Ch. 1: The Human Body: An Orientation From Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology, 7 th ed

Ch. 1:The Human Body: An Orientation

From Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology, 7th ed.

Ch. 1The Human Body: An Orientation

• Overview of Anatomy & Physiology• Levels of Structural Organization• Maintaining Life• Homeostasis• Anatomical Language

What are Anatomy & Physiology?

• Anatomy– ana = apart– tomy = to cut

– study of structure & form of body parts and how these parts relate to one another

• Physiology– physio = nature– ology = the study of

– study of how the body & its parts work or function to sustain life

3 essential concepts of A & P—form the bedrock of the study of the

human body

1. Complementarities of structure & function2. Hierarchy of structural organization3. Homeostasis

Review of Systems

• Be prepared for a QUIZ at any time after today over the systems.– You should be able to name all 12.– You should be able to describe the function of

each.– You should be able to name specific organs or

structures of each.

In your notes, list all 12 systems of the body and a summary of each

(p. 5-6 in textbook and also in your Language of Anatomy packet)

• Integumentary• Skeletal• Muscular• Nervous• Endocrine• Cardiovascular

• Lymphatic• Immune (sometimes w/ lymphatic)

• Respiratory• Digestive• Urinary• Reproductive (M & F)

Organ System OverviewOrgan System Overview

Slide 1.4Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Integumentary

• Forms the external body covering

• Protects deeper tissue from injury

• Synthesizes vitamin D

• Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

Figure 1.2a



• Skeletal

• Protects and supports body organs

• Provides muscle attachment for movement

• Site of blood cell formation

• Stores mineralsFigure 1.2b



• Muscular

• Allows locomotion

• Maintains posture

• Produces heat

Figure 1.2c



• Nervous

• Fast-acting control system

• Responds to internal and external change

• Activates muscles and glands

Figure 1.2d



• Endocrine

• Secretes regulatory hormones

• Growth

• Reproduction

• Metabolism

Figure 1.2e



• Cardiovascular

• Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart

• Oxygen

• Carbon dioxide

• Nutrients

• WastesFigure 1.2f



• Lymphatic

• Returns fluids to blood vessels

• Disposes of debris

• Involved in immunity

Figure 1.2g


• Immune

• More of a functional system instead of an organ system

• Tied with lymphatic system

• Most important immune cells are lymphocytes and macrophages



• Respiratory

• Keeps blood supplied with oxygen

• Removes carbon dioxide

Figure 1.2h



• Digestive

• Breaks down food

• Allows for nutrient absorption into blood

• Eliminates indigestible material

Figure 1.2i



• Urinary

• Eliminates nitrogenous wastes

• Maintains acid – base balance

• Regulation of materials

•Water

• ElectrolytesFigure 1.2j



• Reproductive

• Production of offspring

Figure 1.2k

The Language of AnatomyThe Language of Anatomy


• Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding

• Exact terms are used for:

• Position

• Direction

• Regions

• Structures

The Language of Anatomy

• Anatomical position—anatomical reference point in which the body is erect & the arms are hanging at the sides of the body with palms forward and thumbs pointed away from body.

(note: most directional terminology refers to the body as if it were in this position)

• Directional terms—used to explain precisely where one body structure is in relation to another.

• Ex. – “Ears are located on each side of the head to the

right and left of the nose and slightly higher than the nose.”

– Using anatomical terms, this changes to:“Ears are lateral and superior to the nose.”

Orientation and Directional TermsOrientation and Directional Terms


Table 1.1

Orientation and Directional TermsOrientation and Directional Terms


Table 1.1 (cont)

Assignment due tomorrow

• Using the terms on page 12 Table 1.1 in your textbook (or handout provided)—1. List the directional terms & definitions in your notes (optional, but recommended).2. Give 2 examples of each term in your notebook (separate sheet of paper).– Note: These CANNOT include the examples

already given.

