Central University of Kashmir

Nowgam, Srinagar, J&K- 190015

www.cukashmir.ac.in

MCR-C 103

Islam-Origin and Sources of Islamic Thought and Civilization

Islam (Part-1)

Qur’an: its inimitability and uniqueness

Translations and major commentaries of the Qur’an

Sunnah and Hadith: meaning and definitions

The Sirah (Life) of the Prophet

Course Title: Islam-Origin and Sources of Islamic Thought and Civilization

Course Code: MCR- C 103

Department: Religious Studies

Year: 2016

Contributor’s Name: Dr. Nazir Ahmad Zargar

Email: drnazirzargar73@gmail.com

Contact: Department of Religious Studies, Central University of Kashmir, Nowgam, Campus II,

Srinagar. 9622655173,9419064276.

Designation: Assistant Professor

Unit 2

Qur’an: Its Inimitability and Uniqueness

The unique literary form forms the backdrop to the doctrine of I’jaz al-Qur’an, the inimitability of the

Qur’an, which lies at the heart of the Qur’an’s claim to being of divine origin. The Qur’an states,

“If you are in doubt of what We have revealed to Our messenger, then produce one chapter like it.

Call upon all your helpers, besides Allah, if you are truthful”.

And

“Or do they say he fabricated the message? Nay, they have no faith. Let them produce a recital like

it, if they speak the truth.”

According Qur’anic Exegetes these verses issue a challenge to produce a chapter (surah) that

imitates the Qur’an’s unique literary form. The tools needed to meet this challenge are the finite

grammatical rules and the twenty eight letters that make-up the Arabic language; these are

independent and objective measures available to all. The fact that it has not been matched since it

emerged to this day does not surprise most scholars familiar with the Arabic language and that of

the Qur’an.

The inability of any person to produce anything like the Qur’an, due to its unique literary form, is the

essence of the Qur’anic miracle. A miracle is defined as “events which lie outside the productive

capacity of nature”. The argument posed by Muslim Theologians and Philosophers is that if, with

the finite set of Arabic linguistic tools at humanity’s disposal, there is no effective challenge; then

providing a naturalistic explanation for the Qur’an’s uniqueness is incoherent and doesn’t explain its

inimitability. This is because the natural capacity of the text producer, or author, is able to produce

the known literary forms in the Arabic language. The development of an entirely unique literary form

is beyond the scope of the productive nature any author, hence a supernatural entity, God, is the

only sufficient comprehensive explanation.

It is the purpose of this article to explain how the Qur’an achieves this unique literary form thereby

explaining the miracle of its inimitability.

CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR

ORIGIN AND SOURCES OF ISLAMIC

THOUGHTAND CIVILIZATION

Unit II

I`jaz al-Qur’an as a term is translated into English in various ways. Some translators render it as

“inimitable ellipticism”, while others use “miraculous elegance”, others use “grandiose cadence” or

“emotive and evocative force”. As a professional translator and teacher of translation, I prefer to use

the English equivalent “inimitability of the Qur’an” due to its simplicity and sufficiency in rendering

the term beyond any coarseness.

To ascertain the uniqueness of the Qur’an and the fact that it cannot be compared to any similar

speech, different names were given to it and to all its components in a way that proves the

dissimilarity between the Qur’an and Arabic poetry even as regards the mere names of things. Al-

Jahiz (159-255 AH) emphasizes this stating,

Allah refers to His Book (i.e. the Qur’an) in a way unlike that which the Arabs use to describe their

speech in every detail. Accordingly, He calls it in its entirety Qur’an, while they call theirs

diwan(meaning, a collection of poems or poetry). He calls one of its [114] parts surah, while the

Arabs call the unit of their poetry qasidah (meaning, a poem). He calls a part of one surah an ayah,

while they call theirs’ bayt (meaning, a line of poetry or verse).

However, this comparison may seem very strange as there is no similarity between the Qur’an and

Arabic poetry in all respects. Maybe Al-Jahiz was influenced by the allegations of some people that

the Qur’an is nothing but poetry and, therefore, he tried to refute this in relation to the names

attributed to both. I believe Al-Jahiz should have saved his effort as there is no ground for any

comparison whatsoever between poetry and the Qur’an. Moreover, these names of the Qur’an and

its components were also innovations that were unknown to the pre-Islamic Arabs; a matter which

proves the Qur’an to be beyond human power and capacity.

Areas of the inimitability of the Qur’an are extensively varied. Many scholars and rhetoricians in the

past and present wrote on the inimitability of the Qur’an, its aspects and manifestations. Al-Suyuti

(849-911 AH), for example, explores thirty-five distinctive features of the inimitability of the Qur’an,

all of which are related to its literary supremacy alone.

While other scholars were interested in the way the Qur’an tells about the al-Ghaib, i.e. the unseen

or metaphysics, others were more interested in what can be called the ‘Rhetoric Inimitability’ of the

Qur’an. Al-Baqillani (d. 403 AH), Al-RUmmahni (d. 386 AH), Al-Khattabi (d. 388 AH), Al-Jurjani (d. 471

AH), and Al-Razi (250-311 AH) as well as others wrote extensively on this aspect. There is also a

number of modern and contemporary scholars who found it interesting to write on the same aspect

such as Al-Rafi`i (1881-1937), Qutb (1906-1966), Draz (1894-1958), and Bint Ash-Shati’ (1913-1998).

Interestingly enough, other scholars showed interest in the ‘legislative’ or ‘reformist’ inimitability of

the Qur’an such as Rida (1865-1935) in his al-Wahi al-Muhammadi, i.e. The Revelation to

Muhammad.

In addition, a new aspect has recently emerged; it is called the ‘scientific’ inimitability of the Qur’an.

It refers to up-to-date scientific discoveries that were unknown to man at the time the Qur’an was

revealed and hence, to use linguistic terminology, could then be described as ‘anachronisms’. No

one could ever imagine that these discoveries would appear at the hands of an ‘unlettered’ person

from an illiterate society and in a world void of any tools that make such discoveries possible. For

brevity reasons, this article focuses on the rhetoric inimitability of the Qur’an only.

Commenting on the rhetorical inimitability of the Qur’an, Al-Rafi`i states that when the Arabs

encountered the Qur’an, they found no difference between its terminology and the terminology

they use. However, the way these terms were put together and even the way the letters comprising

these terms were joined, were all novel to them. That is why they failed to imitate it and they

considered “the style of the Qur’an is something unlike that which they were familiar with,” and

hence, it would be impossible for them to produce anything like it. To them, the Qur’anic style was

too perfect to be imitated or copied.

The inimitability of the Qur’an, as emphasized by Barakah, is “an historical fact” that can neither be

denied, nor does it need any proof to confirm. The Qur’an, according to him, truly rendered the

Arabs, at the time of its revelation, helpless to produce anything of its like. This failure to generate

anything like the Qur’an continued until the demise of Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings be

upon him). Many centuries have passed since then, and the more time elapses, the stronger and

brighter the miracle of the Qur’an becomes, and the more unable man becomes to imitate or

challenge it. Yet, “the Qur’an is still fresh and raising the banner of inimitability challenging all

peoples of the world in a very confident and certain manner” as believed by Barakah.

Allah the Almighty says what may mean,

{Say: Verily, though mankind and the Jinn should assemble to produce the like of this Qur’an, they

could not produce the like thereof though they were helpers one of another}. (Al-Isra’ 17:88)

Indeed, discussing the issue of the inimitability of the Qur’an is in itself miraculous, as whenever any

researcher reveals the secrets of one aspect, other aspects are revealed with the passage of time. Al-

Rafi`i (1997: 140) hints at this by saying,

What a great resemblance between the Qur’an with its inimitable style, and the system of this vast

universe whom scientists examined from every different angle with various perspectives; yet, it is

still, to them, a new creation and a far-fetched final goal!

The Prophet (Peace and blessings be upon him) challenged the Arabs of his time, who failed to

produce anything like the Qur’an as was previously mentioned, though they were the mighty

masters of eloquence and rhetoric. This, however, cannot be described by anything other than a

miracle.

Being inimitable until the present day, as no one could ever bring anything like it, means that the

Qur’an is inimitable not only by the Arabs, but by all humankind. This also means that the

inimitability of the Qur’an is not due to sarfah as claimed by some earlier scholars, but, is due to the

uniqueness of its internal composition whether it is on the word level, the sentence level, the ayah,

the surah, or its entirety.

It should be noted here that the Qur’an can only be read in the language in which it was revealed,

namely Arabic. Anything else is a translation of its meanings and not the divine words of Allah.

Finally, Muslims believe that the Qur’an is Islam’s eternal miracle whose inimitability is

uninterruptedly confirmed through scientific research. It is also their belief that it was revealed by

the Almighty to Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings be upon him) to bring all people out of

darkness into light through the use of all of its unique devices and methods – which when properly

applied – humanity can lead the best type of life possible.

