Caste-estates and Class

7/29/2019 Caste-estates and Class

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lowness or superiority and inferiority is associated with this gradation or ranking. TheBrahmins are placed at the top of the hierarchy and are regarded as pre, supreme or superior.The degraded caste or the so called untouchables [Harijans] have occupied the other end ofthe hierarchy. All over India neither the supremacy of the Brahmins nor the degraded positionof the Harijans or outcastes has been questioned. It is taken for granted, but regarding theexact position of the intermediary castes there are disputes on the part of the members.2. Caste As a Segmental Division of Society. The Hindu society is a caste-ridden society.It is divided into a number of segments called castes. It is not a homogeneous society.Castes are groups with defined boundary of their own. The status of an individual isdetermined by his birth and not by selection nor by accomplishments. No amount of power,prestige and pelf can change the position of man. The membership of the caste is henceunchangeable, unacquirable, inalienable, unattainable and nontransferable. Further, each castein a way, has its own way of life. Each caste has its own customs, traditions, practices andrituals. It has its own informal rules, regulations and procedures. They were caste councils orcaste panchayats to regulate the conduct of members also. The caste used to help itsmembers when they were found in distress. Indeed, the caste was its own ruler.Caste Panchayat

During the early days in every village every caste used to have its own caste Panchayat.

It consisted of five chosen members who enjoyed much social privilege and respect. The castepanchayat used to perform a number of functions. It used to make the members comply withcaste rules and regulations. Setting caste disputes and giving its final verdict on the issuesreferred to it, were also its other functions. It was giving punishments to those who violatedcaste rules and obligations. Matters such as breaking the marriage promise, refusal on thepart of the husband to take the wife to his house, cruelty to wife, adultery on the part of wife,killing the cows, insulting the Brahmins, having illicit sex relations with other case people, etc.,were dealt with by the panchayat. It was giving punishments such as arranging dinner partyfor the fellow caste-men, imposing fine, purification, pilgrimage, out casting etc., for theoffenders. The caste panchayat was also striving to promote the welfare of the caste members.Safeguarding the interests of the caste members was yet another function of the panchayat.

These caste panchayats have become weak and ineffective nowadays.The castes and sub castes together make up the Hindu social system. Still in some

respects each is isolated from the other. It is in a way semisoverign. The castes are acomplete world in themselves for their members. The members are expected to be loyal tothe caste. Caste feeling is hence, very strong. It is very much stronger in rural areas than in theurban areas. It is because of this the amount of community-feeling is restricted.3. Restrictions on Food Habits. The caste system has imposed certain restrictions on thefood habits of the members; they differ from caste to caste. Who should accept what kind offood and from whom? is often decided by the caste. For example, in North India, a Brahminwould accept pakka food [cooked in ghee] only from some castes lower than his own. But hewould accept kachcha food [prepared with the use of water] at the hands of no other caste

except his own. As a matter of rule and practice, no individuals would accept kachcha foodprepared by an inferior caste man. Generally, any kind of food that is prepared by theBrahmins is acceptable to all the caste people. This factor explains as to why the Brahmindominated the hotel industry for a long time. Further, restrictions are also there still on the useof certain vegetables for certain castes. Even today, some traditional Brahmins do notconsume onions, garlic, cabbage, carrot, beetroot etc. Eating beef is not allowed except for theHarijans.4. Restrictions on social relations. The caste system puts restrictions on the range of socialrelations also. The idea of pollution makes this point clear. It means a touch of a lower case

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man (particularly Harijan) would pollute or defile a man of higher caste. Even his shadow isconsidered enough to pollute a higher caste man. In Kerala for a long time, a Nayar couldapproach a Nambudari Brahmin but would not touch him. Further, a Tiyan was expected tokeep himself at a distance of 36 steps from the Brahmin and a pulaya at a distance of 96 paces.In Tamilnadu the shanar today tapper was expected to keep a distance of 24 paces whileapproaching a Brahmin. This has resulted in the practice of untouchability. This practice hasmade the lower caste people to be segregated completely from the higher caste.5. Social and Religious Disabilities of certain castes. In the traditional caste society somelower caste people [particularly, the Harijans] suffered from certain civil or social and religiousdisabilities. Generally, the impure castes are made to live on the outskirts of the city or thevillage. In South India, certain parts of the towns or the villages are not accessible to theHarijans. It is recorded that during the Peshwa rule in Maharashtra the Mahars and Mangswere not allowed within the gates of Poona before 9.00 A.M. and after 3.00 P.M. The reasonwas during the time their bodies would cast too long shadows, which, if they were to fall on theBrahmins, would defile them.

Socially, Harijans or the so colled untouchables are separated from other members.Even today, in many places they are not allowed to draw water from the public wells. Duringthe early days, public places like hotels, public lecture halls, schools, temples, theatres were not

kept open for the lower case people. Entrance to temples and other places of religiousimportance was forbidden for them. Educational facilities, legal rights and politicalrepresentation were denied to them for a long time. In South India, restrictions were placed onthe mode of constructing houses of the lower caste people, and their types of dresses andpatterns of ornamentation. The toddy-tappers of Malabar were not allowed to carry umbrellas,to wear shoes or golden ornaments and to milk cows. They were forbidden to cover the upperpart of their body.6. The Civil and Religious Privileges of Certain Castes. If the lower caste people sufferfrom certain disabilities, some higher caste people like the Brahmins enjoy certain privileges.Nowhere the Brahmins suffered from the disabilities cited above. They are given more liberty,because they are believed to be born pure and superior. The Brahmins never saluted others,

but they always had the privilege of being saluted by others. They never even bowed to theidols of the lower caste people. Education and teaching were almost the monopoly of thehigher caste people. Chanting the Vedic Mantras was great privilege of the Brahmins. Theupper caste people in general, enjoyed social, political, legal and religious privileges.7. Restrictions on Occupational Choice. In the caste-ridden society there is a gradation ofoccupations also. Some occupations are considered to be superior and sacred while certainothers degrading and inferior. For a long time, occupations were very much associated withthe caste system. Each caste had its own specific occupations were almost hereditary.

