CCP Organization

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Communist Party in China


Te Chinese Communist Party (CCP, or Zhongguogongchandang) was founded July , , in Shanghai,and started with fty-seven members. Eighty years later, in

, the CCP was the largest national Communist organization in existence, with over sixty-six million members.

Te CCP has governed the Peoples Republic of Chinafrom the republics founding in until today, under

going leadership changes and signicant shifts in its fundamental economic policies as well as its strategies foreconomic and social development. Te partys ideological foundation is Marxism-Leninism, but as its leadership has shifted over the years, the names of the most

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signicant Chinese leaders have been added to thoseof Marx and Lenin, and their theoretical formulationshave been recognized in the partys constitution. In themost recent version of the partys statute, Mao ZedongTought, Deng Xiaoping Teory, and the ImportantTought of the Tree Represents (Jiang Zemin) are allpart of the CCPs fundamental doctrine, socialism withChinese characteristics. Te statute, last modiedin , once more describes the CCP as a traditionalLeninist party, modeled after the Communist Party ofthe Soviet Union. Te CCPs principal organizationalprinciple is democratic centralism, and is administeredby a hierarchical structure. Previous statutes, in ,

, and , had instead placed Maos thought, image,and ideal of the permanent revolution at their ideological core; among other things, this entailed limitingthe recruitment of new party members to revolutionaryclasses only (workers, poor and fairly poor peasants, andsoldiers). Tese statutes were brief and devoid of formalobligations to observe democratic procedures internally,resulting in the partys transformation into a exible instrument, exposed to the arbitrary decisions of the central leadershipa fact that was reected in the partysbehavior during the years of Maoist radicalism.

Te CCP represents itself as the vanguard of theChinese working class, people, and nation, and therefore believes it is entitled to exercise the dictatorship ofthe proletariat on which the Peoples Republic of Chinais based. Te CCPs ultimate goal is the creation of aCommunist society, but today communism is formallydened as an ideal that will only be achievable when

socialist society will be fully developed and advanced.Te development of the socialist system remains a longhistorical process.

History, Marxism was introduced to China by young intellectuals active in the nationalist movement, which reached itsculmination in the demonstrations of May , . Temost immediate cause for the movement was a provisionin the reaty of Versailles that granted Japan sovereigntyover part of the Chinese province of Shandong, but it became a means to diffuse the ideas of science and democracy as fundamental motors for the transformation of

old China into a modern, powerful nation following thefall of the last imperial dynasty ( ). Te rst Chinesesocialists were inspired more by Pierre-Joseph Proudhons and Mikhail Bakunins anarchism and the utopiansocialism of Charles Fourier than by Marxism. Tis was

a consequence of the places that these young Chineseindividuals chose to study or live in exileJapan, butmost especially France, where many of the leading cadreof the future Communist Party were educated, includingZhou Enlai (who would become prime minister) andDeng Xiaoping (who would become general secretary).Te First Congress in was the result of preparatory

work by Comintern envoys in a Communist movementthat was still extremely fragmented and immature.

During the CCPs rst years of existence, the Cominterns main goal was the creation of a republican China.It therefore focused especially on a strategic relationship

with the Nationalist Party (GMD, or Guomindang),a revolutionary party much larger than the CCP witha structure that its historic leader, Sun Yat-Sen (SunZhongshan), had transformed into one similar to thatof the Soviet party. Under the Cominterns guidance,the Communists actions were oriented toward mobilizing a tiny and fragmented urban working class. TeCCP and the GMD formed an alliance with Moscowssupport in known as the First United Front. Testrategic collaboration between the two movements became more complex after Suns death and Chiang Kaisheks (Jiang Jieshi) rise to power as head of the GMDin . Te attempts by the new nationalist leader toreunite the country and Chiangs intolerance of an alliance with the Communists soon led to a confrontation

with the CCP, and severe repression that decimated theCommunist ranks and put an end to the United Front.Between and the two parties fought a civil

war, until the Japanese invaders advance (they had oc

cupied Manchuria in ) and the military success ofthe Communist guerrillas in the countryside convincedthe two parties to form a new alliance (the SecondUnited Front). It lasted into the early s, when hostilities broke out once more, and only concluded withthe denitive seizure of power by the Communists in