The Qur’an is a unique form of Arabic speech. The form of its language cannot be described as prose

or poetry. It achieves this unique literary form by:

Intermingling metrical and non-metrical speech

Transcending the defining features of saj’

Using literary and linguistic devices that render it stylistically distinct

The totality of every chapter has a special character, with its own unique form, and its unique use of

literary devices. These features of the Qur’an are part of the reason of why it has not been emulated

to this day. Professor Hamilton Gibb states,

“.…the Meccans still demanded of him a miracle, and with remarkable boldness and self confidence

Muhammad appealed as a supreme confirmation of his mission to the Qur’an itself. Like all Arabs

they were connoisseurs of language and rhetoric. Well, then if the Qur’an were his own composition

other men could rival it. Let them produce ten verses like it. If they could not (and it is obvious that

they could not), then let them accept the Qur’an as an outstanding evidential miracle”

There are many Muslim and Non-Muslim Scholars who testify that the Qur’an is indeed unique and

inimitable. An interesting and useful analysis by Aisha Abd al-Rahman entitled “At-Tafsir al-Bayani li-

Qur’an al-Karim”, which built upon the works of many Islamic Scholars throughout the decades,

supports the conclusion voiced by Taha Hussein that ‘Arabic composition should be divided into

three categories, prose, verse and Qur’an, saj’ forming a part of prose but the Qur’an being a

category of its own.’

As a result of researching Western and Muslim Scholarship it can concluded that the Qur’an is a

unique literary form. Further research into the references below will consolidate the points raised in

this article and will provide the correct understanding on how no one has been able to produce

anything like the Qur’anic discourse. Professor Bruce Lawrence correctly asserts,

“As tangible signs, Qur’anic verse are expressive of an inexhaustible truth, they signify meaning

layered with meaning, light upon light, miracle after miracle.”

Some major commentaries of the qur’an

Some commentaries of early era

Instead of a complete history of the Science of Exegesis here a description of only some

commentators belonging to the first era and then also to the later era whose references occur in

very large numbers in the books of exegesis is given.

There is of course a large group of the Companions of exegesis of the Qur’an. But among them

'Abdullah bin 'Abba's has attained a distinctive position. The basic reason is that Holy Prophet had

specifically prayed for proficiency in exegesis for him. It is related in several

traditions that the Prophet placed his hand on the head of 'Abdullah bin 'Abbas and prayed:

O Allah give him the comprehension of religion and bestow on him the knowledge of tafsir.

And at another time the Prophet said,

O Allah give him abundance in it and spread Your religion through him.

And according to some narrations the Prophet addressed him in these words:

You are a good interpreter of the Qur’an. That is why the Companions used to remember him with

the titles of ‘Interpreter of the Qur’an’ 86, ‘great Scholar’, ‘Ocean of Knowledge’. Even eminent

Companions used to turn towards him in matters of exegesis despite his young age, and his opinion

was widely respected.

It was for these reasons that 'Abdullah bin -Abbas was called “Imam-ul-Mufassirln" (The

leader of commentators) and a great many narrations have been quoted from him in connection

with exegesis of the Qur’an. However, a large part of these narrations are weak in authenticity.

Hence, in order to benefit from his narrations they must be verified according to the rules of Hadith.

Certain things in this connection must be remembered — they are:

1: The most reliable narrations of Ibn "Abbas are those reported in the sequence of Abu Salih from

Mu'awiyah bin Salih from 'Ali bin 'A li Talha from Ibn 'Abbas.

the times of Imam Ahmad a collection of exegesis of Ibn 'Abbas was available in Egypt with this line

of transmission. Imam Ahmad used to say about it, "It will not be extraordinary if anyone travels to

Egypt only to obtain a copy of this exegesis." Later on, however, this transcript became extinct but

many commentators and Traditionists have reported excerpts from it in their books. Imam Bukhari

has quoted many of its narrations in his Sahih, and Hafiz Ibn Jarir, Ibn Abi Hatim and Ibnul Mundhir

have also reported many narrations in the same sequence.

Apart from this sequence of'Ali bin Talha the narrations of Ibn 'Abbas have other narrations which

are either absolutely correct (sahih) or good (Hasan) They are for example. Abu Thaur from Ibn

Jurayh from Ibn 'Abbas or. Hajjaj bin Muhammad from Ibn Jurayh from Ibn 'Abbas, or Qays from

'Ata' bin Saib from S'ad bin Jubayr from Ibn 'Abba's, or Ibn ul Ishaq from Muhammad bin Abi

Muhammad from'lkrimah or Sa'id bin Jubayr from Ibn 'Abbas, etc.'

3: The narrations of Ibn 'Abbas reported from following sources are weak.

a) Muhammad bin Sa'ib Al-Kalbi from Abi Salih from Ibn 'Abba's; and when Muhammad bin Marwan-

as- Suddyyi-as-Saghir reports from Kalbi this is regarded by authorities as a false sequence. Of the

commentators Th'alaba and Wahid! have reported a vast number of narrations from this sequence.

b) Dahhak bin Muzahim from Ibn "Abbas. This is weak because Dahhak is not known to have met

Ibn 'Abbas and if Bishr bin 'Ammarah from Abi RlTq be the reporter from Dahhak, the sequence

becomes weaker because Bishr bin 'Ammarah himself is weak, and if Juwaibir be the reporter from

Dahhak it becomes weaker because Juwaibir is most unreliable.

c) 'Atiyyah al-'Aufi from Ibn 'Abba's: This is weak because of low profile of 'Atiyyah al "Aufi. However,

some poeple consider it as good (Hasan) because i has appreciated the reports of 'Atiyyah.

d) Muqatil bin Sulayman from Ibn "Abbas: This is also weak due to low profile of Muqatil whose

state will be discussed later.

Truth About The Prevalent Exegesis Of Ibn-Abbas (Tafsir Ibn-Abbas)

A tafsir named “Tanwir ul-Miqyas fi Tafsir ibn ‘Abbas” in the name of Ibn 'Abbas has been published

in our times which is generally considered as exegesis of Ibn 'Abba's. Its Urdu translation has also

been published, but it is wrong to ascribe it toIbn "Abbas because this book has been based on the

reported sequence of Muhammad bin Marwan-as-Suddy from Muhammad bin Sa'ib al-Kalbi from

Abi Saleh from Ibn 'Abbas.

We have stated in the foregoing lines that this has been regarded by Traditionists as a "chain of

falsehood' and hence cannot be relied upon.

Abdullah Bin Mas'ud

He is also one of those Companions from whom a large number of exegetic narrations have been

reported. In fact narrations are even more than Sayyidina "Ali Hafiz Ibn Jarir etc. have reported him

saying as under:

"'By the Being save whom there is none worthy of worship, I know of every verse of the Book of

Allah about whom it was revealed and where it was revealed. If I know the address of a person who

knows the Book of Allah more than I know. I will certainly go to him provided the camels can reach

that place."

The famous Tabi'i Masruq bin Al-Ajda' states 'Abdullah bin Mas'Ud used to recite a Surah before us

and spend most of the day in its interpretation and relating Prophetic Traditions about it."

And Masruq has also said "I had been benefitted from many Companions, but after deep thinking

found that the knowledge of all the Companions was limited in six of them, namely, Sayyidina 'Umar,

Sayyidina "Ali. Sayydina "Abdullah bin Mas'ud, Sayyidina Zayd bin Thabit, Sayyidina Abu Darda and

Sayydina Ubayy bin Ka'b. Then I pondered again and found the knowledge of these six dependent on

Sayydina 'Ali and Sayyidina Abdullah bin Mas'ud

Some Exegesis Of Later Times

Whatever exegesis were written in the later periods and in whichever style the scholars of Islam

rendered their services to the Qur’an, is a lengthy subject that calls for writing a separate book.

Nobody can claim to have fulfilled the due right of exegesis of the Qur’an, but it is also an

undeniable fact that the lovers of Islam have worked hard and with love and devotion in service of

this great Book.

1: Tafsir Ibn-Kathlr

On top of the list of these books i Tafsir Ibn Kathlr. This is the work of Hafiz 'imaduddin Abul Fida'

Isma'il bin Al-Khatab Abi Harith "Umar bin Kathlr Ash-Shafa'i (died 747 AH} and comprises four

volumes. This book may be regarded as a summary of Tafsir Ibn Jarlr. The method adopted by Ibn

Kathir is Exegesis by narrations (tafsir bi-al hadith), that is, under every verse he has first described a

summary of its exegesis, then he mentions whatever narrations and reports are available from the

Prophet or the Companions or their followers to explain its various words or sentences. But the

earlier commentators viz. Ibn Jarir, Ibn Mardawayh and Ibn Majah etc who had followed this method

only undertook the compiling of those narrations but they did not scrutinize them. Since Ibn Kathir

was also an eminent traditionist apart from being a commentator, and was well versed in the art –of

criticism and review, has done away with those weak and Maw-du' (fabricated) narrations which

were being transmitted by earlier commentators and, he has warned about relying on weak

narrations.