Weaving, shoe-making, oil-grinding, sweeping, scavenging, curing, hides tanning,washing clothes, barbering, pottery, etc., were considered to be somewhat degrading.Learning, priesthood, teaching were the prestigious professions which mostly the Brahmins

pursued. But agriculture, trade and labouring in the field were thrown open to all the castes.At the same time, no caste would allow its members to take up to any profession which waseither degrading or impure.8. Restrictions on Marriage. The caste system imposes restrictions on marriage also. Casteis an endogamous group. Endogamy is a rule of marriage according to which an individual hasto marry within his or her group. Each caste is subdivided into several sub castes, which areagain endogamous. For example, Iyers, Iyengars, Smarthas, Madhvas, Having Brahmins,Kota, Shivalli, Kandavara Brahmins, etc., are all Brahmin sub castes which are endogamous.Similarly, the Vokkaliga caste consists of Morasu, Hallikar, Nonaba, Gangadiga and other sub

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castes. According to the rule of endogamy a Shivalli Brahmin, for example, has to marry aShivalli girl, an Iyengar, an Iyengar girl and so on. Inter caste marriages were strictlyforbidden them. Even at present, inter caste marriages have not become popular. Violation ofthe rule of endogamy was strictly dealt with during the early days. The rule of endogamy hasresulted in close in-breeding. Some writers like Hutton have regarded endogamy as the veryessence of the caste system. Exception to this rule of endogamy is seen in places like the hillparts of Punjab and also in Malabar. The Caste provides for some kind of exogamousmarriages also. They can briefly examined here.Sapinda and Sagotra Exogamy. Sapinda and Sagotra marriages have been generallyforbidden by the upper castes and Sapinda and Sagotra exogamous marriages have beeninsisted upon.Sapinda Exogamy. In Hindu society marriage within the Pinda is prohibited. Pinda meanscommon parentage. According to Brahaspathi, off springs from five maternal generations andseven paternal generations are Sapinda and they cannot intermarry. This opinion, however, isnot universally accepted. Though certain exceptions are there in South India, in North India,generally, Sapinda marriages do not take place. But Sapinda exogamy, that is, marryingoutside ones pinda is commonly found.Sagotra Exogamy. Sagotra exogamy, that is, marrying outside ones own gotra is very

much prevalent among the upper caste such as Brahmins and Kshatriyas. Marriage within thegotra is prohibited. This restriction has been imposed since people of one gotra are believed tohave similar blood. Similarly, Sapravara marriages are also forbidden especially for theBrahmins. Persons belonging to the same pravara cannot intermarry. People who utter thename of a common saint at religious functions are believed to belong to the same pravara. Thepravara is a kind of religious and spiritual bond. Sapravara exogamy, that is marrying outsideones own pravara, has been imposed as a rule for the upper castes, especially for theBrahmins.

CHANGES IN THE CASTE SYSTEM

The caste system which is an integral part of the Indian system, has a long standinghistory of its own. To understand how the system has come to be what it is today, one has to

go back through the pages of history to trace its origin, evolution and growth. It is not easy tosay precisely when, how and under what circumstances and pressures the system took its birthand developed. The task of tracing the evolution and growth of this system in precise andunambiguous terms is equally problematic. For the purpose of study three main stages in theevaluation of caste may be identified. They are mentioned below:(i) Caste in Ancient Age [The period upto 1100 A.D which is inclusive of Vedic Age, Post-Vedic Age and Puranic Age].(ii) Caste in Medieval Age [The period between 1100 A.D. and 1757 A.D. which includesmainly the age of Muslim Rule in India].(iii) Caste in Modern Age [The period after 1757 A.D. which includes the Pre-IndependentBritish period and the period after Independence].

It is not within the framework of this book to discuss in detail the development whichtook place in the caste system during the first two major periods. Hence the description isconfined to the third stage, that is, Caste in Modern Age.Caste in Modern Age [After 1757 A.D]

The modern period in which some major developments took place in caste system canbe divided into two stages namely: (A) Caste during British rule and (B) Caste in IndependenceIndia.

2. CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM DURING THE BRITISH RULE

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Prior to the coming of the British, caste had grown into a powerful social institution,with the dominance of Brahmins at the top of its hierarchy. The Hindu kings also upheld thisinstitution with the help of their civil power. With the advent of the British as the politicalhead of the society, the traditional form of the caste started taking a different shape.The British Intention was to Rule not to initiate Reformative Chances

The British brought with them their own traditional form of government which wasquite different from that of the Indian monarchical system. But as Christians the BritishCould not have much sympathy with the institutions of the Hindu. As prudent foreignersthey were more interested in consolidating their power over a strange land and people ratherthan initiating reformative changes in its peculiar institutions such as caste. They introduceda system of education which did not demand of the learners any change of caste or religion.The policy of comparative non-interference followed by the British made the lower castesrevolt against the Brahmin supremacy. Growth of modern industrial organization and the rapidspread of urbanization further altered the social situation. This situation made it inevitable forpeople of different castes, classes and religions to live in close congregations in cities. Withthis background the changes in the caste system during the British rule can be studied in twostages: (A) Pre-Industrial British Period 1757-1918 A.D and (B) Pre-Independent IndustrialPeriod 1918-1947 A.D.

(A) Pre-Industrial British Period [1757 to 1918 A.D.]

The East India Company of the British obtained from the Moghal rulers somecommercial privileges in the beginning of the 17 th century. It tightened its political hold overthe whole of India within 7 to 8 decades. The appointment of Warren Hastings in 1774 as thefirst Governor General of India, marked the beginning of the British Age in India.1. Declining Hold of the Caste Panchayats

After consolidating their power the British introduced through out India uniform legal,legislative systems. The British transferred the judicial power of the caste councils to the civiland criminal courts which affected the authority which the Panchayats had held over themembers. Questions of assault, adultery, rape and the like were taken before the British Courts

for decision. In civil matters such marriage, divorce, caste-based occupational disputes.Disputes between husband and wife, parents and children etc., the intention of the British wasto be guided by the caste customs. But in actual practice various decisions of the High Courtsvirtually set aside the authority of the caste.2. Influence of Social Legislation on Caste

Some of the legislation which the British introduced shook the integrity of the castesystem. Specific mention can be made of a few of the legislations such as the following:(i) The Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850 [which served to remove some of thedisabilities associated with caste including the practice of untouchability].(ii) The Special Marriage Act of 1872 [which legalized inter caste and inter-religiousmarriages].

(iii) The Hindu Widows Remarriage Act of 1856 [which gave legal permission for widowsto remarry].

These and many other socio-legal measures of the British government gave a severeblow t the integrity of the caste system. But as Prof. Ghurye has pointed out, all thesemeasures were taken by the British Government purely for administrative convenience and ithad no desire to reduce the rigidity of caste.3. Impact of Social Reform Movements

Some of the social reform movements launched by social reformers during the Britishrule also attacked the caste system and its inequalities.

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industries, occupations, employment opportunities, salary-based service system came to beestablished. The growth of industries destroyed the old crafts and household industries andprovided for countless ways earning livelihood. Introduction of railways, telegraph and layingof radios helped trade and commerce. People of all castes started making use of the neweconomic opportunities.

Industrialisation also resulted in occupational and geographic mobility. Movement ofpeople from the compact ancestral village to the towns and cities started breaking down manyof the caste norms. Crowded trains and busies could bring together lakhs of people of allcastes and left little room for the niceties of ceremonial purity. Taboos against some foods andaccepting food and water from persons of other castes also started weakening. Hotel system offood and hostel system if residence served to bring together people of different castes. Thejajmani system of economy which had made economic interdependence of different castes,started declining. It slowly gave place to the capitalist system of economy. These industrialand their concomitant development made caste-members to come out of the hold of caste-based occupations and to resort to the new occupational avenues based purely on personalpreferences and choices.

