approximations

SIMPLE: ONE BEHAVIOR IS SHAPING

Teaching an autistic child to smile

ChainingStringing behaviors to accomplish goal

Multiple behaviors is chaining.

• Teaching a rat to put a basketball through a hoop

Premack Principle

Premack's principle, or the relativity theory of reinforcement, states that more probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors.

Behavioral Contrast

Behavioral contrast refers to a change in the strength of one response that occurs when the rate of reward of a second response, or of the first response under different conditions, is changed.

Who’s Who?Experiments of Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, & Thorndike

Name that Learning TheoryOperant or Classical Conditioning?

Social Learning Theory

Reciprocal Determinism:Interactive triad of person/behavior/environment regulate behavior.

Bandura posited that observational learning requires four steps:

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Production

4. Motivation

The Bobo doll experiment

Social Learning Theory: Factors Influencing StrengthResearch indicates that the following factors influence the strength of learning from models:

1. How much power the model seems to have

2. How capable the model seems to be

3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be

4. How similar the learner perceives self and model

5. How many models the learner observes

Social Learning Theory: Interrelated Identification Processes

Four interrelated processes establish and strengthen identification with the model:

1. Children want to be like the model

2. Children believe they are like the model

3. Children experience emotions like those the model is feeling.

4. Children act like the model.

Discuss: Where has social learning impacted you?

Learning Theory Applied

What motivates us to learn?

Reflect/Journal: Your Learning Process

Do you enjoy learning? Why or why not?

Do you feel confident in your ability to learn?

What is your favorite thing to learn about? Why?

What have been bad experiences you have had with learning?

What is the point of going to school for you? Why is it important to you to be here at Skyline learning?

Teaching

Learning Theory Overview

1. Classical Conditioning

• -Pavlov, Reflexes

2. Operant Conditioning

• -Reinforcement/Punishment

3. Social Learning Theory

Are these experiments ethical?What ever happened to Baby Albert?