The books on Exegesis by Narrations are mostly full of Isra'iliyyat. Ibn Kathir is extremely cautious in

treating these citations and his approach is clean and based on the Qur’an and Traditions. Its detail

has already been given under the heading Isra'iliyyats in his own words. Hence, his first approach is

that he has not cited many Israili narrations, and, if he has done so, he has defined them as Isra'ili

narrations. For instance, in Surah al-Saffat he has quoted some reports which indicate that the

sacrifice offered related to Sayyidina Ibrahim’s son Sayyidina Ishaq but he has immediately clarified

"Allah knows better, but apparently all these narrations have been reported by Ka'b ul-Ahbar in

these reports all sorts of things, good and bad, were collected and this Ummah does not need a

single word of all those things."

From the narrative point of view Tafsir Ibn Kathir is the most cautious and reliable exegesis. But this

does not mean that every narration quoted in this exegesis is correct. Scholars of tafsir are of the

view that at some places Ibn Kathir has also quoted weak reports without indicating their weakness.

Apart from this, he has also cited many sayings of 'weak' commentators, namely Muqatil. Kalbi and

'Atiyyah 'Aufi etc. But generally he has quoted without comment only those sayings which are not

against any Islamic tenet. Hence, they are not of an authentic nature but only a commentator's own

statement.

Tafsir Kabir

The second book is Tafsir Kabir of Imam Razi. Its real name is Mafatih-ul-Ghayb but it is better

known by the name of Tafsir Kabir. This is written by Imam Fakhruddin Muhammad Ibn Ziyauddin

'Umar Ar-Razi (died 606 AH). Just as Tafsir Ibn Kathlr is the most concise and matchless exegesis

from a narrative point of view so also there is no parallel to Tafsir Kabir in relation to sciences of

Reason. Some people have passed a funny remark on this exegesis that in it there is everything

except exegesis. But the fact is that this remark is cruely unjust to this 'book because this book has

no equal in interpretation of the meanings of the Qur’an.

The prominent features of this book are:

1: The explanation, grammatical composition and background of revelation, and all the narrations

related to them have been described by Imam Razi in an organised manner with clarity and detail.

Thus, the number of sayings in explanation of a particular verse are reproduced together and easily

observed. In other exegeses these discussions are generally scattered or disorganized, due to which

it becomes time consuming. But in Tafsir Kabir they can be found at one place and very well

organised.

2: He has described the grandeur and majesty of the Qur’an in detail.

3: The legal injunctions relating to a verse have been described with detailed reasons.

4: Any interpolations introduced by the erring sects and intellectuals in the meaning of any verse has

been described in full and then refuted with detailed arguments. In this way it contains in it strong

refutation of all the erring sects of his time, namely, Jahmiyyah, Mu'tazilah, Mujassimah, batiniyyah

etc.

5: A very specific feature of Tafsir Kabir to which very little attention has been paid is the description

of the link between the verses of the Qur’an. It is a fact that the reason for a link and affinity

between the verses as described by him is so casual, appealing and reasonable that not only it

imparts a sense of satisfaction but also an ecstatic feeling of elegance and grandeur of the Qur’an.

6: Qur’anic injunctions and their mysteries and expediencies have been very beautifully highlighted.

In short, Tafsir KabTr is a very concise exegesis and always guides a reader to the right answer.

Commonly people get upset by its lengthy discussions, (the exegesis of Surah Fatihah alone has

covered 150 pages). It is in the earlier part that the explanation is lengthy but takes on fewer words

as it progresses. Priceless gems of knowledge and understanding may be received from it. However,

the scholars opine that certain things must be kept in mind in connection with this exegesis;

a. Imam Ra"zi had written this exegesis upto Surah al-Fath when he died. Hence, after this

Surah another scholar Qadi Shahabud-din bin Khalili al Khauli, al Dimashqi (died 639 AH) or

Shaikh Najm ud din Ahmad bin Al-Qamuli (died 777 AH) 214 , completed it. It is

somarvelously done and the style of Imam Razi has been so thoroughly maintained that

anyone not aware of this fact would never suspect that this was written by someone other

than Imam Ra"zi.

b. The narrations of Tafsir Kabir, like other exegeses are a collection of good and bad together.

c. Occasionally Imam Razi has adopted a view different from that of other commentators. For

instance, he has rejected the authentic tradition “Ibrahim did not tell a lie except on three

occasions”. Hence, where he has differed from the accepted view, the established view

should be adopted.

Tafsir Qurtubi

Its full name is Al-Jami' li -Ahkam-al- Qur’an . It is written by the famous research scholar of Andulus

(Spain), Allamah Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Abi Bakr bin Farah al-Qurtubi (died 671

AH). He was a follower of Imam Malik's school of thought in Islamic Jurisprudence. The basic

purpose of this book was to deduce juristic injunctions and rulings from the Qur’anic verses but in

this connection he has very aptly commented on the meanings of verses, scrutiny of difficult words,

composition and rhetoric and relevant narrations in the exegesis. Particularly the instructions

obtainable from the Qur’an for everyday life have been clearly explained.

The preface of this book is also detailed and comprises important discussions on the sciences of the

Qur’an. It has twelve volumes and has been published repeatedly.

Tafsir Tabari

The real name of this tafsir is Jami‘ al-Bayan li Ahkam al-Qur’an and is commonly known as tafsir

Tabari. It was compiled by ‘Allamah Abu Ja‘far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (died 310H).Allamah

Tabari is a highly rated Mufassir, Muhaddith and historian of the Suni sect of the Muslims. It is said

that he kept writing for forth years continuously and used to write forty pages every day.

Being is thirty volumes, the tafsir Tabari enjoys the status of a basic source for later commentators.

In his explanation of the verses he quotes different scholars and then goes to prove the position

which, according to him, is full of arguments and proofs. It must however, be admitted that

narrations of all sorts, sound and weak, have found place in this tafsir. Because of this, not every

narration in this book can be relied upon. In reality, the author was aiming through his commentary

to collect and compile all narrations that could become available to him, so that his collected

material could be put to use later on. Conceded is the fact that he has given the chain of reporters

along with each narration so that whoever wishes to investigate into the chain of narrators could do

so and decide for himself if the narrations are true or false.

Ahkam al-Qur’an

This tafsir has been written by Imam Abu Bakr al-Jassas al Razi (died 370H) who occupies a

distinguished place among Hanafi jurists. The deduction of juristic injunctions and rulings from the

noble Qur’an is the subject of this book. Instead of explaining verses in serial continuity, the author

has taken up the juristic details as called for by verses which consist of juristic injunctions. Several

other books have also been written on this subjects, but this book enjoys a prominent place among

those.

Tafsir Mazhari

This tafsir was written by Qadi Sanaullah Panipati (died 1225H). he has named this tafsir as al-Tafsir

al-Mazhari after the name of his spiritual master, Mirza Mazhar Jan-e-Janan Dehlavi. This tafsir is

very simple and clear and extremely useful to locate brief explanations of the Qur’anic verses. Along

with the elucidation of the Qur’anic words, he has also taken related narrations in ample details, and

in doing so, he has made an effort to accept narrations after much more scrutiny as compared with

other commentaries.

Ruh al-Ma‘ani

The full name of this tafsir is Ruh al-Ma‘ani fi tafsir al-Qur’an al-‘Azim wa al-sab‘ al-mathani . It is

written by Allamah Mamud al-Alusi Baghdadi, the famous scholar of the last period of the Islamic

Baghdad. It comprises of thirty volumes. The author has made his best possible effort to make his

tafsir comprehensive. There are exhaustive discussions on language, syntax, style, and on

jurisprudence, articles of faith, scholastics, philosophy, astronomy, mysticism, and related narratives

of traditions. The author has attempted to leave no intellectual aspect pertaining to a verse

unexplained in the case of hadith narratives as well. He has been more cautious as compared to

other commentators. From this angle, this is a very comprehensive commentary, and no future

venture in connection with the tafsir of the Qur’an can now afford to ignore its help.

Tafhim-ul-Quran

It is a translation and explanation of the Qur'an by South Asian Islamic scholar Syed Abul Ala

Mauduii. Maulana Maududi spent 30 years writing the work; he began in 1942 and completed it in

1972. Tafhim is derived from the Arabic word fahm which means "understanding".[2]

Tafhim is a combination of orthodox and modernist interpretation and has deeply influenced

modern Islamic thought. It differs from traditional exegeses in several ways. It is more than a

traditional commentary on the scripture as it contains discussions and debates regarding economics,

sociology, history, and politics. In his text, Maududi highlights Qur’anic perspective and argues that

Islam provides ample guidance in all spheres.

