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Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can

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Page 1: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 2: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can

• Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can synthesize carbohydrate, much of it is produced by photosynthetic organisms, including bacteria, algae, and plants.

• Carbohydrates can be described by the number of monomeric units they contain.

• Monosaccharides are the smallest units of carbohydrate structure. The name carbohydrate, “hydrate of carbon,” refers to their empirical formula (CH2O)n where n is 3 or greater (n is usually 5 or 6 but can be up to 9). Oligosaccharides are polymers of 2 to about 20 monosaccharide residues. The most common oligosaccharides are disaccharides, which consist of two linked monosaccharide residues.

• Polysaccharides are polymers that contain many (usually more than 20) monosaccharide residues. Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides do not have the empirical formula (CH2O)n because water is eliminated during polymer formation.

Page 3: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can

Most Monosaccharides Are Chiral Compounds

• Monosaccharides are water-soluble, white, crystalline solids that have a sweet taste. Examples include glucose and fructose. Chemically, monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or aldoses, or polyhydroxy ketones or ketoses. They are classified by their type of carbonyl group and their number of carbon atoms. As a rule, the suffix -ose is used in naming carbohydrates, although there are a number of exceptions. All monosaccharides contain at least three carbon atoms. One of these is the carbonyl carbon, and each of the remaining carbon atoms bears a hydroxyl

• group. In aldoses, the most oxidized carbon atom is designated C-1 and is• drawn at the top of a Fischer projection. In ketoses, the most oxidized

carbon atom is usually C-2.

Page 4: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 5: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 6: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 7: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 8: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 9: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 10: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 11: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 12: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 13: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 14: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 15: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 16: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 17: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 18: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 19: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 20: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 21: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 22: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 23: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 24: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 25: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 26: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 27: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 28: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 29: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 30: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 31: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 32: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 33: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 34: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 35: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 36: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 37: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 38: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 39: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 40: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 41: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 42: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can

Proteoglycans are complexes of proteins and a class of polysaccharides called glycosaminoglycans. These glycoconjugates occur predominately in the extracellular matrix (connective tissue) of multicellular animals.

Glycosaminoglycans are unbranched heteroglycans of repeating disaccharide units. As the name glycosaminoglycan indicates, one component of the disaccharide is an amino sugar, either D-galactosamine (GalN) or D-glucosamine (GlcN). The amino group of the amino–sugar component can be acetylated, forming Nacetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) or GlcNAc, respectively.

Page 43: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 44: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 45: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 46: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 47: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 48: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can

Figure 8.31Structure of the peptidoglycan of Staphylococcus aureus. (a) Repeating disaccharide unit, tetrapeptide, and pentaglycine components. (b) Cross-linking of the peptidoglycan macromolecule.

Page 49: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can

Glycoproteins, like proteoglycans, are proteins that contain covalently bound oligosaccharides (i.e., proteins that are glycosylated: proteoglycans are a type of glycoprotein.)

Page 50: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 51: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 52: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 53: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 54: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 55: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 56: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can
Page 57: Carbohydrates (also called saccharides) are—on the basis of mass—the most abundant class of biological molecules on Earth. Although all organisms can

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