Regional Terms

• See back of directional term handout and learn these regions.– Anterior body landmarks– Posterior body landmarks

Body LandmarksBody Landmarks


• Anterior

Figure 1.5a

Anterior Body Landmarks• Anterior body trunk

inferior to the ribs abdominal

• Point of the shoulderacromial

• Anterior surface of elbowantecubital

• Armpitaxillary

• Armbrachial

• Cheek areabuccal

• Wristcarpal

• Neck regioncervical

• Hipcoxal

• Leg crural

• Fingers, toes digital

• Thigh femoral

Anterior Body Landmarks• Lateral part of leg

fibular• Area where thigh meets

body trunk; groininguinal

• Nose areanasal

• Mouth oral

• Eye areaOrbital

• Anterior kneepatellar

• Area overlying the pelvis anteriorly

pelvic• Genital region

pubic• Breastbone region

sternal• Ankle region

tarsal• Chest

thoracic• Umbilical

naval

Body LandmarksBody Landmarks


• Posterior

Figure 1.5b

Posterior Body Landmarks• head

cephalic• Curve of shoulder formed

by large deltoid muscledeltoid

• buttockgluteal

• Area of back between ribs and hips

lumbar• Posterior surface of head

occipital

• Posterior knee areapopliteal

• Area between hipssacral

• Shoulder blade regionscapular

• The posterior surface of the lower leg; the calf

sural• Area of spine

vertebral

Body PlanesBody Planes


Figure 1.6

Body Planes

• Imaginary lines in which the body or its organs are cut along.

• Most common planes are:1. Sagittal 2. Frontal3. Transverse

There is also the oblique plane

Lie at right angles to one another

Sagittal Plane

• Runs longitudinally and divides the body or organ into right and left portions

• 2 types:1. Midsagittal—occurs when sagittal plane is exactly

midline and the parts are symmetrical or equal (often called the median sagittal plane)

2. Parasagittal—all other sagittal planes are called this

Frontal (coronal) Plane

• Runs longitudinally• The body/organ is divided into anterior and

posterior portions

Transverse Plane

• Runs horizontally across long axis of the body or organ; divides the body into superior and inferior parts

• Tissue section cut along this plane for microscope slides are referred to as cross sections (c.s.)

Oblique Plane

• Plane that is intermediate between a horizontal and longitudinal plane

Body CavitiesBody Cavities


Figure 1.7

2 major body cavities (dorsal and ventral) are along the vertical axis

Ventral

body

cavity

Dorsal Body Cavity

• Nearer the dorsal or posterior surface of the body

• 2 parts:1. Cranial cavity—brain encased by skull2. Vertebral (spinal) cavity—forms a bony

enclosure around the delicate spinal cord

Ventral Body Cavity

• Anterior side, larger of the closed body cavities

• Houses a group of internal organs collectively called the viscera

• 2 major divisions1. Thoracic cavity2. Abdominopelvic cavity

Ventral Body Cavity: Thoracic Cavity

• More superior of the two ventral cavities• Surrounded by ribs and muscles of chest• This cavity is divided into the following

areas:1. Pleural cavities (2)—each houses a lung2. Mediastinum—contains the pericardial cavity which

encloses the heart and also contains the remaining thoracic organs such as the esophagus, trachea

Ventral Cavity:Abdominopelvic Cavity

• More inferior cavity• Separated from thoracic cavity by the

diaphragm• Has two regions:

1. Abdominal cavity– Stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs– Superior to the pelvic cavity

2. Pelvic cavity– Inferior part– Contains the bladder, some reproductive organs, and the

rectum

Ventral Cavity: Serosa (serous membrane)

• Thin, double-layered membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains.

• 2 types:1. Parietal serosa—part of the membrane lining the

cavity walls2. Visceral serosa—part that covers the organs

Serosa cont.• Within the body the serous layers are separated by a thin,

lubricating fluid called serous fluid.• Serous fluid allows organs to slide easily across cavity walls

and one another without friction as they carry out their functions.– This is extremely important when looking at the heart as

it pumps blood, and the stomach as it churns during digestion

– Inflammation of serous membranes and the accompanying lack of lubricating fluid leads to excruciating pain as organs stick together and drag across one another. Ex. pleurisy or peritonitis

Pleurisy Video Clip

http://www.unitedstreaming.com/videos/health/externalApplications/bodyAtlas/health/human_atlas/flash_content/clientNF.html?basefolder=human&topicMyDoc=human&subtopicMyDoc=0217

Other Body Cavities(most open to body’s exterior)

• Oral (mouth)– Contains teeth/tongue– Continuous with the digestive organs

• Nasal– Located within the nose– Medially divided cavity is part of and continuous with

the passages of respiratory system• Orbital

– Houses the eyes and presents them in an anterior position

Other body cavities cont.• Middle Ear

– Carved into the temporal bone of skull– Contain tiny bones associated with transmission of

sound to the organ of hearing in the inner ear.