Maududi uses the standard technique of providing an explanation of the Qur'anic verses from the

Sunnah, including the historical reasons behind the verses.

The Tafhim deals extensively with issues faced by the modern world in general and the Muslim

community in particular.

Maududi wrote his work in Urdu. It has since been translated to languages

including English, Hindi, Bengali, Malayalam,Marathi and Pashto.

In 2006, the Islamic Foundation published an abridged one-volume English translation by Zafaf Ishaq

Ansari under the titleTowards Understanding the Qur'an.

Ma'ariful Qur'an

It is a tafsir (exegesis) of the Quran written by Pakistani Sunni Islamic scholar Mufti Muhammad

Shafi (1897–1976). Originally written in Urdu, it is the most prominent work of its author.

About the background and starting of Ma'ariful Qur'an, Mufti Muhammad Taqi Usmani has written

in the Foreword of the English translation of the same:

‘The origin of Ma'ariful Qur'an refers back to the third of Shawwal 1373 A.H. (corresponding to the

2nd of July 1954) when the author was invited to give weekly lectures on the Radio Pakistan to

explain selected verses of the Holy Qur'an to the general audience. This invitation was accepted by

the author on the condition that he would not accept any remuneration for this service and that his

lectures would be broadcast without any interference by the editing authorities. The permanent title

of this weekly programme was "Ma'ariful-Qur'an" (The Wisdom of the Holy Qur'an) and it was

broadcast every Friday morning on the network of Radio Pakistan.

‘This series of lectures continued for ten years upto the month of June 1964 whereby the new

authorities stopped the programme for reasons best known to them. This series of lectures

contained a detailed commentary on selected verses from the beginning of the Holy Qur'an upto the

Surah Ibrahim (Surah no. 14).

‘This weekly programme of Radio Pakistan was warmly welcomed by the Muslims throughout the

globe and used to be listened to by thousands of Muslims, not only in Pakistan and India but also in

Western and African countries.

‘After the programme was discontinued, there was a flood of requests from all over the world to

transfer this series in a book-form and to complete the remaining part of the Holy Qur'an in the

shape of a regular commentary.

‘These requests persuaded the esteemed author to revise these lectures and to add those verses

which were not included in the original lectures. He started this project in 1383 A.H. (1964) and

completed the commentary of Surah al-Fatihah in its revised form and started the revision of Surah

al-Baqarah. However, due to his numerous involvements he had to discontinue this task, and it

remained unattended during the next five years. ‘In Shawwal 1388 (1969) the esteemed author

suffered from a number of diseases which made him restricted to his bed. It was during this ailment

that he restarted this work while on bed and completed Surah al-Baqarah in the same condition.

Since then he devoted himself to the "Ma'ariful-Qur'an". Despite a large number of obstacles in his

way, he never surrendered to any of them and continued his work with a miraculous speed until he

accomplished the work in eight volumes (comprising about seven thousand pages) within five years

only’.

The work consists of eight volumes. A detailed introduction, included at the beginning of the first

volume, focuses on some of the basic issues of the Quran. Notable among them are the Wahy, the

modes of descent, the chronology of the revelation of the Quran, the first revealed verses

(ayah), Mekkan and Medinan verses, the preservation of the Quran, the printing of the Quran, the

sources of Tafsir, Arabic language etc. The work adopts a simple narrative style: first, several verses

are provided in the original Arabic with their literal translation in Urdu; it is then followed by subject-

wise discussion on almost every important issue.

Ma'ariful Qur'an not only includes the discussions and analysis of the Quran found in the authentic

sources of Tafsir, it also tries to answer the contemporary questions and issues in a logical and

scholarly manner, which is rather absent in other traditional Tafsirs. It is used as a good reference

book on Islamic topics.

Tadabbur-i-Qur'an

It is a tafsir of the Qur'an by Amin Ahsan Islahi based on the concept of thematic and structural

coherence, which was originally inspired by Allama Hamiduddin Farahi. The tafsir is extended over

nine volumes of six thousand pages. It was originally written in Urdu, but now it is being translated in

English.

This tafsir expounds each surah as a coherent discourse, arranging surahs into pairs, and establishing

seven major surah divisions - the entire Qur'an thus emerges as a well-connected and systematic

book.

For quite some time, there was a theory that there is no coherence in Qurān. It was asserted that

Qurān is a collection of different verses having no logical connection with each other. In the late

19th and early 20th century Western scholars propounded the theory and some of them proposed

chronological order on the bases of which the Qurān should be rearranged.On the other hand Qurān

has the most important place in the Muslim community. They derive all religious guidance and

aspirations from the Qurān.

Orientalists assert that Qurān does not even fulfil the characteristics of a book. How can it be

claimed to be the best of all the books? Tadabbur-i-Qurān is conceived to an answer to the challenge

that the Qurān is not a coherent book. Islahi wrote his magnum opus, on the principles derived from

his teacher, Farahi, who address the issue in the beginning of 20th century. Islahi started his work on

this project at the beginning of his career and completed it in 1980. The work upholds that Qurān is

not a haphazardly arranged book, but that there is a structural and thematic coherence in the

Qurān. The arrangement of the Qurān is divine and rational. Islahi divided the whole Quran in seven

groups named Amud (central theme). Each section is revolving around a particular theme. Each sura

is carrying a theme and connected with the adjacent sura as pair. Each is complementing the other

by different ways with the exception of sura Fatiha.

The concept of nazm in Qurān adopted by Islahi in his exegesis led him to interpret Qurān in many

places different from the other Ulama. Another characteristic of Tadabbur-i-Qurān is specification of

the addresses of the text. This is important to determine implication of the tenets of Qurān upon the

Muslims. Tadabbur-i-Qurān is influencing Islamīc literature more than any other Qurānic exegetical

work in modern times. No future scholar undertaking interpretation and exposition of Qurān or

working on Islamīc themes can afford to ignore this monumental exegetical work of Islahi.

1. Sunnah and Hadith: Meaning and definitions

Sunnah: Definition and Meaning

The Arabic word sunnah lexically means "road" or "practice." In the language of the Prophet and the

Companions it denotes the whole of licit [lawful] practices followed in the Religion [dîn], particularly

the pristine (hanîf) path of Prophets, whether pertaining to belief, religious and social practice, or

ethics generally speaking.

In its technical sense sunnah has three meanings. In hadith terminology it denotes any saying (qawl),

action (fi'l), approval (taqrîr), or attribute (sifa), whether physical (khilqiyya) or moral (khuluqiyya)

ascribed to (udîfa ila) the Prophet , whether before or after the beginning of his prophethood. This

meaning is used in contradistinction to the Qur'an in expressions such as "Qur'an and sunnah " and

applies in the usage of hadith scholars.

In the terminology of usul al-fiqh or principles of jurisprudence, sunnah denotes a saying (qawl),

action (fi'l) or approval (taqrîr) related from (nuqila 'an) the Prophet or issuing (sadara) from him

other than the Qur'an.

In the terminology of fiqh or jurisprudence, sunnah denotes whatever is firmly established (thabata)

as called for (matlub) in the Religion on the basis of a legal proof (dalîl shar'î) but without being

obligatory, the continued abandonment of which constitutes disregard (istikhfaf) of the Religion -

also sin (ithm) according to some jurists - and incurs blame (lawm, 'itab, tadlîl) - also punishment

('uquba) according to some jurists. However, some jurists have made a distinction between what

they called "Emphasized sunnah " (sunnah mu'akkada) or "sunnah of Guidance" (sunnah al-huda),

such as what the Prophet ordered or emphasized in word or in deed, and other types of sunnah

considered less binding in their legal status, such as what they called "Non-Emphasized sunnah "

(sunnah ghayr mu'akkada) or "sunnah of Habit" (sunnah al-'ada).

The above meanings of sunnah are used in contradistinction to the other four of the five legal

categories for human actions - fard (obligatory), sunnah , mubah (indifferent), makruh (disliked),

haram (prohibited) - and applies in the usage of jurists from the second Hijri century onwards.

However, the jurists have stressed that the basis for all acts of worship categorized as sunnah is

"obligatoriness" not "permissiveness" (al-asl fî al-sunnah al-wujub la al-ibaha). sunnah is thus

defined as the strongest of the following near-synonymous categories:

"praiseworthy" (mandub) "desirable" (mustahabb) "voluntary" (tatawwu') "refinement" (adab) "obedience" (ta'a) "supererogatory" (nafl) "drawing near" (qurba)

"recommended" (raghîba, murghab fîh) "excellent" (hasan) "excellence" (ihsan) "meritorious" (fadîla) "best" (afdal). It is antonymous with "innovation" (bid'a), as in the expression "People of the sunnah " or Sunnis (Ahl al-sunnah ).