Influence of industrialization was, no doubt, widespread. But its impact was notuniform and absolute on all the basic features of caste. For example, its impact on the

endogamous nature of marriage and various marriage practices, rules and beliefs was almostnegligible. Rapid industrialization never led to the automatic dissolution of the caste systemand its progressive replacement by a class system as it was believed by some Western scholars.The economic aspects of caste underwent swift changes whereas its socio-cultural aspectsnever got changed with equal speed.2. Impact of Urbanisation

In order to reap the benefits of new educational and occupational opportunities peoplestarted moving towards towns and cities in large number. The necessities of city life relaxedthe commensal taboos imposed by caste and lessened the dominance of Brahmins. As Srinivashas pointed out, the non-brahmins refused to show the same respect to the Brahmins whichthey used to show earlier. The growth of city life with its migratory population brought about

changes in the rigidity of the case system. Kingsely Davis also held that the anonymity,congestion, mobility, secularism and changeability of the city made the operation of castevirtually impossible.3. Influence of Freedom Movement and the Role of Gandhiji

Indian freedom struggle also altered the character of caste to some extent. The freedomstruggle organized by the Indian National Congress brought together people of different castes,classes, religious and regions under one banner. The Congress led by Gandhiji launched acampaign against untouchability and roused the conscience of the people against its practice.Participation of the lower castes in the freedom struggle boosted their image.

At the fag end of the British rule, though the traditional influence of caste starteddeclining, its organizational strength was increasing. As Ghurye observed, All about the end

of the British rule in India, Caste-Society presented the spectacle of self-centered groups moreor less in conflict with one another.

3. CASTE IN INDEPENDENT INDIA [AFTER 1947]

The political independent of the country, besides the process of industrialization,urbanization, secularization etc. brought in a series of changes in the caste system. Thesechanges can be classified into two categories: (A) Changes in the traditional features of caste;(B) Changes in the role for functioning of the caste.

(A) CHANGES IN THE TRADITIONAL FEATUES OF CASTE

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Caste has assumed a different form in the modern times. Some of the traditionalfeatures [described earlier] have been radically altered. Here is a brief survey of the changesthat have taken place in caste system after Independence.1. The religious basis of the caste has been attacked. Caste is no more believed to be divinelyordained. It is being given more a social and secular meaning than a religious interpretation.2. Restrictions on food habits have been relaxed. Distinction between pakka food andkachcha food has almost vanished. Food habits have become more a matter of personalchoice than a caste rule. Still commensal taboos are not completely ignored especially in therural areas. Interdining has not become the order of the day.3. Caste is not very much associated with hereditary occupations. Caste no longer determinesthe occupational career of an individual. Occupations are becoming more and more caste-free. Even Brahmins are found driving taxis, dealing with foot-wears and running non-vegetarian hotels and bars and so on.4. Endogamy, which is often called the very essence of the caste system, still prevails. Intercaste marriages though legally permitted, have not become the order of the day. As K.M.Kapadia says, there is an indifference to the intercaste marriages if not tacit acceptance by thesociety.5. The special civil and religious privileges which the Brahmins enjoyed are no more being

enjoyed by them. The Constitution of India has removed all such privileges and made allcastes equal.

Most of the legal, political, educational, economic and other disabilities from which thelowest caste people had suffered, have been removed by the constitutional provisions. Theyare given special protection also. Adult franchise and reservation have given them a strongweapon to protect their interests.6. Caste continues to be a segmental divisions of Hindu society. Caste with its hierarchicalsystem continues to ascribe statuses to the individuals. But the twin processes ofSanskritisation and Westernisation have made possible mobility both within and outside theframework of caste.7. Caste panchayats, which used to control the behaviour of caste-members, have either

become very weak or disappeared. Though they are often found here and there in the villageareas, they are almost non-existent in the urban areas.8. Restrictions imposed by the caste on social inter course are very much relaxed. Distinctionbetween touchable and untouchable is not much felt especially in the community of literatepeople. However, instances of untouchability are heard in the rural areas.9. Other Important Changes

(i) Though the dominances of caste is still found in villages it no longerdepends upon its ritual status.

(ii) Casteism which is associated with caste, instead of disappearing in the wakeof modernism who become still stronger.

(iii) The jajmani system which used to govern the inter-caste relation

especially in the villages has become very weak. In many places it hasvanished. In place of inter-caste dependence, intercaste strifes are found.

(iv) Caste has lost much of its hold over the social usuages and customspracticed by its members.

(v) Caste today does not dictate individuals life nor does it restrict newlyvalued individual freedom. Hence it no longer acts as a barrier to theprogress of an individual.

(B) CHANGES IN THE ROLE OF CASTE

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The caste system in its attempts to adjust itself to the changed conditions of life hasassumed new roles. Besides industrialization and urbanization, other factors such asWesternisation, Sanskritisation, reorganization of Indian states, spread of education, socio-religious reforms, spatial and occupational mobility and growth of market economy havegreatly affected the caste system. Changes in the role of caste must also be understood in thelight of the influence of these factors.1. Increase in the Organisational Power of Caste

Education makes people liberal, broad-minded, rationale and democratic. Educatedpeople are believed to be less conservative and superstitious. Hence it was expected that withthe growth of literacy in India, caste-mindedness and casteism would come down. On thecountry, caste-consciousness of the members has been increasing. Every caste wants tosafeguard its interests. Fr fulfilling this purpose castes are getting themselves organized on themodel of labour unions.

Today every caste wants to organized itself. Such caste organizations are on theincrease. Mainly to cater to the educational, medical and religious needs of their members,these organizations are running hostels and hospitals, schools and colleges, reading-rooms andlibraries, dharmashalas and temples and so on. These caste-based organizations are also tryingto project the leadership of some of their members to serve as their spokesmen.

2. Political Role of CasteCaste and politics have come to affect each other now. Caste has become an

inseparable aspect of our politics. In fact, it is tightening its hold on politics. Elections arefought more often on the basis of caste. Selection of candidates, voting analysis, selection oflegislative party leaders, distribution of ministerial portfolios etc., are very much based oncaste. Even the communist parties which projects the ideal of a casteles and classless societyare also not an exception to this. Politics of each state, as M.N. Srinivas says, is virtually thepolitics of confrontation of its dominant castes. Thus, unless one knows the politicalconfrontation between the dominant castes such as Ligayats and Vokkaligas in Karnataka andReddys and Kammas in Andhra Pradesh, one cannot understand the policies of these twostates. M.N. Srinivas also makes a distinction between caste at the ritual level and caste at the

political level. Caste at the ritual level is smaller unit than the caste at the political level.3. Protection for Scheduled Castes and other Backward Classes

The constitution of India has made enough provisions to protect the interests ofScheduled Castes and Tribes. They are offered more political, educational and serviceopportunities through the reservation policy. Seats are reserved for them from Mandalpanchayat to Parliament and in all government departments. Though the reservation policy isagainst the declared goal of establishment of a casteless society, all political parties havesupported it mostly, for political purposes. According to M.N. Srinivas, The provision ofconstitutional safeguard to . Scheduled Castes and Tribes has given a new lease of life tocaste. These provisions have made some of them develop vested interests to reappermanently the benefits of reservation. They are also tempting many other Castes to bring

pressure on the government to declare them as belonging to the category of Scheduled castes.4. Sanskritisation andWesternisation

As M.N. Srinivas has pointed out, two important trends are witnessed in caste theprocess of Sanskritisation and that of Westernisation. The former refers to a process in whichthe lower castes tend to intimate the values, practices and other life-styles of some dominantupper castes. The latter denotes a process in which the upper-caste people tend to mould theirlife-styles on the model Westerners.5. Backward Classes Movement

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The non-Brahmin castes today are getting themselves more and more organized tochallenge the supremacy of the Brahmins and to assert their rights. The establishment ofSatyashodhak Samaj by Jyotirao Phooley in Poona in 1873 marked the beginning of such anon-Brahmin movement. This movement against the Brahmin supremacy by the lower castescame to be known as Backward Classes Movement. In the beginning, the main aim of thismovement was to limit the Brahmin monopoly in the two fields such as education andappointment to government posts.

