CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

Examining the Role of Anxiety and Depression in Predicting Fear of Success

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology, Clinical Psychology

By

Julieta Dascal

May 2017

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Copyright by Julieta Dascal 2017

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The thesis of Julieta Dascal is approved:

___________________________________ ________________ Mark P. Otten, Ph.D. Date

___________________________________ ________________ Scott Plunkett, Ph.D. Date

___________________________________ ________________ Gary S. Katz, Ph.D., Chair Date

California State University, Northridge

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Acknowledgments

I would first like to thank all three members of my thesis committee – Dr. Katz, Dr.

Otten, and Dr. Plunkett – for their guidance during both the thesis-creation process and

throughout this master’s program. I also want to thank the members of Dr. Plunkett’s

research lab, the staff from the CSUN Psychology Department, and all research

participants who were a part of this project.

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Dedication

To my family and friends - thank you for your support. I especially dedicate this

dissertation to my mother, who is the best life teacher I could have received. Finally, a

special feeling of gratitude toward the community of Pico-Robertson, whose members

constantly provided me with support, kindness, and guidance in every aspect of life.

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Table of Contents

Copyright ii

Signature Page iii

Acknowledgments iv

Dedication v

List of Tables viii

Abstract ix

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Fear of Success 2

Gender Differences in Fear of Success 4

Anxiety 5

Depression 7

Fear of Success in College Populations 9

Fear of Success in Non-College Populations 11

Athletes 11

Performing Artists 13

Individuals with Eating Disorders 14

Review of Tools to Study Fear of Success, Anxiety, and Depression 15

Measuring Fear of Success 15

Measuring Anxiety 16

Measuring Depression 18

Fear of Success and Fear of Failure 18

The Present Study: Hypotheses 19

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Chapter 2: Methods 21

Participants 21

Procedure 21

Measures 22

Chapter 3: Results 24

Fear of Success, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms 26

Gender Differences 28

Chapter 4: Discussion 31

Fear of Success and Anxiety 31

Fear of Success and Depressive Symptoms 32

Gender Differences 33

Limitations 34

Future Directions 36

Conclusions 37

References 38

Appendix A: Consent Form 46

Appendix B: Questionnaires 49

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) 49

Center for Epidemiological Studies- Depression (CES-D) 51

Fear of Success Scale (FOSS) 52

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List of Tables

Table 1: Demographics 21

Table 2: Results for Descriptive Analyses and Reliability 25

Table 3: Factor Matrix Displaying Extracted Items for the 26

Fear of Success Scale

Table 4: Correlations for All Measures 27

Table 5: Summary of Regression Analysis for Measures Predicting 28

Fear of Success

Table 6: Mean Comparisons for Male and Female Participants 29

Table 7: Gender Differences in Predictors of Fear of Success 30

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Abstract

Examining the Role of Anxiety and Depression in Predicting Fear of Success

By

Julieta Dascal

Master of Arts in Psychology, Clinical Psychology

Fear of success is a psychological barrier arising due to individuals’ avoidance of

perceived negative consequences of success, such as unwanted attention and pressure to

perform, managing people’s expectations, and peer rivalry. The present study

investigated the role of two constructs (i.e., anxiety and depression) that potentially

contribute to fear of success in student populations. Despite the increasing rates of

anxiety and depression in undergraduate students (Gupta & Basak, 2013), no previous

research had previously investigated the relationship between depression and fear of

success. A total of 425 undergraduate students completed online self-report surveys

assessing anxiety, depressive symptoms, and fear of success. Results indicated that

individuals scoring high on anxiety and depressive symptoms were also more likely to

score high on fear of success. However, only depressive symptoms appeared to be a

strong predictor of fear of success. Gender comparisons found fear of success to be

higher in men, while anxiety and depressive symptoms were higher for women. Based on

these findings, implications of the observed results as well as directions for future

research were also discussed.

Keywords: fear of success, anxiety, depression, self-defeating behaviors

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Fear of success is a psychological barrier experienced by individuals who

anticipate negative consequences as a result of success (André & Metzler, 2011). This

avoidant psychological state may lead to an increased desire to avoid the consequences of

success, including managing people’s expectations, intense rivalry, unwanted attention,

and loss of self-esteem (Ivers & Downes, 2012; Stanculescu, 2013). Fear of success has

been previously observed and investigated in groups in competitive settings such as

athletes, performing artists, and college students. Individuals with fear of success in these

groups may have high levels of responsibility and constant stress, which may debilitate

their efforts toward achievement, increase distractibility, and lead to withdrawal from

pursuing goals (Gore et al., 2016).

