CEILINGS AND FLOORS: CEILINGS AND FLOORS: GENDER WAGE GAPS BY GENDER WAGE GAPS BY

EDUCATION IN SPAINEDUCATION IN SPAIN

Sara de la Rica Sara de la Rica **, Juan J. Dolado, Juan J. Dolado* ** *

& Vanesa Llorens& Vanesa Llorens** *** *

(*) UPV & IZA(**) UCIII & CEPR & IZA(***) LECG

Motivation

• Gender wage gaps: ln(Wm/Wf)(Wm- Wf)/ Wf

• Traditional: At the mean vs. New: At the quantiles

• Recent evidence about Glass Ceilings in Sweden (Albrecht et al., 2003)

• Southern vs. Central & Northern Europe

Figure 1b. Aggregate Gender Wage Gap Sweden 1999

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Quantiles

Ln W

age

Men

- L

n W

age

Wom

en

Gap per quintiles Average gap

Figure 1a. Aggregate Gender Wage Gap Spain 1999

0

5

10

15

20

25

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Quantiles

Ln

Wa

ge

Me

n -

Ln

Wa

ge

W

om

en

Gap per quintiles Average gap

Figure 1c. Gender Wage Gap by Education H-group Spain 1999

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Quantiles

Ln

Wa

ge

Me

n -

Ln

Wa

ge

W

om

en

Gap per quintiles Average gap

Figure 1d. Gender Wage Gap by Education L-group Spain 1999

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95

Quantiles

Ln

Wa

ge

Me

n -

Ln

Wa

ge

W

om

en

Gap per quintiles Average gap

Figure 2a. Gender Wage Gap by Education Denmark 1999

-0.10

-0.05

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Quantiles

Ln W

age

Men

- L

n W

age

Wom

en

Wage gap low educated w orkers Wage gap highly educated w orkers

Figure 2b. Gender Wage Gap by Education United Kingdom 1999

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Quantiles

Ln W

age

Men

- L

n W

age

Wom

en

Wage gap low educated w orkers Wage gap highly educated w orkers

Figure 2d. Gender Wage Gap by Education Italy 1999

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Quantiles

Ln W

age

Men

- L

n W

age

Wom

en

Wage gap low educated w orkers Wage gap highly educated w orkers

Figure 2c. Gender Wage Gap by Education Greece 1999

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Quantiles

Ln W

age

Men

- L

n W

age

Wom

en

Wage gap low educated w orkers Wage gap highly educated w orkers

• Composition effect by EducationGlass Ceiling (H-Group): High female

participation rate (80% vs 85%) Lower job stability (Lazear and Rosen, 1990) leads to lower promotion opportunities and higher wages (PUZZLE)

Glass Floor (L-Group): Low female participation rate (48% vs 68%) Statistical discrimination at the bottom of the wage distribution

INTERPRETATIVE MODELS• L-Group

Ability for men and women: , c.d.f. G()Need of training in period 1 (2 periods)Productivity: 1, 0< 1 <1 (period 1), 2 , 1 < 1< 2 (period

2)Firms know at the begining of period 2Workers receive a disutility shock with c.d.f. F() after

wages in period 1 & 2, Wi (i=1,2) are chosen by the firm. Workers do not quit if Wi - 0.

No wage renegotiation nor outside wage offers (monopsony)Fm()>Ff()

G()= U[0,]; fm() =U[0,m]; ff() =U[0,f]; f> m

mfiWWW

dFWW

i

i

i

i

i

i

W

W

iii

i

W i

i

i

, ,max)()(max2

2221

0

221

2

2

2

*2

*2

2*2 ),,(

22 fmi mfiWPeriod

1 Period

)(]()([)()( 1

0

1

0

1

0

*2

1

dGdFWdGW ii

W

iiW

244

2221*

1

024

222*

1*

1 mffm

fm WW

• H-Group (Lazear and Rosen, 1990)A model of job ladders: A (no training), B (training)A: , ; B: 1 , 2 Firms pay competitive wages in period 2: WA