The Backward Classes Movement has become a vital political force today. Itsinfluence has changed the political scenario of the country. This movement has made theBrahmins politically weak and insignificant especially in Kerala and Tamilnadu. Thismovement has also brought pressure on different political parties to create special opportunitiesfor the lowest caste people enabling them to come up to the level of other higher castes. Dueto this pressure, Backward Classes Commissions were established at Central and State levelswhich recommended reservation for backward caste/classes.6. Competitive Role of Castes

Mutual interdependence of castes which existed for centuries and was reinforced by theinstitutional system of jajmani, is not found today. As M.N. Srinivas points out, the verticalsolidarity of castes has been replaced by horizontal solidarity. Live and let live policy,

which was, once associated with the caste makes no sense today. On the country, each castelooks at the other with suspicision, contempt and jelousy and finds in it a challenger, acompetitor. Excessive caste-mindedness and caste-patriotism have added to this competition.The economic base of a caste and its hold over the political power virtually determine theintensity of this competitiveness. This competitive spirit further strengthens caste-mindedness.7. New attempts to strengthen caste-loyalty, caste-identity, caste-patriotism and caste-mindedness

Today caste organizations are increasing and are making every attempt to obtain theloyalty of their members and to strengthen their caste-identity and solidarity. Some suchattempts can be cited here.(i) Though Caste Panchayats are dwindling, caste organizations are on the increase. Some of

these organizations have their own written constitutions and managing committees throughwhich they try to preserve some of the caste rules and practices.(ii) Caste organizations run their own papers, bulletins, periodicals, monthlies etc., throughwhich they regularly feed information to the members regarding the activities of casteorganization and achievements of caste-members.(iii) Attempts are also made to increase caste integration through the establishment of castebased trusts and trust-units. These trusts arrange annual gatherings, get-togethers, annualdinners, occasional festival celebrations, they provide shelter to the needy members of thecaste. They offer scholarships to the poor students of the caste. Some of them run schools,colleges, hostels, maternity-homes for caste members and so on.

(iv) The occupational castes are making determined efforts to improve the economic

conditions of caste members by establishing cooperative credit and industrialsocieties.

(v) Caste organizations collect regular subscription from the members, arrange annualconferences, discuss matters and issues affecting caste interests and caste solidarityand organize agitation and protest meetings against the governmental policies ifthey were to damage caste interests. In states like Bihar, some upper and lowercastes have formed their own senas

4. CAUSES FOR THE CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM

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The caste system has undergone vast changes in modern times. Factors that contributedto the changes in the caste system are briefly examined here.1. Uniform Legal System. The uniform legal system introduced by the British made theIndians feel that all men are equal before the law. A number of legislations which the Britishintroduced also struck at the root of the caste system. Independent India followed the samelegal system. The Constitution of India has not only assured equality to all but also declaredthe practice of untouchability unlawful. Articles 16, 164, 225, 330, 332, 334, 335, 338 and the5th and 6th Schedules of the Constitution provide for some special privileges to the ScheduledCastes and Scheduled Tribes to enable them to come up to the level of other upper castes.2. Impact of Modern Education. The British introduced the modern secular education in auniform way throughout India. In independent India educational facilities are extended to allthe caste people. The lowest caste people are also entitled to avail themselves of thesefacilities. Modern education has given a blow to the intellectual monopoly of a few uppercastes. It has created an awareness among people and weakened the hold of caste over themembers. It does not, however, mean that the modern educated people are completely freefrom the hold of the caste.3. Industrialisation, Urbanisation and Westernisation. Due to the process ofindustrialization number of non-agricultural job opportunities were created. This new

economic opportunity weakened the hold of the upper castes people who owned vast lands.People of different castes, classes and religious started working together in factories, offices,workshops etc. This was unthinkable two centuries ago. Growth of cities has drawn people ofall castes together and made them to stay together ignoring many of their caste restrictions.The upper caste people started looking to the west for modifying their life-style on the modelof the West. Thus they became more and more westernized without bothering much aboutcaste inhibitions.4. Influence of Modern Transport and communication system. Modern means of transportsuch as train, bus, ship, aeroplane, trucks etc. have been of great help for the movement of menand materials. Caste rules relating to the practice of purity and poolution and untouchabilitycould no longer be observed. Modern means of communication, such as, newspapers, post,

telegraph, telephone, radio, television etc., have helped people to come out of the narrow worldof caste.5. Freedom Struggle and the Establishment of Democracy: The freedom struggle wagedagainst the British brought all the caste people together to fight for a common cause.Establishment of democratic type of government soon after Independence gave yet anotherblow to the caste by extending equal socio-economic opportunities to all without anydiscrimination.6. Rise of Non-Brahmin Movement. A movement against the Brahmin supremacy waslaunched by Jyothirao Pooley in 1873. This movement became popular in course of timeparticularly in the South. It created an awareness among the lower castes and instilled in themthe feeling of self-respect. This movement which became a great political force, brought

pressure upon the government to establish Backward Classes Commissions at Central and Statelevels. The recommendations made by these commissions and their implementation providedvast scope for the lower castes to achieve progress.7. Other Important Causes(i) Social Legislations: A series of social legislations introduced by the British as well as bythe Indian governments [such as the Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1872, The HinduMarriage Act of 1955, The Untouchability Offences Act of 1956 etc.] directly and indirectlyaltered the nature of the caste system.

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(ii) Social Reform Movements. Various social reform movements [such as SatyashodhakSamaj, Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Sri Ramakrishna Mission etc.] launched during the secondhalf of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries have been able to remove the rigidity andsome of the evil practices associated with the caste system.(iii) Impact of the West. Influence of the Western thought and particularly the ideas ofrationalism, liberalism, humanitarianism, egalitarianism etc., made the educated Indians tocome out of the clutches of the caste.(iv) Threat of Conversion. Social disabilities imposed on the lower castes made some ofthem to get themselves converted to either Christianity or Islam. Pressure tactics andtemptations further added to this conversion process. The threat of conversion compelled theupper castes to relax many of the caste rigidities so that they could hold back the lower castepeople who were getting ready for conversion.(v) Improvement in the Status of Women, Evolution of New Social Classes. [workingclass, middle class and capitalist class] and radical changes in the system of division of labourespecially in the rural areas have further loosened the roots of caste system.Merits and Demerits of Caste System

The Indian caste system has its own merits and demerits. Some of its merits anddemerits may be mentioned here.