Al-Dhahabi relates from Ishaq ibn Rahuyah the saying: "If al-Thawri, al-Awza'i, and Malik concur on a

given matter, that matter is a sunnah ." Al-Dhahabi comments:

Rather, the sunnah is whatever the Prophet made sunnah , and the rightly-guided Caliphs after him.

As for Consensus (ijma'), it is whatever the ulama of the Community both early and late have

unanimously agreed upon, through either assumed (zannî) or tacit (sukutî) agreement. Whoever

deviates from such consensus among the Successors or their successors, it is tolerated for him alone.

As for those who deviate from the three above-named imams, then such is not named a deviation

from Consensus, nor from the sunnah. All that Ishaq meant was that if they concur on a given matter

then it is most probably correct, just as we say, today, that it is nearly impossible to find the truth

outside of what the Four Imams of scholarly endeavor agreed upon. We say this at the same time as

we admit that their agreement on a given matter does not dictate the consensus of the Community,

but we refrain from asserting, in relation to a matter upon which they all agreed, that the correct

position is otherwise.

Hadith: Definition and meaning

The word hadith means news, report or narration. It is in this general sense that the word is used in

the Qur’an. [e.g. 12:101.] Technically, the word hadith, (pl. ahadith) means in particular the reports

(verbal and written) about the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad. Hadith reports about the

Prophet Muhammad are of the following kinds:

i. What he said (qaul).

ii. What he did (fi'l).

iii. What he (silently) approved (taqrir) in others' actions.

There are also reports about him, i.e. about what he was like (sifa).

The term “hadith” is one of the most used Islamic terms by both Muslims and non-Muslims. But

despite its importance there is often a good deal of ambiguity about what it exactly means. It is

often used inconsistently and inaccurately. This article aims at clarifying the exact meaning of this

term.

The noun “hadith” occurs in the Qur’an twenty three times (4.42, 4.78, 4.87, 4.140, 6.68, 7.185,

12.111, 18.6, 20.9, 31.6, 33.53, 39.23, 45.6, 51.24, 52.34, 53.59, 56.81, 66.3, 68.44, 77.50, 79.15,

85.17, 88.1). Its plural form “ahadith” is found five times (12.6, 12.21, 12.101, 23.44, 34.19). In these

twenty eight verses, the term broadly means “narrative,” “story,” “speech,” or “news,” which may or

may not be religious. For instance, God describes the Qur’an as “the best of hadith” (39.23), refers to

the story of Moses as the “hadith of Moses” (20.9), and says about nations that He destroyed for

rejecting the messengers He sent to them “We have made them ahadith” (23.44). Other variations

of this term occur in another eight Qur’anic verses (2.76, 18.70, 20.113, 21.2, 26.5, 65.1, 93.11,

99.4).

Of the thirty six occurrences of the term “hadith” only one is linked to something specific to

Prophet Muhammad. This is verse 93.11 where the Prophet is commanded by God to speak about

His favor to him, i.e. making him a Prophet: “As for the favor of your Lord, haddith (speak about).”

But even in this solitary instance, the verb “haddith” is used in its generic meaning. Indeed, the verb

is used in another verse to refer to the speech of disbelievers (2.76).

But the term “hadith” has acquired in Islamic literature the very specific meaning of reports

about what the Prophet said, did, approved, and disapproved of, explicitly or implicitly. Indeed,

hadith is considered as the main source of the “Sunna” or “customary behavior” of the Prophet. The

other source is the “sira” or “biography” of the Prophet. It is this technical meaning of the term

“hadith” that the rest of this article focuses on.

Any hadith consists of two parts, the first is known as “isnad” or “sanad,” and the second is

known as “matn.” The generic meaning of “isnad,” whose plural is “asanid,” is “support” or

“foundation.” But in the terminology of hadith it refers to the chain of transmitters of the hadith.

These narrators are called “isnad” because they provide the “support” for the historicity of the

hadith.

Lexically, “matn” denotes the visible part of something. In the technical language of Islamic

literature, “matn” denotes the saying, behavior, or incident that is being reported by the chain of

transmitters. To illustrate these concepts, this is a hadith about using the visibility of the new moon

to determine the beginning and the end of the fasting month of Ramadan:

Yahya bin Bukair told us on that al-Laith said, that ‘Uqail said, that ibn Shihab said, that Salim

said, that ibn ‘Umar said that he heard the Messenger of Allah say: “When you see it start your fast

and when you see it break your fast. If it was cloudy, make an estimate [for the start of end of the

fasting month].” (Bukhari, 1900)

Hadith narratives at times quote the Prophet directly:

Sa‘id bin Yahya bin Sa‘id al-Qurashi told us that his father said, that Abu Burda bin Abdullah bin

Abi Burda said, that Abi Burda said, that Abi Musa said that people asked: “O Messenger of Allah!

Whose practice of Islam is the best?” He said: “The one who does not cause harm to Muslims by his

tongue or hand.” (Bukhari, 11)

A hadith may not quote the Prophet directly but report what he was heard saying or seen doing:

‘Abda bin ‘Abdullah told us that ‘Abdul Samad said, that ‘Abdullah bin al-Muthanna said, that

Thumama bin ‘Abdullah said, that Anas said about the Prophet that when he said something he

repeated it three times until it was fully understood and that when he encountered people he greeted

them three times. (Bukhari, 95)

A hadith may show the Prophet’s tacit approval of something, as in this example in which the

Messenger does not stop Muslims from keeping his cut hair:

Muhammad bin Abdul Rahim told us that Sa‘id bin Sulaiman said, that ‘Abbad said, that ibn

‘Awn said, that ibn Sirin said, that Anas said that when the Messenger of Allah had his hair cut Abu

Talha was the first to take his hair. (Bukhari, 171)

But even in Islamic literature the term “hadith” has been used in a broader sense. Some of the

reports found in the collections of hadith detail things that “Sahaba (Companions)” of the Prophet

said or did, rather than the Messenger himself. At times, this may be a statement reflecting the view

of a Companion:

‘Ali said: “Speak to people about what they know. Do you want them to accuse Allah and His

Messenger of lying?” It was ‘Ubaidullah bin Musa on the authority of Ma‘ruf bin Kharrabudh, on the

authority of Abil Tufail, on the authority of ‘Ali [who reported this] (Bukhari, 127)

The implication of such hadiths is that the teaching conveyed by the Companion reflects what he

learned from the Prophet.

It should be noted, however, that the term “Companion” is used rather loosely by scholars.

While some individuals, such as ‘Ali bin Abi Talib who transmitted the hadith above, spent many

years in the company of the Prophet, others are called Companions for only seeing the Prophet! For

instance, in his book al-Isaba fi Ma‘rifat al-Sahaba (Identifying the Companions Correctly), ibn Hajar

al-‘Asqalani (d. 852/1448) calls “Companion” any “Muslim who met the Prophet, believed in him,

and died while still a believer.”

Another interesting feature of hadith 127 is that its isnad follows the matn, which is the

opposite of the normal situation.

The following hadith reports a statement by a Companion rather than something the

Prophet said, but because it is about a pledge given by that Companion to the Prophet, the

implication is that the Companion’s words and actions were approved by the Prophet:

Musaddad told us that Yahya said, that Isma‘il said, that Qais bin Abi Hazim said, that Jarir bin

‘Abdullah said: “I pledged to the Messenger of Allah that I will perform the prayer, pay the obligatory

alms, and give good advice to every Muslim.” (Bukhari, 57)

In the text of hadiths, variations of “hadith” are also used in the generic sense of this term,

i.e. not referring specifically to sayings of the Prophet. For instance, the term “haddathana (told us)”

is frequently used with individuals who are quoted as the source of hadith. In fact, all of the hadiths

quoted above use the term “haddathana (told us)” in reference to at least one of the narrators.

Another feature of the hadith literature worth noting is that a hadith may exist in a number of

different wordings and different chains of transmission. For example, this hadith is clearly a different

version of the hadith above:

Ya‘qub bin Ibrahim told us that Hushaim said, that Sayyar said, that al-Sha‘bi said, that Jarir bin

‘Abdullah said: “I pledged to the Prophet listening and obeying, so he taught me to add ‘as much as I

can, and to give good advice to every Muslim’” (Bukhari, 7402)

Significatly, the last part of the statement that hadith 57 attributes to Jarir appears in hadith

7402 as something the Prophet said.