2= , WB

2= 2 Cut-off points to allocate to B: *

f> *mLess women

are promoted but conditional on being promoted they should be earn higher wages

Explanations:(i) Different ability distribution (Mincer and Polacheck, 1974), (ii) Different outside offers (Booth et.al., 2003), (iii) Different competing skills (Gneezy et al., 2003, Babcock and Laschever, 2003)

iiiiii xxwQuxw '

'

• Data–ECHP (1999)

–H-Group: 721 (Men), 558 (Women)

–L-Group: 1585 (Men), 626 (Women)

• Quantile Regressions (QR) Buchinsky (1998), Koenker and Basset (1978)

Covariates-Exp (age), marital st., tenure, children age,Sec. Edn (L-W) , type of contract, immigrant, public, firm size, supervisory role, region, size local council, occupations.

Table 1a Descriptive statistics

H-group ( Spain, 1999) Men Women Average St. dev Average St. dev N. observations 721 558 Age 37.61 10.34 35.78 9.49 Children 0-11 0.44 0.77 0.28 0.45 Children 12-16 0.22 0.50 0.13 0.33 Age Groups 17 to 24 0.07 0.26 0.09 0.28 25 to 34 0.37 0.48 0.45 0.50 35 to 44 0.31 0.46 0.28 0.45 45 0.25 0.43 0.19 0.39 Married 0.62 0.49 0.55 0.50 Immigrant 0.003 0.05 0.01 0.07 Weekly hours 41.22 6.54 38.31 5.94 Ln (gross hourly wage) 7.28 0.55 7.18 0.50 Experience 14.78 10.40 12.68 9.71 Occupation OC1 0.05 0.23 0.02 0.13 OC2 0.14 0.35 0.16 0.36 OC3 0.11 0.32 0.25 0.43 OC4 0.09 0.28 0.09 0.29 OC5 0.09 0.29 0.05 0.22 OC6 0.09 0.28 0.13 0.34 OC7 0.10 0.29 0.19 0.39 OC8 0.05 0.21 0.05 0.22 OC9 0.02 0.15 0.03 0.18 OC10 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.00 OC11 0.07 0.25 0.00 0.04 OC12 0.08 0.27 0.00 0.04 OC13 0.07 0.25 0.01 0.12 OC14 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.11 OC15 0.02 0.12 0.01 0.08 Firm Size 1-4 employees 0.07 0.26 0.10 0.31 5-19 employees 0.21 0.41 0.22 0.41 20-49 employees 0.17 0.38 0.21 0.40 50-99 employees 0.13 0.33 0.10 0.30 100-499 employees 0.18 0.39 0.14 0.35 > 500 employees 0.24 0.43 0.23 0.42 Public sector 0.35 0.48 0.51 0.50 Supervisory role Directive 0.16 0.37 0.06 0.24 Supervisor 0.27 0.45 0.25 0.43 W/o responsibility 0.56 0.50 0.69 0.46 Tenure 8.32 7.61 7.65 7.35 Permanent contract 0.80 0.40 0.73 0.44

Table 1b Descriptive statistics

L-group ( Spain, 1999) Men Women Average St. dev Average St. dev N. observations 1585 626 Age 37.89 11.31 36.19 11.33 Children 0-11 0.30 0.46 0.21 0.41 Children 12-16 0.16 0.37 0.17 0.38 Age Groups 17 to 24 0.13 0.33 0.18 0.38 25 to 34 0.31 0.46 0.32 0.47 35 to 44 0.25 0.43 0.23 0.42 45 0.31 0.46 0.27 0.45 Married 0.68 0.47 0.53 0.50 Immigrant 0.004 0.07 0.01 0.08 Secondary ed. 0.29 0.46 0.38 0.49 Weekly hours 42.64 6.19 40.36 5.74 Ln (gross hourly wage) 6.86 0.41 6.63 0.47 Experience 20.77 12.41 16.78 11.85 Occupation OC1 0.02 0.14 0.01 0.11 OC2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 OC3 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.04 OC4 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.07 OC5 0.02 0.13 0.02 0.14 OC6 0.05 0.21 0.06 0.24 OC7 0.07 0.25 0.18 0.38 OC8 0.08 0.28 0.18 0.38 OC9 0.04 0.20 0.13 0.33 OC10 0.02 0.15 0.01 0.10 OC11 0.22 0.42 0.08 0.27 OC12 0.10 0.30 0.01 0.10 OC13 0.20 0.40 0.06 0.24 OC14 0.05 0.21 0.20 0.40 OC15 0.13 0.33 0.06 0.24 Firm Size 1-4 employees 0.18 0.38 0.22 0.42 5-19 employees 0.31 0.46 0.25 0.44 20-49 employees 0.16 0.37 0.16 0.37 50-99 employees 0.10 0.30 0.11 0.31 100-499 employees 0.12 0.33 0.14 0.35 > 500 employees 0.12 0.33 0.11 0.32 Public sector 0.13 0.34 0.18 0.38 Supervisory role Directive 0.05 0.23 0.03 0.16 Supervisor 0.16 0.36 0.08 0.28 W/o responsibility 0.79 0.41 0.89 0.31 Tenure 7.27 7.75 6.41 7.28 Permanent contract 0.64 0.48 0.60 0.49