Merits1. Caste represents a harmonious division of society based mainly on division of labour andoccupation.2. Caste promotes the spirit of cooperation and fellow-feeling at least within its range. It helpsthe poor, the needy and strengthens group sentiment.3. Caste is a source of social stability. It has given strength to the Indian society to withstandthe shocks of politics and the cataclysms of nature.4. The caste functions as the constitution of the Hindu society. It rendered most importantservices in the past and continues to sustain the social order and its solidarity.5. The caste preserves the racial purity by prohibiting inter-marriages and by imposingendogamy on as members.

6. It defines the economic pursuits and provides professional career to each individuals. Itprovides for cultural diffusion within the group. The caste culture is passed on from onegeneration to the next, very systematically. As Hutton says, the caste canalizes an individualschoice in marriage, acts as his trade union, his friendly ore benefit society, his state club andhis orphanage it takes care for him of health, insurance and if need be provides for funeral.Demerits of Caste

1. The caste system has unwarrantedly divided the Hindu society into mutually hostile andconflicting groups and sub groups. It has given scope to the inhuman practice ofuntouchability. It has cut across the social solidarity.2. As Gandhiji has said, untouchability is the hate fullest expression of the caste.3. It has hindered the growth of a strong national unity. The spirit of caste-patriotism,

endangers the growth of national consciousness.4. The excessive caste loyality has brought political disunity. It has wrecked the successfulworking of the multi-party system.5. It has prevented the proper growth of democracy. Strictly speaking, democracy and castecannot go together. The caste engenders inequality while democracy assures equality.6. It has retarded progress. The caste is more conservative, reactionary and orthodox. It is forthe status quo.7. It has hindered mobility, it has made our society more static than dynamic.

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8. It has lowered the status of women. In a caste-ridden society women have only asubordinate role to play.9. It has given scope for religious conversions. The lower caste people are getting convertedinto Islam and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper castes.

5. ESTATE SYSTEMMeaning and Nature of Estates

The term Estates represents a type of stratification that existed in Europe during theMiddle Ages. Estates system has a long history. The system emerged in the ancient RomanEmpire, and existed in Europe until very recent times. The estates system consisted of threemain divisions the clergy, the nobility and the commoners or the ordinary people. InEngland and France, for example these three divisions were found. In some parts of Europe,for example, Sweden, almost upto 1866 three were four estate divisions; Nobles, Clergy,Citizens and Peasants.

These historical estates were akin to social classes in at least two respects. (i) Eachestate was to some extent characterized by a distinctive style of life. (ii) The three estatescould be thought of as representing a hierarchy. In this hierarchy the clergy were at the top andthe commoners at the bottom. The intermediary position was occupied by the nobles. Itshould be noted that the clergy was called the First Estate only in consonance with the

medieval ideal that the Church is supreme and the state is subordinated to it. Hence, in realitythee were three classes, but with the nobility at the top.Characteristics of Estates

T.B. Bottomore has mentioned about three important characteristics of the feudalestates of medieval Europe. They are as follows:1. Legal Basis of Estates. Estates were legally defined. Each estate had a status of its own.More precisely in a legal sense the status was associated with rights and duties, privileges andobligations. As it has been said, to know a persons real position it was first of all necessaryto know the law by which he lived. In comparison with the first two estates the clergy andnobility the third estate consisting of the serfs or commoners suffered from many legaldisabilities. For example, the serfs had the inability to appeal to the king for justice. They had

no rights over their chattels or properties and holdings. They had the liability of paying thefines of merchet and heriot. (i.e., a fine paid to a lord for the marriage of a daughter, and afine paid to the lord on the death of a tenant). Even different penalities wer imposed on themfor similar offences.2. Estates Representing Division of Labour. The estates represented a broad division oflabour. They had some definite functions. According to the law of the day, the nobility wereto fight and defend all, the clergy were to pray and the commoners wer to pay or provide foodfor all.3. Estates as Political Groups. The feudal estates were political groups. An assembly ofestates possessed political power. From this point of view the serfs did not constitute an estateuntil the 1`2th century A.D. The decline of Education feudalism after the 12 th Century is

associated with the rise of a third estate. The third estate behaved for a long period within thefeudal system as a distinctive group before they overthrew it.

Thus the three estates clergy, nobility and the commoners functioned like threepolitical groups. As far as participation in government was concerned, the clergy used to standby the nobility. In France, the political position as more rigid. This system of three estatesremained three until 1789, that is till the outbreak of the Revolution. In the French Parliamentcalled States General, these estates used to sit separately and not together. Thatdifferentiation within the estates prevailed for a long time. The political movement of theFrench Revolution brought about some radical changes in France.

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THE CASTE SYSTEM AND THE ESTATES SYSTEMThe Caste System of India and the Estates of Medieval Europe are not one and the

same. The differences and the similarities between the two systems may be noted here:1. A pure caste system is rooted in the religious order whereas the estates system is rooted inthe legal order. Divisions within the caste system are an interpretation of the laws of religiousritual, the divisions of estates system are defined by the laws of man. Hence it is not necessaryin the estates system to know a mans place in a ritual order. But it is significant to know theman-made lay by which he lives. These laws were somewhat complicated. Still their universalcharacteristic was that they defined not only the right but also the duties and obligations of themembers of estates. These could be enforced either in the courts or by military strength.2. Unlike the caste system the estates system has no out-castes. Because, at least in theory,all the estates of the system enjoyed their own rights, duties and obligations. All couldestablish some claim on the established social order. Here in the caste system, the outcastessuffered from all kinds of social, political, religious, legal and other disabilities.3. Difference between these two systems could be observed with regard to the nature of socialmobility. Both, of course, had institutionalized barriers for social mobility. The barriers in thecaste system are based on ritual impurity whereas the barriers of the estate system are legal.Since these legal barriers are man-made they can be modified in particular circumstances. For

example, in the religious sphere, anyone belonging to any section of the community wasrecruited into the church. At least in theory, anyone could attain any high place in it.Promotion within the Church indicated some kind of social mobility. In the secular sphere,however, the kind could provide a distinguished servant a mobile position. In both thesecircumstances, changes of social position were essentially inherited.

The caste system, on the other hand, suffers from irreparable inequality created bydivinity as it is believed. Hence, no caste members could rise or improve upon his position inthe caste system even as an exceptional case.