Unlike the Qur’an whose authenticity is accepted by all Muslims, a hadith may or may not be

authentic. Muslim denominations differ on which hadiths are authentic and which are not. Sunni

Muslims have particularly high regard for the two hadith collections of Bukhari (194-256/810-870)

and his student Muslim (206-261/821-875). They call them “sahih (correct)” to reflect their almost

complete confidence that they contain authentic hadiths only. Other highly regarded hadith

collections are those of Abu Dawud (202-275/817-888), ibn Maja (209-273/824-887), al-Tirmidhi

(209-279/824-892), and al-Nasa’i (215-303 / 830-915).

The hadith classification system focuses almost exclusively on the reliability of the chain of

transmission. For instance, if one of the narrators in the isnad lacked credibility or is known to have

lied then that would discredit the hadith. Similarly, if the hadith was originally reported on the

authority of someone who did not meet the Prophet then that would put the hadith in a lower

category, and so on.

This near complete concentration of hadith criticism on the chain of transmission reflects

the scholars’ view that they could not tell whether a reported event or saying by the Prophet is likely

to have happened on the basis of its details, i.e. matn. They could not claim to have the ability to

judge, for instance, whether the Prophet could have given a particular instruction or not, because

that might implicitly be the equivalent of claiming a level of knowledge that is comparable to that of

the Prophet. There are some hadiths that were challenged on the basis of their matns despite the

reliability of their chains of transmission — for instance, if they were found to be in conflict with

other accepted hadiths — but these are relatively small in number. Significantly, in these cases,

scholars are being “forced” to consider the matn, which is a completely different approach from

giving matn at least as important a position as isnad in hadith criticism.

3. The Sirah (Life) of the Prophet

[A brief overview of the Sirah of the holy Prophet (may peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)

is given over here. For full knowledge of the subject the student is advised o go through authentic

books of sirah. }

Prophet Muhammad (s) was born in 570 CE in Makkah (Bakka, Baca, Mecca). His father, Abdullah,

died several weeks before his birth in Yathrib (Medinah) where he went to visit his father's maternal

relatives. His mother died while on the return journey from Medinah at a place called ‘Abwa’ when

he was six years old.

He was raised by his paternal grandfather 'Abd al Muttalib (Shaybah) until the age of eight, and after

his grandfather’s death by Abu Talib, his paterna luncle. 'Abd al Muttalib's mother, Salma, was a

native of Medinah and he was born and raised as a young boy in Medinah before his uncle Muttalib

brought him to Makkah to succeed him. Many years before Muhammad's birth, 'Abd al Muttalib had

established himself as an influential leader of the Arab tribe ‘Quraish’ in Makkah and took care of

the Holy sanctuary ‘Ka’bah’. Makkah was a city state well connected to the caravan routes to Syria

and Egypt in the north and northwest and Yemen in the south. Muhammad was a descendant of

Prophet Ismail through the lineage of his second son Kedar.

Ka'bah is the first house of worship built on earth for the worship of Allah, the One True God. It was

re-built (raised from the existing foundation) by Prophets Ibrahim (Abraham) and Ismail (Ishmael).

Allah is the proper name of the One True God, creator and sustainer of the universe, who does not

have a partner or associate, and He did not beget nor was He begotten. Unlike the word god, the

word Allah does not have a plural or gender.

Under the guardianship of Abu Talib, Muhammad (s) began to earn a living as a businessman and a

trader. At the age of twelve, he accompanied Abu Talib with a merchant caravan as far as Bostra in

Syria. Muhammad was popularly known as ‘al-Ameen’ for his unimpeachable character by the

Makkans and visitors alike.

The title Al-Ameen means the Honest, the Reliable and the Trustworthy, and it signified the highest

standard of moral and public life. Upon hearing of Muhammad’s impressive credentials, Khadijah, a

rich merchantwidow, asked Muhammad (s) to take some merchandise for trade to Syria. Soon after

this trip when he was twenty-five, Khadijah proposed marriage to Muhammad through a relative.

Muhammad accepted the proposal. At that time, Khadijah was twice widowed and forty years old.

Khadijah (ra) and Muhammad (s) were the parents of six children - four daughters and two sons. His

first son Qasim died at the age of two. He was nicknamed Abul Qasim, meaning the father of Qasim.

His second son Abdullah died in infancy. Abdullah was also called affectionately as ‘Tayyab’ and

‘Tahir’ because he was born after Muhammad’s prophethood. The four daughters were: Zainab,

Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatimah (ra).

The Holy sanctuary Ka’bah was now filled with three hundred sixty idols. The original, pristine

message of Prophet Ibrahim was lost, and it was mixed with superstitions and traditions of pilgrims

and visitors from distant places, who were used to idol worship and myths. In every generation, a

small group of men and women detested the pollution of Ka’bah and kept pure their practice of the

religion taught by Prophets Ibrahim and Ismail. They used to spend some of their time away from

this polluted environment in retreats to nearby hills.

Muhammad (s) was forty when, during his one of many retreats to Mount Hira for

meditation during the month of Ramadan, he received the first revelation from the Archangel Jibril

(Gabriel). On this first appearance, Gabriel (as) said to Muhammad: "Iqraa," meaning Read or Recite.

Muhammad replied, "I cannot read," as he had not received any formal education and did not know

how to read or write. The Angel Gabriel then embraced him until he reached the limit of his

endurance and after releasing said: "Iqraa." Muhammad’s answer was the same as before.

Gabriel repeated the embrace for the third time, asked him to repeat after him and said:

"Recite in the name of your Lord who created! He created man from that which clings. Recite; and

thy Lord is most Bountiful, He who has taught by the pen, taught man what he knew not."

These revelations are the first five verses of Surah (chapter) 96 of the Qur’an.

Thus it was in the year 610 CE the revelation began.

Muhammad (s) was terrified by the whole experience of the revelation and fled the cave of Mt. Hira

[Qur'an 81:19-29+. When he reached his home, tired and frightened, he asked his wife: ‘cover me,

cover me,’ in a blanket. After his awe had somewhat abated, his wife Khadijah asked him about the

reason of his great anxiety and fear. She then assured him by saying: "Allah (The One God) will not

let you down because you are kind to relatives, you speak only the truth, you help the poor, the

orphan and the needy, and you are an honest man. Khadijah then consulted with her cousin Waraqa

who was an old, saintly man possessing knowledge of previous revelations and scriptures. Waraqa

confirmed to her that the visitor was none other than the Angel Gabriel who had come to Moses. He

then added that Muhammad is the expected Prophet. Khadijah accepted the revelation as truth and

was the first person to accept Islam. She supported her husband in every hardship, most notably

during the three-year ‘boycott’ of the Prophet’s clan by the pagan Quraish. She died at the age of

sixty-five in the month of Ramadan soon after the lifting of the boycott in 620 CE.

Gabriel (as) visited the Prophet as commanded by Allah revealing Ayat (meaning signs, loosely

referred to as verses) in Arabic over a period of twenty-three years. The revelations that he received

were sometimes a few verses, a part of a chapter or the whole chapter. Some revelations came

down in response to an inquiry by the nonbelievers. The revealed verses were recorded on a variety

of available materials (leather, palm leaves, bark, shoulder bones of animals), memorized as soon as

they were revealed, and were recited in daily prayers by Muslims [Qur'an 80:13-16]. Angel Gabriel

taught the order and arrangement of verses, and the Prophet instructed his several scribes to record

verses in that order [Qur'an 75:16-19 and 41:41-42]. Once a year, the Prophet used to recite all the

verses revealed to him up to that time to Gabriel to authenticate the accuracy of recitation and the

order of verses [Qur'an 17:106]. All the revealed verses (over a period of 23 years and ending in 632

CE) were compiled in the book known as Qur’an. The name Qur’an appears in the revealed verses.

The Qur’an does not contain even a word from the Prophet. The Qur'an speaks in the first person,

i.e., Allah's commandments to His creation. Gabriel also visited the Prophet throughout his mission

informing and teaching him of events and strategy as needed to help in the completion of the

prophetic mission. The Prophet’s sayings, actions, and approvals are recorded separately in

collections known as Hadith.

The mission of Prophet Muhammad (s) was to restore the worship of the One True

God, the creator and sustainer of the universe, as taught by Prophet Ibrahim and all Prophets of

God, and to demonstrate and complete the laws of moral, ethical, legal, and social conduct and all

other matters of significance for the humanity at large.

The first few people who followed this message were: his cousin Ali, his servant Zayd ibn Harithah,

his friend Abu Bakr and his wife and daughters. They accepted Islam by testifying that:

"There is no Deity (worthy of worship) except Allah (The One True God) and Muhammad is the

Messenger of Allah."

Islam means peace by submission and obedience to the Will and Commandments of

God and those who accept Islam are called Muslims, meaning those who have accepted the message

of peace by submission to God.