Table 1c. Experience and Tenure throughout the Wage Distribution

(Spain,1999)

Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90

MEN (H) Experience 14.7 2.1 6.3 13.4 22.2 29.3

Tenure 8.3 0.4 1.2 6.2 16.0 20.4 WOMEN (H) Experience 12.7 2.0 5.1 10.2 19.1 27.3 Tenure 7.6 0.6 1.2 5.0 14.2 20.1 MEN (L)

Experience 21.1 5.2 11.3 20.2 31.1 38.2 Tenure 7.3 0.5 1.2 3.4 15.0 20.3

WOMEN (L) Experience 16.9 2.2 7.2 15.3 26.2 34.3

Tenure 6.4 0.2 0.8 3.0 11.2 19.8

Table 2a. OLS and QR

H-group ( Spain, 1999)

Dependent variable : Ln. gross hourly wage

MEN Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90

Experience 0.020*** 0.012 0.016** 0.017** 0.021 0.032***

(0.006) (0.008) (0.007) (0.007) (0.009) (0.010)

Experience2 -0.0003* -0.0002 -0.0002 -0.0002 -0.00002 -0.0003

(0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002)

Exp*Children 0.0025 0.0035 0.0033 0.0027 0.0024 0.0009

(0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003)

Immigrant -0.080 -0.007 -0.139 0.056 -0.160 -0.205

(0.183) (0.334) (0.269) (0.189) (0.195) (0.207)

Public sector 0.085** 0.080 0.094* 0.068 0.070 0.109**

(0.034) (0.070) (0.051) (0.050) (0.052) (0.055)

Permanent contract 0.074* 0.131** 0.141*** 0.081 0.034 0.109*

(0.039) (0.058) (0.053) (0.049) (0.056) (0.062)

Supervisory role

Directive 0.320*** 0.164* 0.252*** 0.298*** 0.388*** 0.510***

(0.051) (0.085) (0.072) (0.066) (0.095) (0.091)

Supervisor 0.090*** 0.005 0.066* 0.107*** 0.123*** 0.148***

(0.030) (0.046) (0.039) (0.038) (0.045) (0.054)

Tenure 0.016*** 0.022*** 0.020*** 0.017** 0.012 0.011

(0.004) (0.006) (0.006) (0.007) (0.009) (0.011)

Married 0.071* 0.118** 0.030 0.032 0.070 0.049

(0.039) (0.056) (0.049) (0.045) (0.061) (0.072)

Firm size

5-19 employees -0.090 0.005 -0.067 -0.087 -0.153 -0.210

(0.067) (0.114) (0.073) (0.082) (0.111) (0.136)

20-49 employees -0.044 0.076 0.042 0.020 -0.096 -0.232**

(0.065) (0.116) (0.085) (0.077) (0.094) (0.113)

50-99 employees 0.043 0.191 0.124 0.060 -0.031 -0.206*

(0.065) (0.124) (0.086) (0.083) (0.105) (0.124)