6. SOCIAL CLASS

Social Class is a principal type of social stratification found especially in the moderncivilized countries. If the caste system is found to be unique to India, the class system is

universal in nature. Sometimes, the word class is used to represent groups of professors,artists, engineers, doctors, students, etc. The word class is also used to refer the quality of thethings whether good, better, best and so on. Bu the concept of social class is more used insociology representing a kind of social stratification than anything else.Definition1. P. Gisbert: A social class is a category or group of persons having a definite status insociety which permanently determines their relation to other groups.2. Ogburn and Nimkoff: A social class is the aggregate of persons having essentially thesame social status in a given society.3. Maclver and Page: A social class is any portion of the community marked off from the restby social status.

4. Max Weber: Social classes are aggregates of individuals who have the same opportunitiesof acquiring goods, the same exhibited standard of living.5. Lapire: A social class is culturally defined group that is accorded a particular position ofstatus within the population as a whole.Thus, it is clear that social class is a segment of society with all the members of all ages andboth the sexes who share the same general status. As Maclver says, whenever socialintercourse is limited by the consideration of social status by distinctions between higher andlower, there exists a social class.Nature and Characteristics of Social Class

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1. Class A Status Group. A social class is essentially a status group. Class is related tostatus. Different statuses arise in a society as people do different things, engage in differentactivities and purse different vocations. The consideration of the class as a status group makesit possible to apply it to any society, which has many strata. The idea of social status separatesthe individuals not only physically sometimes even mentally.2. Achieved Status and Not Ascribed Status. Status in the case of class system is achievedand not ascribed. Birth is not the criterion of status. Achievements of an individual mostlydecide his status. Class system provides scope for changing or improving ones status. Factorslike income, occupation, wealth, education, life-styles, etc. decide the status of an individual.3. The Class System is Universal. Class is almost a universal phenomenon. The classsystem appears in all the modern complex societies of the world. It is a phenomenon that isabsent only in the smallest, the simplest, and the most primitive of societies. All other societiesof any size have a class structure.4. Mode of Feeling. In a class system we may observe three modes of feelings. (i) There is afeeling of equality in relation to the members of ones own class (ii) There is a feeling ofinferiority in relation to those who occupy the higher status in the socio-economic hierarchy(iii) There is a feeling of superiority in relation to those who occupy the lower status in thehierarchy. This kind of feeling develops into class-consciousness and finally results in class

solidarity.5. Element of Prestige. Each social class has its own status in society. Status is associatedwith prestige. The relative position of the class in the social set up arises from the degree ofprestige attached to the status. Thus, the status and the prestige enjoyed by the ruling classes orrich classes in every society is superior to that of the class of commoners or the poor people.The prestige which a class enjoys depends upon our evaluations. In many societies knowledge,purity of race or descent, religious, wealth, heroism, bravery and similar other qualities confera high degree of prestige on the persons possessing them. These qualities on which ourevaluations are based vary considerably in different societies, and in the course of time, withinthe same society.6. Element of Stability. A social class is relatively a stable group. It is not transitory nor

unable like a crowd or a mob. Though status in the case of class is subject to change, it is tosome extent stable. Status in the case of class may undergo radical changes in extraordinarycircumstances i.e., in times of wars, revolutions, economic, political and social crisis and so on.7. Mode of Living. A social class is distinguished from other classes by its customary modesof behaviour or mode of behaving. This is often referred to as the life-styles of a particularclass. Life-styles or the modes of living include such matters as the mode of dress, the kindof house and neighbourhood one lives in, the means of recreation one resorts to, the culturalproducts one is able to enjoy, the relationship between parents and children, the kinds of books,magazines and TV shows to which one is exposed, ones friends, ones mode of conveyanceand communication, ones way of spending money and so on. Life-styles reflect thespecialty in preferences, tastes and values of a class.

8. Social Class an Open Group. Social classes are open groups. They represent anopen social system. An open class system is one in which vertical social mobility is possible.This means there are no restrictions, or at the most only very mild restrictions are imposed onthe upward and downward movement of individuals in the social hierarchy. However, acompletely open class system and a completely closed class system are only hypothetical.9. Social class an Economic Group. The basis of social classes is mostly economic, butthey are not mere economic groups or divisions. Subjective criteria such as class-consciousness, class solidarity and class identification on the one hand, and the objectivecriteria such as wealth, property, income, education, occupation, etc., on the other, are equally

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important in the class system. Classes, thus, are not merely economic groups, they aresomething more than these.10. Classification of Social Classes. Sociologies have given three-fold classification ofclasses which consists of (i) Upper Class (ii) Middle Class and (iii) Lower Class. Warner andLunt in their study of a New England town [their being The Social Life of a ModernCommunity], have divided each of the traditional classes into two sub classes. They havegiven a six-fold classification consisting of (i) The Upper-Upper Class (ii)The Lower-UpperClass (iii)The Upper-Middle Class (iv) The Lower-Middle Class, (v) The Upper-Lower Classand (vi) The Lower-Lower Class. Karl Marx, the champion of the theory of social class andclass conflicts, has spoken of only two major social classes, the haves and the have nots orthe rich and the poor, or the capitalists and the workers, or the Bourgeosie and the Proletariat.Sorokin has spoken of three major types of class stratification. They are economic, politicaland occupational classes.11. Class Consciousness. Class system is associated with class consciousness. Classconsciousness is the sentiment that characterizes the relations of men towards the members oftheir own and other classes. Class consciousness is the means by which the integration ofpersons possessing a similarity of social position and of life-chances is transformed into acommon group activity.

Conditions of Class-Consciousness. Ginsberg has mentioned three conditions of classconsciousness. First is the ease and amount of social mobility. If movement up and down iseay and rapid, differences in mode of life disappear, if it is possible but not easy, theconsciousness of differences is increased. The second condition of class consciousness isrivalry and conflict. When the members of a class realize their common interests, then theymay think of defending their interests against the common enemy. The third factor is thegrowth of a common tradition embodying common standards of value and commonexperiences. When the people come to posses common traditions and common experiences,they may develop class consciousness.Class Consciousness and Class Struggle. Karl Marx, who championed the cause of workers,laid great emphasis on class consciousness among the working classes. According to Marx,

the rise of class consciousness among the workers leads to their class identification, classsolidarity and finally to class struggle. Hence he gave a clarion call to the workers in hisManifesto of the Communist Party of 1848 that Workers of the world unite, you have nothingto lose, but your chains, you have a world to win. Class consciousness can be transformedinto same group activity with the help of some organ or instrument. Political party is such anorgan. Hence, Lenin added the idea of a party in Maxism to prepare the workers for classstruggle.

7. CRITERION OF CLASSIt is true that society has been divided into different classes at different times.

Classification of social classes has been made on the basis of objective criterion or subjectivecriterion or both.