, and the nationalists escape to aiwan.In the s, the partys failure to organize the work

ing class in the cities led to a peculiar analysis of theclass situation in the Chinese Socialist Revolution. Tepartys organizing and propaganda efforts were supposedto start in the countrywhere there was resentment to

ward not so much the local political powers but rather

the feudal landownersand not in the factories. Tis was the principle, together with the need to understandthe needs of the masses (the mass line), that, based onorganizational intuition, would allow the CCP to withstand numerous defeats, reunify the country, and nally



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take its place in the Forbidden City, replacing the Qingemperors. Tis interpretation led to a split in the CCPbetween the Bolshevik and Maoist lines. Mao, who endorsed a rural strategy, successfully began to create Redbases in the mountains between the provinces of Jianxiand Hunan, where the rst Soviet Chinese Republic

was established in . Te Jianxi Soviet, which in theearly s had a population of about ten million, became a thorn in the side of the nationalist government,leading the government to intensify military actions. In

, the GMDs military pressure was such that it convinced the Communist army, which was in bad shape,to abandon the soviet and march for a year and overeight thousand miles in order to escape encirclement.It was during this disastrous strategic retreat that Maoemerged as the supreme leader of the Communist movement. Te political struggle between Mao and the groupof young leaders who were faithful to Moscow, knownas the wenty-eight Bolsheviks, was resolved in favorof the former during the Zunyi political conference, heldin the midst of the Long March in .

Between and , the partys headquarters waslocated near the city of Yanan, in northwestern ShaanxiProvince. Tere, the CCP experimented with many developments that would later become characteristic ofCCP government culture after , from land redistribution to agrarian reform, from a leadership style basedon the mass line and mobilization, to a strategy of guerrilla warfare and popular militias (which contributed tothe success of the war of resistance against the Japaneseand remained part of fundamental military doctrine

after the liberation), to cultural policies and revolutionary art.

History, From on, the history of the CCP and the political history of Communist China coincided to a largedegree. From the creation of the Peoples Republic ofChina until , the country was governed without aconstitution. Te rst party congress in the new era tookplace in , when the process of nationalization of theeconomy was already in its nal stages. Te local leadership groups were often made up of the same soldiers whohad freed the various areas of the country, and several

years passed before the party was able to create a rulingclass that was able to govern and a civil administration was installed. During those years, known as the periodof new democracy, the CCP tried to gather all politicaland economic forces that were not hostile to the revolu-


tion around the reconstruction effort. On the basis ofthe errors of the Soviet collectivization effort, the economic reform policies were initially more gradual, bothin the country and in the industrial sector.

In the country, for instance, the forced requisitionsat rst targeted only the lands of absentee landlords andrich farmers, while land belonging to small landholders (the middle farmers) was exempted. Te land wasredistributed to benet the poorer strata, while maintaining the small landholders store of experience relatively intact, therefore helping to maintain a good levelof productivity in the countryside. Starting in the mid

s, the process of collectivization continued with thecreation of cooperatives and later peoples communesin .

Te inuence of the USSRs experience (and its substantial economic aid) on Chinas rst steps toward theconstruction of socialism was evident in the First Five-

Year Development Planstarted in , and inspiredby the idea of accumulation and the priority of heavyindustryas well as the countrys rst Constitution( ), based largely on the Soviet one. (Te Five-YearDevelopment Plan concluded with the nationalization ofall the remaining industrial rms in .) Te idyll between the two largest Communist parties of real socialism started to lose its luster in with the process ofde-Stalinization, begun during the Communist Party ofthe Soviet Unions wentieth Congress, and the gradualshifts in Chinese economic policies, which had becomemore radical and productivist under Maos leadership.Te split concluded with the withdrawal of Soviet tech

nicians in , and had lasting consequences for theCCPs economic strategies, since China was now isolatedby both blocs and forced to rely on its own resources.Only in , with Mikhail Gorbachevs visit to Beijing,

would the normalization of political relations betweenthe two countries be complete. Maos distrust of NikitaKhrushchevs new course was the ip side of Maos admiration for the USSRs economic success, and the fundamental role Soviet experts and capital had played in theconstruction of Chinas basic industry.