100-499 employees 0.088 0.217* 0.165** 0.106 0.009 -0.112

(0.066) (0.121) (0.073) (0.080) (0.099) (0.113)

> 500 employees 0.144** 0.233* 0.216*** 0.154* 0.094 -0.008

(0.065) (0.125) (0.081) (0.080) (0.096) (0.119)

Nº Obs. 721 721 721 721 721 721

R2 0.655 0.402 0.438 0.453 0.449 0.472

Note: ***, **, * represent significance at 99, 95 and 90% respectively. Standard deviations in

parentheses. Dummy variables for region, local council size and occupation are also

included. Omitted group: wage earners in private sector in less-than-5-employees firms,

without responsibility, single, and in non-qualified jobs in services and commerce (OC14)

Table 2b. OLS and QR

H-group ( Spain, 1999)

Dependent variable : Ln. gross hourly wage

WOMEN Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90

Experience 0.011* 0.002 0.004 0.004 0.019* 0.016

(0.006) (0.010) (0.008) (0.008) (0.011) (0.013)

Experience2 -0.0001 0.00005 -0.00003 0.000004 -0.0002 -0.0002

(0.0002) (0.0003) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0003)

Exp*Children 0.0005 0.0020 0.0042** -0.0009 -0.0004 -0.0007

(0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003)

Immigrant 0.008 0.230* 0.089 0.035 0.258 0.024

(0.128) (0.128) (0.143) (0.224) (0.311) (0.331)

Public sector 0.097*** 0.097 0.148*** 0.100** 0.070 0.103*

(0.035) (0.061) (0.049) (0.044) (0.048) (0.061)

Permanent contract 0.119*** 0.074 0.139*** 0.155*** 0.127* 0.069

(0.040) (0.068) (0.049) (0.048) (0.070) (0.082)

Supervisory role

Directive 0.134** 0.184 0.226** 0.172** 0.138 0.074

(0.063) (0.149) (0.105) (0.076) (0.110) (0.130)

Supervisor 0.049 0.067 0.037 0.036 0.082 0.034

(0.033) (0.059) (0.055) (0.049) (0.054) (0.073)

Tenure 0.017*** 0.020*** 0.021** 0.017* 0.013 0.007

(0.003) (0.006) (0.008) (0.011) (0.010) (0.012)

Married 0.038 0.008 -0.033 0.046 0.096** 0.044

(0.030) (0.053) (0.041) (0.040) (0.042) (0.048)

Firm size

5-19 employees 0.172*** 0.215* 0.162** 0.187*** 0.081 0.076

(0.063) (0.125) (0.065) (0.065) (0.093) (0.095)

20-49 employees 0.275*** 0.412*** 0.305*** 0.286*** 0.168* 0.191*

(0.063) (0.137) (0.078) (0.081) (0.096) (0.103)

50-99 employees 0.286*** 0.399** 0.283*** 0.364*** 0.174 0.225**

(0.072) (0.169) (0.104) (0.090) (0.109) (0.110)

100-499 employees 0.364*** 0.498*** 0.382*** 0.374*** 0.305*** 0.301***

(0.064) (0.113) (0.076) (0.084) (0.092) (0.094)

> 500 employees 0.316*** 0.512*** 0.338*** 0.349*** 0.186** 0.259***

(0.064) (0.113) (0.077) (0.086) (0.097) (0.097)

Nº Obs. 558 558 558 558 558 558

R2 0.655 0.465 0.477 0.472 0.423 0.388

Note: ***, **, * represent significance at 99, 95 and 90% respectively. Standard deviations in

parentheses. Dummy variables for region, local council size and occupations are also

included. Omitted group: wage earners in private sector in less-than-5-employees firms,

without responsibility, single, and in non-qualified jobs in services and commerce (OC14).