Subjective Criteria may include the class consciousness, class solidarity and classidentification, the subjective criteria are essentially psychological. Members who havecommon interests and attributes have a sense of in-group solidarity. They feel that their socio-economic opportunities are almost equal. Warner and Lunt in their study of the Americanclass system have observed the importance of subjective factors in determining a class.According to them, (i) belonging to the right family, (ii) doing the right things, (iii)knowing how to act right (iv) associating with the right people, (v) living in the rightsection of the town, (vi) ones feelings and beliefs concerning certain things all have their

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Ascribed Status: Status is ascribed tothe individuals by birth. Birth is thecriterion of status and not achievement.Status can neither be changed for beimproved.Closed system: Caste is a closedsystem. It restricts social mobility; i.e.,the movement of people from one socialstatus to that of the other.Divine Origin: The Caste system isbelieved to have had a divine origin. Itis closely associated with Hindutradition.Purity and Impurity: The idea ofpurity and impurity is associated withthe caste. Some castes are called purewhile others are regarded as impurecastes are regarded as untouchables.Regulation of relations: The castesystem controls the activities andregulates the relations of its members toa great extent. As Maclver says, it fixesthe role of a man in society. It regulateseven the routine activities of themembers.

Achieved Status: Status is achieved by theindividuals. There is scope for achievement.Hence, status can be changed or improved.

Open system: Class is an open system. Itprovides for social mobility. Individuals canmore from the lower class to the upper class.

Secular: The class system is secular. It hasnothing to do with religion. It has been givenno religious explanation.

Feeling of Disparity: There is a feeling ofdisparity on the part of the members of aclass. The question of purity and impuritydoes not arise. Hence there is no practice ofuntouchability.Limits Relations: The Class system, on theother hand, limits the range of contacts andcommunications of its members. Individualsare more free in a class. It does regulate thedaily tasks of its members.

Caste Class

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Greater Social Distance: There iscomparatively a greater distance beingkept between different castes.Conservative: The caste ridden systemtends to become conservative, orthodoxand reactionary. Castes become incourse of time, water-tightcompartments.Endogamous Group: Caste is anendogamous social unit. Accordingly,every caste member has to marry withinthe group selecting the life partner from

his or her own caste. Inter castemarriages are not allowed.Complexity: The caste system is acomplex system. The very fact thatmore than 2800 castes and sub castesare found in India, makes it evident howcomplex it is.Caste-consciousness: Casteconsciousness is more dangerous to

Less Social distance: There is less socialdistance between different classes. Membersare more tolerant than others.Progressive: The class-laden system isregarded as more progressive. Classes givemore freedom to the members. It permitsgreater social mobility.

Not endogamous: A class is not anendogamous unit. The members are free toselect his or her life partner from any of theclasses. The class system never imposes

restrictions on marriage.

Simplicity: The class system is know for itssimplicity. Broadly speaking, there are onlythree classes the upper, middle and thelower and hence the network of relations isalso simple.Class-consciousness: Class-consciousnessis not inimical to democracy. Class and

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democracy. Democracy and castestrictly speaking, cannot go together,because caste is based on inequality.Caste-feeling may also endanger thegrowth of national sentiments andunity. Caste restricts the amount ofcommunity feeling. Casteism has beena great hinderance to the nationalintegration in India.

democracy go together. Class on the otherhand, does not restrict the amount ofcommunity feeling. In spite of theCommunist influence to internationalise, theclass system never disturbs the growth ofnational sentiments.

SOME ASPECTS OF SOCIALMOBILITY

Though the Indian society which is based on the caste system is often regarded as a

closed society, it is not altogether changeless. Within the framework of the caste itself somekind of mobility is observed. Lower castes have often tried to claim higher status by imitatingthe life-styles of upper-castes particularly of Brahmins and Kshatriyas. M/N. Srinivas used theterm Sanskritisation to denote such a type of process. The upper castes including Brahmins,on the contrary, have started orienting their life-styles on the model of the Westerners. Theterm Westernisation introduced by M.N. Srinivas describes this process. Today not only theupper class and middle class people including upper caste and intermediary caste people aretrying to orient their behaviour, attitudes, beliefs and life-styles towards those of developedsocieties; but also the entire mass of people are involved in this process. Daniel Lerner callsthis process modernisation. It denotes a process of social change whereby less developedsocieties acquire the characteristics common to more developed societies.

Here is an attempt to understand the socio-cultural changes that have been taking placein India in terms of these processes namely: Sanskritisation, Westernisation andModernisation. These three process reflect an attempt to the part of the Indian masses toachieve some amount of mobility both within and outside the framework of the caste system.

A. SANSKRITISATIONMeaning of Sanskritisation

The term Sanskritisation was introduced into Indian Sociology by Prof. M.N.Srinivas. The term refers to a process whereby people of lower castes collectively try to adoptupper caste practices and beliefs, as a preliminary step to acquire higher status. Thus itindicates a process of cultural mobility that is taking place in the traditional social system ofIndia.

M.N. Srinivas in his study of the Coorg in Karnataka, found that lower castes, in orderto raise their position in the caste hierarchy, adopted some customs and practices of theBrahmins, and gave up some of their own which were considered to be impure by the highercastes. For example, they gave up meat-eating, drinking liquor and animals sacrifice to their

deities, They imitated Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. By doing this, within ageneration or so they could claim higher positions in the hierarchy of castes. In the beginning,M.N. Srinivas used the term Brahminisation to denote this process. Later on, he replaced itby Sanskritisation.Definition of Sanskritisation

M.N. Srinivas, in fact, has been broadening his definition of the term Sanskritisationfrom time to time. Initially, he described it as the process of mobility of lower castes byadopting vegetarianism and teetotalism to move in the caste hierarchy in a generation or two (1962). Later on, he redefined it as a process by which a low caste or a tribe o other group

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changes in customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of a high and frequently,twice-born caste. The second definition is much broader for it includes ideologies also.Sanskritisation and Brahminisation

Sanskritisation is a much broader concept than Brahminisation. M.N. Srinivaspreferred it to Brahminisation for some reasons:(i) Sanskritisation is a broader term and it can subsume in itself the narrower process ofBrahminisation. For instance, today, though by and large, Brahmins are vegetarians andteetotalers, some of them such Kashmins, Bengalis and saraswath Brahmins eat non-vegetarianfood. Had the term Brahminisation been used, it would have become necessary to specifywhich particular Brahmin group was meant.(ii) Further, the reference groups of Sanskritisation are not always Brahmin. The process ofimitation need not necessarily take place on the model of Brahmins. Srinivas himself hasgiven the example of the low castes of Mysore who adopted the way of life of Lingayats, whoare not Brahmins but who claim equality with Brahmins. Similarly, the smiths of Mysore callthemselves Vishwakarma Brahmins and wear sacred threads and have sanskritised some of therituals.