In the first three years of his mission forty people (men and women) accepted Islam. This small

group comprised of youth as well as older people from a wide range of economic and social

background. The Prophet was directed by a recent revelation to start preaching Islam to everyone.

He then began to recite revelations to people in public and invite them to Islam. The Quraish,

leaders of Makkah, took his preaching with hostility. The most hostile and closest to the prophet was

his uncle Abu Lahab and his wife. Initially, they and other leaders of Quraish tried to bribe him with

money and power including an offer to make him king if he were to abandon his message. When this

did not work, they tried to convince his uncle Abu Talib to accept the best young man of Makkah in

place of Muhammad and to allow them to kill Muhammad. His uncle tried to persuade the Prophet

to stop preaching but the Prophet said: "O uncle, if they were to put the sun in my right hand and

the moon in my left hand to stop me from preaching Islam, I would never stop. I will keep preaching

until Allah makes Islam prevail or I die."

The Quraish began to persecute Muslims by beating, torture and boycott of their businesses. Those

who were weak, poor or slaves were publicly tortured. The first person to die by this means was a

Muslim woman by the name Umm Ammar (the mother of Ammar Ibn Yasir). The Muslims from well-

to-do families were physically restrained in their homes with the condition that if they recant they

will be allowed freedom of movement. The Prophet was publicly ridiculed and humiliated including

frequent throwing of filth on him in the street and while he prayed in the Ka’bah. In spite of great

hardships and no apparent support, the message of Islam kept all Muslims firm in their belief. The

Prophet was asked by God to be patient and to preach the message of Qur’an. He advised Muslims

to remain patient because he did not receive any revelation yet to retaliate against their

persecutors. [Persecution] When the persecution became unbearable for most Muslims, the Prophet

advised them in the fifth year of his mission (615 CE) to emigrate to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia)

where Ashabah (Negus, a Christian) was the ruler. Eighty people, not counting the small children,

emigrated in small groups to avoid detection. No sooner had they left the Arabian coastline, the

leaders of Quraish discovered their flight. They decided to not leave these Muslims in peace, and

immediately sent two of their envoys to Negus to bring all of them back. However, Negus allowed

them to stay under his protection after he investigated Muslim belief and heard the revelations

about Jesus and Mary (peace be upon them both), which appears in Chapter 19, entitled Mary, of

the Qur’an. The emigrants were allowed freedom of worship in Abyssinia.

The Quraish then made life even more difficult for the Prophet by implementing total ban on contact

with the Prophet’s family (Bani Hashim and Muttalib). The ban lasted for three years without the

desired effect. Just before the ban was lifted, the Prophet was contacted by the leaders of Quraish

to agree to a compromise under which they should all practice both religions (i.e., Islam and

Idolatry). Upon hearing this, the Prophet recited a revelation (Chapter 109) he had just received and

which ends with the words: "... For you your religion and for me mine." The ban was lifted when

leaders of Quraish discovered that their secret document on the terms of ban, which they had

stored in Ka’bah, was eaten by worms and all that was left were the opening words ‘In Your name, O

Allah.’

The effects of the three-year boycott left the Prophet with more personal sorrow when he lost his

beloved wife Khadijah (ra) and uncle Abu Talib soon after the ban was lifted.

After Khadijah's death in 620 CE, the Prophet married a widowed Muslim woman,

Sawdah (ra) who was fifty years old. She and her husband had emigrated to Abyssinia in the early

years of persecution. After her husband died, she came back to Makkah and sought Prophet’s

shelter. The Prophet, recognizing her sacrifices for Islam, extended his shelter by marrying her. Later

in the same year, the Prophet upon receiving the divine command in a dream, after approval of

Sawdah, contracted marriage to A’ishah, the daughter of his dear companion Abu Bakr. She joined

the Prophet in Medinah, completing the marriage contract. Sawdah and A’ishah (ra) were the only

wives until he was fifty-six years old.

After the death of his uncle Abu Talib, the Prophet went to Taif (about 50 miles east, southeast of

Makkah) to seek their protection. They flatly refused and mocked at him, and severely injured him

by inciting their children to throw stones at him. Gabriel (as) visited the Prophet here suggesting that

the angels were ready to destroy the town if he were to ask Allah for the punishment.

Nevertheless, the Prophet declined and prayed for future generations of Taif to accept Islam [Taif]. It

was on the return journey from Taif that the verses from Surah Al Jinn (Chapter 72) were revealed. It

indicated that the Qur’an is a book of guidance to both the Jinns and Humankind.

Soon after the terrible disappointment at Ta’if, the prophet experienced the events of al-Israa and

al-Miraaj (621 CE). In the Al-Israa, Gabriel (as) took the Prophet from the sacred Masjid near Ka’bah

to the furthest (al-Aqsa) masjid in Jerusalem in a very short time in the latter part of a night. Here,

Prophet Muhammad met with previous Prophets (Abraham, Moses, Jesus and others) and he led

them in prayer. After this, in Al-Miraj, the Prophet was taken up to heavens to show the signs of God

[More... The Dome of the Rock]. It was on this journey that five daily prayers were prescribed. He

was then taken back to Ka’bah, the whole experience lasting a few hours of a night. Upon hearing

this, the people of Makkah mocked at him. However, when his specific description of Jerusalem,

other things on the way, and the caravan that he saw on this journey including its expected arrival in

Makkah turned out to be true, the ridicule of the nonbelievers stopped. The event of Israa and

Miraaj is mentioned in the Qur’an - the first verse of Chapter 17 entitled ‘The Children of Israel.’

In 622 CE, the leaders of the Quraish decided to kill the Prophet and they developed a plan in which

one man was chosen from each of the Quraish tribes and they were to attack the Prophet

simultaneously. Gabriel informed the Prophet of the plan and instructed him to leave Makkah

immediately. The Prophet, after making arrangements to return the properties entrusted to him by

several nonbelievers, left with Abu Bakr in the night he was to be assassinated. They went south of

Makkah to a mountain cave of Thawr [see Qur'an 9:40], and after staying three nights they traveled

north to Yathrib (Medinah) about two hundred fifty miles from Makkah. Upon discovery of his

escape, the leaders of Quraish put up a reward of one hundred camels on him, dead or alive. In spite

of all their best scouts and search parties, Allah protected the Prophet and he arrived safely in Quba,

a suburb of Medinah [Qur'an 28:85]. This event is known as the ‘Hijra’ (migration) and the Islamic

calendar begins with this event. The people of Aws and Khazraj in Medinah greeted him with great

enthusiasm in accordance with their pledge made at Aqaba less than a year ago during the annual

pilgrimage. One by one those Muslims (men and women) of Makkah who were not physically

restrained, and who could make a secret exit, left for Medinah leaving behind their properties and

homes.

To insure the peace and tranquility, the Prophet proposed a treaty defining terms of conduct for all

inhabitants of Medinah. It was ratified by all - Muslims, non-Muslim Arabs and Jews. After his

emigration to Medinah, the enemies of Islam increased their assault from all sides. The Battles of

Badr, Uhud and Allies (Trench) were fought near or around Medinah. In these battles until the year

627 CE, the nonbelievers with encouragement from Jews and other Arabian tribes attacked the

Prophet and Muslim community. The Muslims while defending their city and religion lost many men,

which resulted in many widowed Muslim women and numerous orphaned children. In these

circumstances, Prophet Muhammad (s) married several women during fifty-sixth year up to the

sixtieth year of his life. He did not contract any marriage in the last three years of his life, following

the revelation limiting the number of wives up to a maximum of four.

This is the first time in the history of revealed scriptures that a limit on the number of wives was

imposed and the terms of conduct were specified. The Prophet was instructed not to divorce any of

his wives after this revelation [Qur'an 33:52]. All of the ladies he took as wives were either widowed

or divorced, except A’ishah.

The Prophet married Umm Salamah (ra) in 626 CE. Her husband had died of wounds inflicted in the

Battle of Uhud (625 CE). When the Prophet asked her for marriage, she replied: "O Messenger of

God, I suffer from three shortcomings. I am a very jealous woman, and I am afraid this might cause

me to do things that you dislike. Secondly, I am an old woman. Finally, I have many children." The

Prophet answered: "Regarding your jealousy, I pray to God to remove it from you.

As for your age, we are similar in age. As for the children, your children are mine." Thus it was that

she agreed to marry the Prophet. The Prophet’s marriage contract with Umm Habibah (ra) was

solemnized, by proxy, by Negus, King of Abyssinia, in 628 CE.

Two of his wives, Juwayriah and Safiyah, were prisoners of war. Both belonged to the family of the

chief of their tribes and were set free by the Prophet; they then gladly accepted Islam and were

pleased to become the Prophet’s wives. The Prophet’s marriages provided security to women who

would have otherwise remained unmarried, unprotected, or felt humiliated. His marriages were also

a means of transmitting important teachings of Islam. The Prophet's wives, called the

"Mothers of the Believers,"[Qur'an Surah 33, Verse 6 and the last part of Verse 53] showed

themselves as examples of proper Muslim womanhood. All his wives, especially 'Aishah, transmitted

many ahadith (sayings, deeds, and actions) from Prophet Muhammad (s).