Table 2c. OLS and QR

L-group ( Spain, 1999)

Dependent variable : Ln. gross hourly wage

MEN Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90

Experience 0.013*** 0.017*** 0.010*** 0.010*** 0.008* 0.008

(0.003) (0.006) (0.003) (0.003) (0.004) (0.005)

Experience2 -0.0002*** -0.0003** -0.0002*** -0.0002*** -0.0001 -0.0001

(0.00005) (0.0001) (0.00007) (0.00007) (0.00009) (0.0001)

Exp*Children -0.002** -0.003* -0.002 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

(0.0008) (0.001) (0.001) (0.0009) (0.0009) (0.001)

Secondary ed. 0.060*** 0.081** 0.060** 0.055*** 0.025 0.023

(0.020) (0.040) (0.027) (0.019) (0.024) (0.035)

Immigrant -0.143 -0.192 -0.222 -0.244 0.005 0.151

(0.144) (0.130) (0.150) (0.165) (0.270) (0.265)

Public sector 0.020 0.006 0.033 0.032 0.036 0.054

(0.030) (0.049) (0.038) (0.027) (0.040) (0.047)

Permanent contract 0.065*** 0.105** 0.061** 0.028 0.037 0.073**

(0.022) (0.048) (0.030) (0.026) (0.027) (0.037)

Supervisory role

Directive 0.161*** 0.193*** 0.113** 0.166*** 0.135** 0.104*

(0.040) (0.073) (0.051) (0.050) (0.068) (0.059)

Supervisor 0.089*** 0.083** 0.080*** 0.096*** 0.092*** 0.074**

(0.023) (0.035) (0.028) (0.031) (0.032) (0.035)

Tenure 0.012*** 0.015*** 0.014*** 0.012** 0.009* 0.010*

(0.003) (0.004) (0.004) (0.005) (0.006) (0.006)

Married 0.079*** 0.123*** 0.083*** 0.070*** 0.073** 0.077**

(0.021) (0.038) (0.025) (0.027) (0.030) (0.033)

Firm size

5-19 employees 0.081*** 0.132*** 0.078** 0.089*** 0.067* 0.082*

(0.024) (0.051) (0.032) (0.028) (0.035) (0.048)

20-49 employees 0.119*** 0.104* 0.151*** 0.125*** 0.102*** 0.098**

(0.026) (0.060) (0.038) (0.032) (0.034) (0.045)

50-99 employees 0.110*** 0.106 0.147*** 0.118*** 0.115** 0.079

(0.033) (0.067) (0.047) (0.033) (0.046) (0.051)

100-499 employees 0.239*** 0.231*** 0.224*** 0.248*** 0.262*** 0.274***

(0.030) (0.063) (0.042) (0.034) (0.043) (0.058)

> 500 employees 0.311*** 0.375*** 0.283*** 0.340*** 0.338*** 0.344***

(0.034) (0.064) (0.038) (0.041) (0.042) (0.056)

Nº Obs. 1585 1585 1585 1585 1585 1585

R2 0.303 0.237 0.250 0.282 0.327 0.350

Note: ***, **, * represent significance at 99, 95 and 90% respectively. Standard deviations in

parentheses. Dummy variables for region, local council size and occupation are also included.

Omitted group: wage earners in private sector in less-than-5-employees firms, without responsi-

bility, single, with primary education and in non-qualified jobs in services and commerce (OC14)

Table 2d. OLS and QR

L-group ( Spain, 1999)

Dependent variable : Ln. gross hourly wage

WOMEN Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90

Experience 0.007* 0.008 0.009 0.008 0.006 0.006

(0.004) (0.010) (0.006) (0.005) (0.006) (0.007)

Experience2 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0001

(0.00009) (0.0002) (0.0001) (0.0001) (0.0001) (0.0001)

Exp*Children -0.002 0.00004 -0.004** -0.003* 0.002 0.002

(0.001) (0.004) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)

Secondary ed. 0.113*** 0.103* 0.077* 0.069 0.096** 0.155

(0.033) (0.059) (0.043) (0.043) (0.041) (0.060)

Immigrant -0.479*** -0.249* -0.358*** -0.528*** -0.584*** -0.868

(0.073) (0.140) (0.112) (0.148) (0.144) (0.173)

Public sector 0.108*** 0.150** 0.134** 0.066 0.067 0.066

(0.039) (0.073) (0.066) (0.051) (0.060) (0.072)

Permanent contract 0.121*** 0.194*** 0.160*** 0.111** 0.029 0.120

(0.035) (0.062) (0.060) (0.048) (0.041) (0.051)