• Synovial– Enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely

movable joints of body– Synovial membranes also secrete a lubricating fluid

to reduce friction as bones move across one another

Abdominopelvic QuadrantsAbdominopelvic Quadrants


Figure 1.8a

Medical personnel use a simple scheme and divide the abdominopelvic cavity into 4 quadrants:RUQ LUQRLQ LLQ

Abdominopelvic RegionsAbdominopelvic Regions


Figure 1.8b

9 regions of abdominopelvic region used by anatomists

• Uses 2 transverse and 2 parasagittal planes– Superior transverse plane is just inferior to ribs– Inferior transverse plane is just superior to hips– Parasagittal plane lies just medial to the nipples

9 regions of abdominopelvic region

1. Umbilical—centermost region deep to a surrounding navel

2. Epigastric—located superior to umbilical region

3. Hypogastric (pubic)—located inferior to umbilical

4. & 5. R and L Iliac (inguinal)—located laterally to hypogastric

6. & 7. R and L lumbar—lie laterally to umbilical

8. & 9. R and L hypochondriac—flank the epigastric region laterally

Have you noticed Word Parts????

• Here are a few you may recognize:Epi—upon, aboveGastric—stomachHypo—belowIliac—superior part of hip boneLumbus—loinChondro—cartilage

Thoracic/Abdominopelvic Major OrgansThoracic/Abdominopelvic Major Organs


Figure 1.8c

8 Divisions of Anatomy1. Gross anatomy2. Regional anatomy3. Systemic anatomy4. Microscopic anatomy5. Developmental anatomy6. Pathological anatomy7. Molecular biology8. Radiographic anatomy

8 Divisions of Anatomy1. Gross anatomy

– study of large body structures (heart, lungs, etc.)2. Regional anatomy

– all structures in given region3. Systemic anatomy

– Anatomy of body, system by system4. Microscopic anatomy

– Study of structures too small to be seen (cytology & histology)5. Developmental anatomy

– Deals with changes in structure from conception thru old age; includes embryology

6. Pathological anatomy– Structural changes in body cells, tissue, & organs caused by disease

7. Molecular biology– Study of molecules necessary for body structure & function

8. Radiographic anatomy– Study of anatomy by means of x-ray images

Anatomy – Levels of StudyAnatomy – Levels of Study

Slide 1.2aCopyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Gross Anatomy

• Large structures

• Easily observable

Figure 1.1

• Microscopic Anatomy

• Very small structures

• Can only be viewed with a microscope

Most important tools for studying anatomy are observation, manipulation, and a master of anatomical terminology.

Anatomy provides a static image of the living body.

Divisions of Physiology(only a few are listed)

• Renal Physiology– Urine production & kidney function

• Neurophysiology– Explains workings of nervous system

• Cardiac physiology– Examines operation of the heart

• Physiology reveals the dynamic nature of the workings of the living body.

• Physiology tends to focus on cellular or molecular level because what the body can do depends on the operation of individual cells, and what cells can do ultimately depends on the chemical rxns that occur within them.

Anatomy & physiology are complimentary sciences.

• Explain this statement.

3 essential concepts of A & P—form the bedrock of the study of the

human body

1. Complimentarities of structure & function2. Hierarchy of structural organization3. Homeostasis

Principle of complimentarity of structure & function

• States that what a structure is capable of doing depends critically on its specific design.– Ex. Bones provide support and protection to body

organs b/c they contain hard mineral deposits

The Hierarchy of Structural Organization

Levels of organization:Atomcellstissuesorgansorgan systemsorganisms

• The organismal level represents the sum total of all levels of complexity working continuously & in unison to promote life.