A year after the Battle of Allies (Trench), the Prophet and fifteen hundred of his companions left for

Makkah to perform the annual pilgrimage (628 CE). They were barred from approaching the city at

Hudaybiyah, where after some negotiations a treaty was signed allowing for them to come next

year. This treaty facilitated exchange of ideas among the people of the whole region without

interference. Many delegations from all regions of Arabia came to the Prophet to investigate the

teachings of Islam, and a large number of people accepted Islam within a couple of years. The

Prophet sent many of his companions (who memorized the Qur'an by heart) to new communities to

instruct them about the practice of Islam. More than fifty of them were murdered by non-believers.

A few weeks after Hudaybiyah the Prophet sent letters to several kings and rulers (including the two

superpowers - Byzantines and Persians) inviting them to Islam. Negus, the king of Abyssinia, and the

Ruler of Bahrain accepted Islam, and Emperor Heraclius acknowledged Muhammad’s Prophethood.

Among rulers who accepted Islam but without any initiative from the Prophet was Chakrawati

Farmas, a Hindu King of Malabar (located on the southwest coast of India).

About two years later at the end of 629 CE, the Quraish violated the terms of the Treaty of

Hudaybiyah by helping Banu Bakr in the surprise attack on Bani Khuza’ah who were allied with the

Prophet. Some of Bani Khuzah’s men escaped and took shelter in Makkah and they sought redress.

However, the leaders of Quraish did nothing. They then sent a message to the Prophet for help.

The Prophet, after confirming all the reports of the attack and subsequent events, marched to

Makkah with an army consisting of three thousand Muslims of Medinah and Muslims from other

Arab communities that joined him on the way totaling ten thousand Muslims. Before entering the

city he sent word to citizens of Makkah that anyone who remained in his home, or in Abu Sufyan’s

home, or in the Ka’bah would be safe. The army entered Makkah without fighting and the Prophet

went directly to the Ka’bah. He magnified Allah for the triumphant entry in the Holy city. The

Prophet pointed at each idol with a stick he had in his hand and said, "Truth has come and Falsehood

will neither start nor will it reappear" *Qur'an 17:81+. And one by one the idols fell down. The Ka’bah

was then cleansed by the removal of all three hundred sixty idols, and it was restored to its pristine

status for the worship of One True God (as built by Prophets Ibrahim and Ismail).

The people of the city expected general slaughter in view of their persecution and torture of

Muslims for the past twenty years. While standing by the Ka'bah, the Prophet (s) promised clemency

for the Makkans, stating: "O Quraish, what do you think that I am about to do with you?" They

replied, "Good. You are a noble brother, son of a noble brother." The Prophet forgave them all

saying:

"I will treat you as Prophet Yousuf (Joseph) treated his brothers. There is no reproach against you.

Go to your homes, and you are all free."

The Prophet also declared:

Allah made Makkah holy the day He created heavens and earth, and it is the holy of holies until the

Resurrection Day. It is not lawful for anyone who believes in Allah and the last day to shed blood

therein, nor to cut down trees therein. It was not lawful to anyone before me and it will not be

lawful to anyone after me.

The people of Makkah then accepted Islam including the staunch enemies of the Prophet. A few of

the staunchest enemies and military commanders had fled Makkah after his entry. However, when

they received the Prophet’s assurance of no retaliation and no compulsion in religion, they came

back and gradually the message of Islam won their hearts. Within a year (630 CE), almost all Arabia

accepted Islam. Among the Prophet’s close companions were Muslims from such diverse

background as Persia, Abyssinia, Syria and Rome. Several prominent Jewish Rabbis, Christian bishop

and clergymen accepted Islam after discussions with the Prophet.

One night in March 630 CE, Angel Gabriel visited the Prophet and addressed him as: "O father of

Ibrahim." A few hours later, the Prophet received the news of the birth of his son from his wife

Mariah, and the Prophet named him Ibrahim. He was the only child born after the six children from

Prophet’s first wife Khadijah. Ibrahim died when he was ten months old. On the day of Ibrahim's

death, there was an eclipse of the sun. When some people began to attribute it to the Prophet's

bereavement, he said: "The sun and the moon are two signs of the signs of God. Their light is not

dimmed for any man's death. If you see them eclipsed, you should pray until they be clear."

The great change in Arabia alarmed the two superpowers, Byzantines and Persians.

Their Governors, particularly the Byzantines, reacted with threats to attack Medinah. Instead of

waiting, the prophet sent a small army to defend the northmost border of Arabia. In the remaining

life of the Prophet, all of the major battles were fought on the northern front. The Prophet did not

have a standing army. Whenever he received a threat, he called the Muslims and discussed with

them the situation and gathered volunteers to fight any aggression.

The Prophet performed his first and last pilgrimage in 632 CE. One hundred twenty-thousand men

and women performed pilgrimage that year with him. The Prophet received the last revelation

during this pilgrimage. Two months later, Prophet Muhammad (s) fell ill and after several days died

on Monday, 12 Rabi al-Awwal, the eleventh year after Hijra (June 8, 632 CE) in Medinah. He is buried

in the same place where he died.

Prophet Muhammad lived a most simple, austere and modest life. He and his family used to go

without cooked meal several days at a time, relying only on dates, dried bread and water. During the

day he was the busiest man, as he performed his duties in many roles all at once as head of state,

chief justice, commander-in-chief, arbitrator, instructor and family man. He was the most devoted

man at night. He used to spend one- to two-thirds of every night in prayer and meditation. The

Prophet's possession consisted of mats, blankets, jugs and other simple things even when he was

the virtual ruler of Arabia. He left nothing to be inherited except a white mule (a gift from

Muqawqis), few ammunition and a piece of land that he had made a gift during his life time.

Among his last words were: "We the community of Prophets are not inherited.

Whatever we leave is for charity."

Muhammad (s) was a man and a messenger of Allah (The One God). He is the last of the prophets

*Qur'an 33:40+ sent by Allah to guide man to the right path; Adam was the first Prophet. The Qur’an

mentions twenty-five Prophets by name and provides a great insight of their mission, struggle and

their communities. The Qur’an exonerates prophets from charges leveled against them in previous

Scriptures. The Qur’an also mentions four previously revealed Scriptures: Suhoof (Pages) of Ibrahim

(Abraham), Taurat ('Torah') as revealed to Prophet Moses, Zuboor ('Psalms') as revealed to Prophet

David, and Injeel ('Evangel') as revealed to Prophet Jesus (pbuh). Islam requires belief in all prophets

and revealed scriptures (original, non-corrupted) as part of the Articles of Faith. Muhammad (s) is

greatly respected as the model of Qur’anic behavior. Muslims mention his name by adding "peace

be upon him," a phrase used with the name of all prophets [e.g., Qur'an Surah 37: verses 79, 109,

120 and 130; also 33:56].

All sincere Muslims try to follow the Qur’an and the Prophet’s example to minute details. The

account of every aspect of his life has been preserved (numerous daily accounts including his family

life). Prophet Muhammad (s) has served as an example for all Muslims in all periods to modern

times. He will remain a model example for all of humanity.

At the end of his mission, the Prophet was blessed with several hundred thousand followers (men

and women) of Islam. Thousands prayed with him at the masjid and listened to his sermon.

Hundreds of sincere Muslims would find every opportunity to be with him following five daily

prayers and at other times. They used to seek his advice for their everyday problems, and listened

attentively to the interpretation and application of revealed verses to their situation. They followed

the message of the Qur’an and the Messenger of Allah with utmost sincerity, and supported him

with every thing they had. The most excellent among them are Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman, Ali, Talha,

Zubair, 'Abdur Rahman ibn Auf, S'ad bin Abi Waqqas, S'ad bin Zaid, Abu 'Ubeidah, Hasan, Hussain,

and several dozen others. They faithfully carried the message of Islam after the Prophet, and within

ninety years the light of Islam reached Spain, North Africa, the Caucasus, northwest China and India.

Allah: Allah is the proper name in Arabic for The One and Only God, The Creator and Sustainer of the

universe. It is used by the Arab Christians and Jews for the God (Eloh-im in Hebrew; 'Allaha' in

Aramaic, the mother tongue of Jesus, pbuh). The word Allah does not have a plural or gender. Allah

does not have any associate or partner, and He does not beget nor was He begotten. SWT is an

abbreviation of Arabic words that mean 'Glory Be To Him.' or pbuh: Peace Be Upon Him. This

expression is used for all Prophets of Allah.