Supervisory role

Directive -0.050 0.018 0.017 -0.150 0.079 0.060

(0.129) (0.210) (0.138) (0.127) (0.184) (0.176)

Supervisor 0.075* 0.081 0.094 0.096** 0.070 0.067

(0.045) (0.088) (0.061) (0.049) (0.066) (0.078)

Tenure 0.021*** 0.027*** 0.024*** 0.016*** 0.013** 0.010

(0.004) (0..005) (0.006) (0.006) (0.007) (0.010)

Married 0.065** 0.040 0.071* 0.093*** 0.022 0.086

(0.027) (0.050) (0.043) (0.032) (0.033) (0.044)

Firm size

5-19 employees 0.122*** 0.137* 0.162*** 0.145*** 0.097* 0.063

(0.040) (0.074) (0.062) (0.056) (0.056) (0.060)

20-49 employees 0.255*** 0.360*** 0.270*** 0.258*** 0.177** 0.142

(0.044) (0.086) (0.062) (0.058) (0.069) (0.070)

50-99 employees 0.211*** 0.286*** 0.254*** 0.191*** 0.134* 0.034

(0.053) (0.076) (0.069) (0.066) (0.073) (0.087)

100-499 employees 0.266*** 0.313*** 0.293*** 0.290*** 0.213*** 0.182

(0.048) (0.076) (0.068) (0.058) (0.057) (0.066)

> 500 employees 0.324*** 0.281*** 0.329*** 0.392*** 0.347*** 0.194

(0.060) (0.092) (0.082) (0.075) (0.076) (0.082)

Nº Obs. 626 626 626 626 626 626

R2 0.308 0.372 0.372 0.385 0.421 0.462

Note: ***, **, * represent significance at 99, 95 and 90% respectively. Standard deviations in

parentheses. Dummy variables for region and local council size included. Omitted group:

wage earners in private sector in less-than-5-employees firms, without responsibility,

single, with primary education and in non-qualified jobs in services and commerce (OC14)

• Different QR by gender and by education [Tables 2 a-d]

i. H-group Higher returns to experience (), being married (),

supervisory role (), (Men) Higher returns for public sector, size>20, OC4-6 (Women)

ii. L-group Higher returns for experience (), being married and

supervisory role () (Men) Higher returns to tenure () (Women) , Higher returns for public sector, permanent contract,

secondary attainment, public sector (Women)

GENDER GAP DECOMPOSITION (Oaxaca-Blinder)

)()( ))()(()()( '' fmfmfmfm xExExEwEwE

wuEwxE'

fmfmfmfmfm uuxxx ''

fmfmfm

fffmmm

ExExEx

ExxwQExxwQ

''

//

MM decomposition

• Draw θ-th quantile from U[0,1]

• Estimate βm (θ)

• Draw xf and construct βm (θ) xf . Repeat N=100 times

• Construct counterfactual gap ( M=250 times):

βm (θ) xf - βf (θ) xf = (βm (θ) - βf (θ)) xf .

Returns

Table 3a. Counterfactual gender gaps H-group ( Spain, 1999)

OLS =10 =25 =50 =75 =90

Observed Gap 9.74 8.00 10.20 10.54 16.68 24.25

Counterfactual gap 7.23 -2.38 1.25 7.37 15.03 22.28 (0.02) (0.36) (0.78) (1.56) (2.21) (3.03) % 74.2 --- 12.2 79.9 90.1 92.2

Note: Standard deviations (s.d.) in parenthesis. The s.d. have been obtained through 250 replications of the decomposition

Table 3b. Counterfactual gender gaps L-group ( Spain, 1999)

OLS =10 =25 =50 =75 =90

Observed Gap 22.73 33.33 24.71 17.31 16.82 18.94

Counterfactual gap 17.08 31.34 21.54 11.18 8.76 9.28 (0.02) (2.27) (1.61) (1.52) (1.56) (3.26) % 75.1 94.0 87.2 64.6 52.1 49.0

Note: Standard deviations (s.d.) in parenthesis. The s.d. have been obtained through 250 replications of the decomposition; (a) with selection bias correction.