Previous literature has particularly focused on undergraduate student populations,

as they are especially susceptible to a wide array of stressors, including financial, social,

and scholastic responsibilities. Consequently, according to the Association for University

and College Counseling Center Directors, high rates of anxiety (41.6%), depression

(36.4%), and even suicidal ideation (16.1%) are a growing concern in the field of mental

health (Mistler, Reetz, Krylowics, & Barr, 2012). Significant correlations have been

previously found between fear of success and negative characteristics, such as anxiety

(Mulig et al., 1985), vocational indecision (Taylor, 1982), and lack of parental support

(Gore et al., 2016), with about 11% of college students reporting suffering from

debilitating fear of success (Gore et al., 2016). Fear of success has also been linked to

self-defeating tendencies including low self-esteem and self-efficacy (Stanculescu, 2013),

thereby paving the way to investigate the potential influence of depression – a factor

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often linked to anxiety. Furthermore, some studies have found gender differences, with

female participants struggling when placed in “non-traditional” gender roles and male

participants struggling with the general notion of success (André & Metzler, 2011;

Cherry & Deaux, 1978).

Fear of Success

Since the early beginnings of modern psychology, many theorists have put

forward different propositions to explain the paradoxical nature of fear of success, in

which individuals predict negative consequences following subjective or objective

successful outcomes (Tresemer, 1977). From psychoanalytic theories, to cultural

approaches, to sex-role theories, the study of fear of success has been subject to multiple

interpretations throughout history. The etiology of fear of success can be traced back to

over 100 years ago, when Sigmund Freud, in 1915, proposed that success brings about

unconscious associations with defeating others, thereby generating feelings of guilt and

inferiority associated with the Oedipal dilemma of surpassing parental figures and losing

their love and care (Tresemer, 1977).

Since then, numerous authors have contributed to the literature of success-

avoidance. For instance, Harry Stack Sullivan suggested that decrements in performance

toward a specific goal stem from experiences of anxiety (especially those transmitted

from parent to child), which can be perceived as disorganizing and disorienting, thus

leading individuals to step away from any achievement behavior (Tresemer, 1977).

Others like Karen Horney emphasized the role of cultural factors in valuing conflicting

values, such as competition and individualism, while also encouraging modesty and self-

sacrifice (André & Metzler, 2011; James, 2014). The next main advancements in the

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study of fear of success did not appear until the late 1960s, when Matina Horner

advanced the concept of “fear of success” to explain gender differences in achievement

motivation studies as part of her doctoral dissertation (Tresemer, 1977).

In Horner’s landmark study (1968, as cited in Balkin & Donaruma, 1978), men

and women were given several identical verbal cues, except for the sixth cue, which

stated “Anne was at the top of her medical school program” (p. 279) for the female

participants, or that “John was at the top of his medical school program” (p. 279) solely

for the male participants. All participants were then given four minutes to write stories in

response to the presented cues. In this innovative study, Horner found 65% of women

wrote about fear of success imagery (e.g., “Anne feels social rejection due to her

success”, “Anne does not have a boyfriend”, “Anne feels guilty, unhappy,

unfeminine…”; as cited in Balkin & Donaruma, 1978, p. 280) compared to only 9% of

the men. However, it should be noted that at the time this study was conducted, only 10%

of women were doctors and 10-15% of women were in medical school, which may be a

partial explanation for the noticeably significant gender differences (Ivers & Downes,

2012). Horner’s original research suggested that fear of success was more prevalent in

women due to the influence of gender roles, which dictates that women who succeed in

traditionally male domains (e.g., medical school) may fear social isolation and a lack of

femininity since achievement was stereotypically associated with masculine

competitiveness and assertiveness, whereas the female role was passive and supportive

(Metzler & Conroy, 2004).

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Gender Differences in Fear of Success

Horner’s study introduced fear of success to mainstream psychology regarding

gender differences in achievement behaviors, guilt, and underachievement (André &

Metzler, 2011). Later research utilizing self-report questionnaires further supported her

results. For example, Mulig, Haggerty, Carballosa, Cinnick, and Madden (1985) used the

Fear of Success Scale (Zuckerman & Allison, 1976) to assess fear of success in male and

female engineering undergraduate students and found fear of success was significantly

associated with women’s scores. Another interesting result from this study was that fear

of success was significantly predicted from participants’ gender role, as measured by the

Bem Sex Role Inventory (1971), which characterizes personality as feminine, masculine,

or neutral (androgynous or undifferentiated) based on societal gender stereotypes.

Specifically, participants scoring higher on masculine and neutral characteristics also

scored higher on fear of success (Mulig et al., 1985). These results further supported

earlier research indicating that female participants performing in gender-incompatible

tasks report significantly higher fear of success than those performing tasks perceived as

traditionally feminine (Rothblum, 1990).

Since then, however, fear of success has been found to be present in men as well,

thereby showing it is not a characteristic found predominantly in women. Gender studies

suggested the type of conflict experienced by individuals that score high on measures of

fear of success were quite different. While women find themselves in a gender-identity

struggle, men struggle with the notion of success related to resistance from family and

friends (André & Metzler, 2011; Piedmont, 1988). For example, in a study of college

freshmen, Balkin and Donaruma (1978) found that men whose friends showed a lack of

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interest in college (e.g., stated comments such as “why go to college if you can make

more money on the streets?” p. 280) reported higher levels of fear of success than those

with friends who were interested in college. Therefore, fear of alienation and peer/family

disapproval appeared to impact fear of success levels (James, 2014). To recapitulate, both

men and women with high fear of success feared social rejection, yet women’s anxiety

toward success stemed from potentially violating socially-determined feminine roles,

while men’s fear of success was especially affected by resistance from family and friends

(Metzler & Conroy, 2004).