The lower castes imitated not only Brahmins but also Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Jats,Shudras, etc. in different parts of the country. Hence the term Brahminisation does not

completely explain this process. M.N. Srinivas himself acknowledged this fact and wrote: Inow realize that, I emphasized unduly the Brahminical model of Saskritisation and ignored theother models Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra ..An Analysis of the Process of Sanskritisation

An Analysis of the process of Sanskritisation would reveal to us the following facts:1. Sanskritisation denotes the process in which the lower castes try to imitate the life-styles ofupper castes in their attempt to raise their social status. The process seems to be associated withthe role of local dominant caste. Though for some time, the lower castes imitated Brahminsthey soon shifted it towards the local dominant caste which in most cases a non-Brahmindominant caste.2. Sanskritisation denotes the process of upward mobility. In this process, a caste is trying to

increase its position in the caste hierarchy not at once, but over a period of time. It would take,sometimes, a period of one or two generations.3. Mobility that is involved in the process of Sanskritisation results only in positionalchanges for particular castes or sections of castes and need not necessarily lead to a structuralchange. It means, while individual castes move up or down, the structure as such remains thesame.4. Sanskritisation is not a new phenomenon as such, M.N. Srinivas writes: Sanskritisation hasbeen a major process of cultural change in Indian history, and it has occurred in every part ofthe Indian sub-continent. It may have been more active at some periods than at others, andsome parts of India are more sanskritised than others; but there is no doubt that the process hasbeen universal.

5. The castes which enjoyed higher economic and political power but rated relatively low inritual ranking went after Sanskritisation for they felt that their claim to a higher position wasnot fully effective. The three main aspects of power in the caste system are the ritual, theeconomic and the political ones. The possession of power in any one sphere usually leads tothe acquisition of power in the other two. But Srinivas opines that inconsistencies do occur.6. Economic betterment is not a necessary pre-condition to Sanskritisation, nor economicdevelopment must necessarily lead to Sanskritisation. However, sometimes a group (caste,tribe) may start by acquiring, political power and this may lead to economic development andSanskritisation. Economic betterment, the acquisition of political power, education, leadership

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and a desire to move up in the hierarchy, are all the relevant factors in Sanskritisation, and eachcase of Sanskritisation may how all or some of these factors mixed up in different measures.7. Sanskritisation is not necessarily confined to the castes within the Hindu community, it isfound in tribal communities also. Example. The Bhils of Western India, the Gonds andOraons of Middle India, and the Pahadiyas of Himalayan region have come under the influenceof Sanskritisation. These tribal communities are now claiming themselves to be Hindus fortheir communities represent some caste groups within the fold of Hinduism. (It should benoted that in the traditional system, a group could be called Hindu only if it was regarded as acaste group).8. The process of Sanskritisation serves as a reference group. It is through this process, acaste group tries to orient its beliefs, practices, values, attitudes and life-styles in terms ofanother superior or dominant group, so that it can also get some recognition. Since this termwas made applicable by M.N. Srinivas even to Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra models (inaddition to Brhamana model), it has greater relevance to function as a reference group.9. Sanskritisation does not take place in the same manner in all the places. Studies havereveled that in most of the cases the lower castes tend to imitate the upper castes particularlythe Kshatriya and Brahmin castes. There are instances of upper castes imitating some of thepractices of lower castes, and sometimes of even tribal groups. For example, a Brahmin may

make a blood-sacrifice to one of the local deities through the medium of a non-Brahmin friend.The Muslim cultural ways have imposed some limitations in the imitation process of someupper and lower castes. This is very much in evidence in Punjab. Thus, it can be generalizedthat Sanskritisation is not a one-way process; it is a two-way process. Not always one castetakes from the higher caste, sometimes it also gives in return.10. The British rule in India provided a favourable atmosphere for Sanskritisation to takeplace. Political independence has weakened the trend towards this change. Now the emphasisis on vertical social mobility and not on the horizontal mobility. In this process of mobility thebasic unit remains the group only and not the individual or family.11. The process of Sanskritisation does not automatically result in the achievement of a higherstatus for the group. People will have to wait for a period of a generation or two before their

claim can be accepted. Further, it may so happen that a claim which may not succeed in aparticular area or period of time, may succeed in another.12. Significant developments in the realm of material culture have accelerated the process ofSanskritisation. Industrialsation, occupational mobility, mass media of communication, spreadof literacy, advent of Western technology, improvement in the transportation system, etc., havespeeded up the process of Sanskritisation. Introduction of parliamentary system of democracyand universal suffrage have also contributed to the increased Sanskritisation.13. As M.N. Srinivas has pointed out, Sanskritisation serves to reduce or remove the gapbetween the ritual and secular ranking. It is, indeed, one of its main functions. For example, if acaste, or its segment gains secular, that is, political power, it immediately starts imitating the socalled status-symbols of the customs, rituals, ideals, beliefs, values, life-styles, etc. of the

upper caste communities. The lower caste group which successfully gets into the seat ofsecular power also tries to avail of the services of Brahmins especially at the time of observingsome rituals, worshipping and offering things to the God in the Centres of pilgrimage,celebrating important Hindu festivals, fixing muhurtam (auspicious time for doing goodworks or starting ventures) for some important occasions and programmes, and so on.14. Sanskritisation has often been construed as a kind of protest against the traditional castesystem. Sanskritisation is a type of protest against the caste system in which the status inascribed or predetermined. Lower castes which are disillusioned with their predeterminedstatuses and impressed by the higher statuses accorded to the upper castes, naturally desire to

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6. Dr. D.N. Majumdar comments that it is wrong to assume the process of Sanskritisation asuniversal process to be observed throughout India. In his study of Mohan village in UttarPradesh he observed a strong exception to this assumption. In this village, as he observed, thelower caste people do not have any urge or inclination to imitate the life-style of Brahmins orany other dominant higher caste of that region. If a cobbler wears tilak dhoti and the sacredthread and follows some of the customs of higher castes, nobody recognizes him as an uppercaste man if Sanskritisation is really a universal process, where exactly it stops and why?. Dr. Majumdar questions.7. M.N. Srinivas has been changing the definition of the term Sanskritisation from time totime and this adds to the problem of understanding its meaning and range of operations in clearterms. First, Dr. Srinivas used the term to mean Brahminisation. Later on, he extended itsmeaning. He used it to mean a process in which a lower caste, a tribal group or any othergroup attempts to imitate the life-styles of a locally dominant upper caste, mostly a twice-born caste. As per his recent interpretation, the process includes the imitation of ideas, valuesand ideologies. Here also it becomes difficult to ascertain the real meaning of the termideology.8. When we try to interpret certain changes that have taken place in the field of social mobilityin the light of Sanksritisation, we face certain paradoxes. According to Dr. Srinivas, political

and economic forces are normally favourable for Sankritisation. But the policy of reservationa politico constitutional attempt to elevate the status of lower caste, and class people, presentshere a different picture. Theoretically, the policy of reservation must be supportive ofSankritisation. But paradoxically it goes against it. Those who avail of the reservationbenefits have developed a vested interest in calling themselves dalits or Scheduled Castepeople. They want to be called dalits or people of Scheduled caste category so that they canpermanently avails of the benefits of reservation.

Finally, it can be said that the twin concepts of Sankritisation and Westernisationintroduced by M.N. Srinivas in explaining the cultural changes that are taking place in India,do have their own importance. But the basic question in this: Do these twin concepts explaincultural change with all its ramifications? Are they inclusive and universal enough to provide a

satisfactory explanation to all the major cultural changes that have taken place throughout thecountry? According to Yogendra Singh, the concept of Modernisation can only provide asatisfactory answer to these questions.

Documents

Caste-estates and Class