Figure 3a. Gender gap (Observed and Counterfactual). H-group. Spain 1999

-5

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

10 25 50 75 90

Quantiles

Ln W

age

Men

- L

n W

age

Wom

en

Observed Counterfactual

Figure 3b. Gender gap (Observed and Counterfactual). L-group. Spain. 1999

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

10 25 50 75 90

Quantiles

Ln W

age

Men

- L

n W

age

Wom

en

Observed Counterfactual

PANEL & STAT. DCN.

• ECHP waves (1994-01) to follow workers in their jobs over time.

• Follow approach in Farber & Gibbons (1996)

• Interact Tenure* Female

• RESULT: Only Positive & Significant for L-group.

Table 4a: Descriptive statistics of (log) Real Wages and Tenure (in years); ECHP (1994-01) Workers younger than 40

at first interview Workers older than 39 at first

interview Men Women Men Women L H L H L H L H

Mean Log Wage

1.71 (0.37)

2.10 (0.46)

1.54 (0.34)

2.05 (0.46)

1.81 (0.38)

2.54 (0.49)

1.62 (0.43)

2.34 (0.37)

Mean Tenure 4.02 (4.72)

5.41 (5.00)

3.68 (4.35)

5.14 (4.83)

5.57 (5.67)

9.05 (5.95)

6.24 (5.40)

9.21 (5.97)

N. obs. 8617 3323 3381 2871 2394 498 930 249

Note: All workers with more than 15 years of tenure at the same firm are excluded from the sample since the variable Tenure is truncated at 15 for them.

Table 4b: (Log) Real Wage Regressions – Workers younger than 40 years at first interview Fixed Effects Estimation

Men Women Pooled Men and Women

All L H All L H L H Tenure 0.014

(0.002)

0.011 (0.002)

0.019 (0.004)

0.017 (0.003)

0.023 (0.004)

0.016 (0.004)

0.012 (0.002)

0.019 (0.004)

Tenure2 -0.001 (0.0001)

-0.001 (0.0002)

-0.001 (0.0003)

-0.001 (0.0001)

-0.002 (0.0002)

-0.002 (0.0002)

-0.001 (0.0002)

-0.001 (0.0002)

Female*Tenure --- --- --- --- --- --- 0.011 (0.005)

-0.003 (0.006)

Female* Tenure2

--- --- --- --- --- --- -0.0007 (0.0005)

-0.0004 (0.0004)

N.obs 11940 8617 3323 6252 3381 2871 11998 6194

Table 4c: (Log) Real Wage Regressions – Workers older than 40 years at first interviewed Fixed Effects Estimation

Men Women Pooled Men and Women

All Low High All Low High Low High Tenure 0.011

(0.004) 0.010

(0.004)

0.011 (0.012)

-0.003 (0.006)

0.003 (0.007)

-0.006 (0.014)

0.010 (0.004)

0.011 (0.011)

Tenure2 -0.0005 (0.0002)

-0.0004 (0.0002)

0.0001 (0.0003)

-0.0001 (0.0004)

0.0007 (0.0005)

-0.0004 (0.0002)

-0.001 (0.0005)

Female*Tenure --- --- --- --- --- -0.006 (0.008)

-0.018 (0.021)

Female* Tenure2

--- --- --- --- --- 0.0002 (0.0005)

0.002 (0.0009)

N.obs 2892 2394 498 1179 930 249 3324 747

Notes: All regressions include also 6 dummies for region, 14 dummies for occupation, 2 dummies for industry and a dummy for work status (supervisor or not). Workers with more than 15 years of tenure are not included since the variable Tenure is truncated at 15 for them. In the last panel, when pooled men and women are taken together, all explanatory variables are interacted with Female.

CONCLUSIONS

• New finding: Glass Floors• Due to statistical dcn. in countries with low

participation of L-women.• Further research: - Other alternatives for H-group (stress leaves) - Endogenize Participation (with S. de la Rica and C. Gª-Peñalosa…in progess) - Academic women-economists (with M. Almunia

and F. Felgueroso)