Te Great Leap Forwards failure ( ) upset political stability. Mao performed a rare act of self-criticismin front of the party. Te gradualists, led by Liu Shaoqi,

went back to balancing policies of moderate industrialgrowth with slowing down the collectivization processin the countryside (during brief periods there was evena return to family-based forms of agriculture). But theradicals leadership soon gathered strength, and between



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and , by means of a series of political educationcampaigns, Maos supporters regained lost ground. Supported by a group of young radicals and using the populations dissatisfaction with an unbalanced process ofdevelopment, in Mao launched the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, whose principal aim was toeliminate those in the bureaucracy who were taking thecapitalist road. Te party leadership at all levels was decimated as a result, and during years of confrontations inthe squares, universities, and factories, the CCP becamemore radicalized. Te presence of soldiers in the partyincreased greatly (about percent of elected membersas against percent in ), to the detriment of representatives of mass organizations and civil institutions.Te Ninth Congress of brought about a split between the two main components of the radical wing thathad dominated the most violent years of the CulturalRevolution: the army led by Lin Biao, and the so-calledGroup for the Cultural Revolution led by Maos wife,

Jiang Qing.Following the death in of Lin Biao, who had been

at Maos side during the harshest phases of the CulturalRevolution, the party was prey to the clash between theradical Maoists and a bureaucratic apparatus that wasbeing reborn. It was Premier Zhou Enlais task to onceagain provide the CCP with credible leadership that

would be able to stabilize the political and economicsituation, in part by recalling Deng Xiaoping to leadthe government after years of political exile. Only Maosdeath in nally enabled Dengs faction to settle accounts with the radical faction, which from that moment

on was known as the Gang of Four (in addition to Maoslast wife, Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan,and Wang Hongwen). Te four, arrested only weeks afterthe death of their protector, became scapegoats for all theerrors and violence of the preceding period, while a newleadership, with Deng at the rudder, rebuilt the partysinstitutions.

Te Tird Plenum of the Eleventh Congress in October marked the Maoists nal defeat and the beginning of a series of economic reforms partially inspiredby those of the early s. Tis line, which pursued reforms and was more welcoming to the outside world, resulted in the reopening of the Chinese market to foreign

investments and the progressive introduction of marketmechanisms in the economys management. Deng became the incarnation of the new course, but his pragmatic style led to the emergence of collegial managementin party matters, replacing the cult of personality that

had been so damaging under Mao. Te party opened itsdoors to contributions from groups that had previouslybeen victims of radical ostracism, like intellectuals, andMarxist doctrine began to adapt to the material conditions of contemporary China. In the s the party

was led by Hu Yaobang, a reformer and a follower ofDengs, who several times attempted to introduce programs for the reform of the political system. In , Hubecame a victim of his efforts to reform a party in whicha conservative gerontocracy still had the ability to tip thescale in factional disputes. Student demonstrations favoring deeper political reforms during the last months ofthat year ended with Hus removal from offi ce. His successor, Zhao Ziyang, a member of the same faction, wassubjected to the same fate in . Tat year the demonstrations for democracy (which had begun preciselyin order to commemorate Hus death) led to clashesbetween demonstrators and the partys hawks, whichnally convinced Deng that military repression was inevitable. Zhao and many of the men who had guided theera of reforms in the s were removed from power.Te rapid economic development that had characterizedthe s was halted during a time of uncertainty about

which faction would prevail during Zhaos succession. Jiang Zemin lled the position of general secretary, butit was another symbolic gesture by Deng that once moreset the party on the reform path. In , an aging Dengtraveled to the special economic zones in the South andpointed to them as models for the future developmentof China.

Te process of economic opening continued under

Jiangs leadership. After , and with Dengs death in, however, the party maintained a clear distinctionbetween economic liberalization and political power, stillbased in forms of democratic centralism. Even though

Jiang was the secretary with the longest tenure in theCCPs history, his personal power never was comparableto Maos or Dengs. While in the economic arena theparty accepted a liberal framework for its policies, in

which both the market and private property were grantedmore room as well as economic and legal protection, inthe political arena the single-party structure remainedunaltered as well as unwilling to undertake substantialpolitical reforms. With the introduction of the Impor

tant Tought of the Tree Represents (the party represents the advanced forces of production, advancedculture, and the interests of the majority of the population), Jiang also enlarged the partys potential base, thusrecognizing that the economic transformations require



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the party itself to adapt to a society whose interests havebecome more complex and contradictory.