• Multicellular state and the parceling out of vital body functions to several different organ systems result in an interdependence among all body cells.

Levels of Structural OrganizationLevels of Structural Organization

Slide 1.3Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin CummingsFigure 1.1

8 Necessary Life Functions

*Important Note: Organ systems DO NOT work in isolation. They work together to promote the well being of the entire body.

*Think about, identify, & discuss in your notes the most important organ systems or aspects of the body that will contribute to each of the necessary life functions.

1. Maintenance of boundaries

• Ensures that the internal environment remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it.

What systems or aspects?

2. Movement

• Involves all activities promoted by the muscular system

What activities?

3. Responsiveness (Irritability)

• Ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then reacting or responding to these changes.

Systems?Examples?

4. Digestion

• Process of breaking down ingested food to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood for distribution to all body cells by CV (cardiovascular) system.

System?

5. Metabolism• Encompasses all chemical rxns that occur w/n

body cells

Systems?

Anabolism—synthesizing more complex substances from simpler ones using nutrients & O2 to produce ATP

Catabolism—breaking down of complex substances into simpler ones

6. Excretion

• Process of removing excreta, or wastes from the body

• 3 types of wastes1. Undigestible food2. Nitrogenous metabolic wastes3. CO2

Systems?

7. Reproduction

• Formation of offspring, can occur at the cellular or organismal level– Cellular reproduction—involves cell division

(mitosis)– Organismal level—involves formation and union

of reproductive cells/gametes/eggs & sperm to form a fertilized egg

• Function of the reproductive system is regulated by hormones of endocrine system.

8. Growth

• An increase in size and is usually accomplished through an increase in the number of cells in cell division.

• True growth occurs when constructive activities happen at a faster rate than cell-destroying activities

Survival Needs

• Ultimate goal of nearly all body systems is to maintain life.

• The following are factors needed by the living organisms:1. Nutrients2. Oxygen3. Water4. Body temperature5. Atmospheric pressure

1. Nutrients

• Contain the chemical substances used for energy (E) and cell building

• CHO major E fuel for body cells• Proteins and fats are essential for building cell

structures

2. oxygen

• Needed b/c chemical rxns that release E from foods are oxidative rxns which means they require O2

3. Water

• 60-80% of body weight• Single most abundant chemical substance in

the body• Provides liquid environment necessary for

chemical rxns and the fluid base for body substances and excretions

4. Body Temperature

• Must be maintained at 98⁰F (37⁰C) if chemical rxns are to occur at life sustaining rates

5.Atmospheric Pressure• Breathing and subsequent exchange of O2 and

CO2 depends on the appropriate atmospheric pressure

Homeostasis• Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions

even as changes occur in the outside environment• This is not a “static” state, but rather a “dynamic”

state of equilibrium. This means that the internal conditions change and vary, but always within relatively narrow ranges.

• Communication is key!– Accomplished by nervous and endocrine systems– These sys. use electrical impulses carried along nerves or

blood-borne hormones as info carriers

3 Components of Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

1. Control center– Determines the set point at which a variable is to

be maintained, analyzes the input it receives and then determines the correct response

2. Receptor– Some type of sensor that monitors the

environment and responds to changes, called stimuli

– Flow of info from the receptor to control center occurs along the afferent pathway

3. Effector– Provides means by which the control center can

cause a response (output) to the stimulus– Info flows from control center to the effector

along the efferent pathway– if results of response depresses stimulus, this is

known as negative feedback mechanism– If results enhances stimulus, this is known as

positive feedback mechanism

Neg. vs. Pos. Feedback

Negative feedback• Cause the variable to

change in a direction “opposite” to that of the initial change

Positive feedback• Variable change that occurs

and proceeds in the same direction as the initial disturbance

• Often referred to as “cascades”

Homeostasis cont.• All homeostatic mechanisms have the same goal:

prevention of sudden severe changes within the body

• Most disease is regarded as a result of the disturbance to homeostasis; thus the term homeostatic imbalance– Ex. As a person ages, organs work less efficient,

causing internal environment to become less stable.

Documents

Ch. 1: The Human Body: An Orientation From Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology, 7 th ed