In the Jiang cycle concluded with the selectionof Hu Jintao as party secretary, a so-called Fourth Generation leader.

OrganizationTe partys structure remained basically stable during itslong history. It reproduced itself, moving from the centerto the periphery, and was able to penetrate social and economic activities throughout the country. Party cells existedin each institution, company, residential neighborhood,and peoples commune. Each one of them was a tool forpopular mobilization that could be used by the higherlevels (central, provincial, municipal, and district).

At the center, the party congress is the formally sovereign organ within the organization: composed of avariable number of representatives from around thecountry, its power is limited to the ratication of policies developed by the leadership and the selection of arestricted organ called the Central Committee. Te CCPheld its rst six congresses between and (thelast was the only one to be held outside China, in Moscow, after the bloody repression of ), the seventh in

, and the eighth, the rst after the seizure of power,in . Te congress has met only eight times sincethen, but only recently with a certain regularityaboutevery ve years. Te Central Committeeformed by anumber of members that grew from the initial ofthe rst period ( ) to in meets morefrequently (up to two or three times a year, as necessary)

in what are known as plenums, or plenary sessions. Ordinary activities between two plenums are managed bythe Permanent Committee of the Central Commitee.Te Central Committee has the powerful Central Committee for Discipline at its side. Te executive organ isthe politburo, with a variable number of members (theleast numerous had members, and the one selected in

had ).Starting in the highest level of party leadership

was restricted even further, with the creation of a politburo Standing Committee that at the time had vemembers and subsequently has always had an unevennumber of members (between ve and nine). Directly

below this Standing Committee is the Secretariat, generally led by a member from the same body; this memberreceives the title of general secretary and is in charge ofthe partys policies. Te position of general secretary,

which is currently held by the person at the top of the


political hierarchy, Hu Jintao, never really was Maos, who preferred to assign it to Deng starting with the Cultural Revolution in , while he kept the position ofpresident for himself. Te position of general secretary

was abolished during the years of the Cultural Revolution ( ), and it was Deng who wanted to reestablish it in the s, when it was rst held by Hu Yaobang(until ), then by Zhao Ziyang (until ), JiangZemin (until ), and then Hu Jintao. Te party alsoselects a Central Military Commission, in command ofthe Peoples Liberation Army. As a revolutionary army,it swears allegiance to the revolution and its guardian,the CCP, not to organs of state power. Control of theCentral Military Commission is usually a sign of whocontrols power in the party and the country.

Te partys base has continued to grow (from .million members in , to . million in ). Tisgrowth in party membership notwithstanding, the partysability to manage, control, and determine social changehas decreased with the gradual privatization of boththe labor market and the education, social services, andhousing markets. Chinese Communists are prevalentlymen (women constitute . percent) and older (only. percent are less than thirty-ve years old), with an

above average educational level (about percent have atleast a high school diploma). Even though party affiliationdoes not have any practical benets, the prestige associated with the party often guarantees special treatment.Belonging to the party is an advantage, especially for professionals who work for state organizations. A situationquite frequently occurs where in order to be guaranteed

a promotion to higher levels of responsibility, employees will be explicitly required to join the party. Membershipis not automatic and requires one to have no criminal record, a relatively long educational history, and to take anexam to test ones knowledge of the partys fundamentalprinciples and history. During some periods, access to theparty was reserved only for members of good classes,

workers and peasants. Later, due to the more complex setof interests represented, the party allowed even elementsconsidered bourgeois (especially private businesspeople)to become full-edged members.

See also Chinese Revolution; Cultural Revolution in China;Deng Xiaoping; Great Leap Forward; Long March; Mao Zedong;Marxism-Leninism; Single-Party System; State, The.

F U RT H E R R E A D IN G

Lieberthal, K.Governing China: From Revolution through Re- form. New York: Norton, .



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MacFarquhar, R., ed. Te Politics of China: Te Eras of Mao andDeng . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, .

Saich, ., and . Cheek, ed. New Perspectives on State Socialismin China . Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, .

Saich, ., and B. Yang. Te Rise to Power of the Chinese Com-munist Party: Documents and Analysis . Armonk, NY: M. E.Sharpe, .

LUIGI TOMBA