Anxiety

Anxiety can be defined as a cognitive and physical reaction to a real or perceived

threat leading to feelings of internal tension (Suliman & Halabi, 2007). While occasional

worrying and anxiety is common in virtually all individuals, persistent or severe forms of

anxiety may produce significant discomfort and interfere with academic, social, or other

areas of functioning (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Anxiety is

multidimensional and highly complex, and it may be situation-specific, such as

experiencing test anxiety or social anxiety (Milgram & Toubiana, 1999; Onwuegbie,

2004). Additionally, anxiety may arise sporadically as a response to particular triggers

(e.g., prior to a particularly difficult university examination), or individuals may

experience trait anxiety, which is intrinsic and stable over time and contexts (Suliman &

Halabi, 2007).

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition (DSM-5),

highly anxious individuals may experience a wide variety of symptoms, including muscle

tension, hypervigilance, and fearfulness – all of which are often reduced via pervasive

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avoidant behaviors (APA, 2013). Previous research has given central status to avoidance

in explaining anxiety, concluding that individuals emit avoidance responses when faced

by warning signals (e.g., occurrences of success), and they contemplate whether to

respond or not respond (Dymond & Roche, 2009). Thus, the interaction between anxiety

and avoidance may actually be mediated by the expectation of the aversive outcome

(Dymond & Roche, 2009). Similarly, fear of success has been associated with avoidant

behaviors due to perceived notions that success leads to negative consequences (André &

Metzler, 2011). These may include fear of social rejection and jealousy from others, and

for women, fear of being perceived as less feminine if placed in a position of power

(André & Metzler, 2011).

Despite the aforementioned overlap between anxiety and fear of success, there is

a surprising paucity of research examining the relationship between these two factors.

Although studies are scarce in quantity, some researchers have found a positive

relationship in several different populations. A recent study of elite athletes by André and

Metzler (2011) found that individuals scoring high on fear of success reported high sport

anxiety, self-doubt, difficulty concentrating, perceived lack of freedom in their

relationship with others, and worrying about the future. Surprisingly, women scored

significantly lower on these measures compared to men, a result further explained by

André and Metzler to be congruent with Piedmont’s (1988) theories stating that social

recognition is especially important for men in sport settings. An earlier study by

Piedmont (1995) investigated fear of success and test anxiety – a common negative

experience observed in students – and found these factors to be significantly associated.

Furthermore, fear of success and anxiety scores were associated with high emotional

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distress, which is characterized by high neuroticism and low conscientiousness

(Piedmont, 1995). In another study of college student populations, Mulig et al. (1985)

found significant correlations between fear of success and anxiety in students in

introductory psychology classes, with stronger effects observed for women than men.

However, anxiety has not been previously investigated as a predictor of FOS.

Depression

Depression is a highly prevalent condition in the population greatly affecting a

wide variety of populations (APA, 2013). According to the DSM-5, the twelve-month

prevalence for major depressive disorder in the United States is 7%, with prevalence

values being threefold higher in individuals aged 18 to 29 years of age compared to 60-

year-olds (APA, 2013). Interestingly, while the negative effects of depressive symptoms

may be highly detrimental for populations with diagnosed depressive disorders, these

effects are also greatly harmful for individuals with subthreshold depressive symptoms,

as they are at risk of developing full disorders later in life (Reichenberger, Wiggert,

Agroskin, Wilhelm, & Blechert, 2017). Depressive symptoms may become highly

debilitating due to a variety of negative outcomes such as pessimism, hopelessness,

fatigue, decreased concentration, and loss of interest in pleasant activities (APA, 2013).

These negative symptoms may severely diminish individuals’ quality of life, leading to

social, occupational, and other impairments (Reichenberger et al., 2017).

Depression is often associated with negative views of the self that translate to

thought distortions and maladaptive behaviors (Beck, 2011). Based on Beck’s original

model of depression, Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy’s cognitive model proposed that

hopeless depression arises due to negative expectations that positive outcomes will not

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occur and that nothing can be done to change these outcomes (DeLisle & Holden, 2009).

In accordance with this model, studies have yielded significant links connecting

depression, hopelessness, and self-defeating behaviors (DeLisle & Holden, 2009; Hopes

& Williams, 1999). Self-defeating behaviors may be defined as beliefs or actions that

become highly costly to the individual (Bramante, 2015). One widespread and previously

studied self-defeating behavior is procrastination, in which individuals create self-

imposed obstacles to impede the successful completion of an activity (Bramante, 2015).

Procrastination has been previously linked to low self-esteem, anxiety, and protection

against potential negative judgment from others (Bramante, 2015). Indeed, creating

obstacles to hamper the successful completion of a task is associated with low self-

esteem, low self-efficacy, and high self-handicapping (Ferrari & Tice, 2000; Klassen,

Krawchuk, & Rajani, 2008). Furthermore, a more recent study by Stanculescu (2013)

found fear of success – an intrapsychological barrier often leading to self-defeating

behaviors – to be negatively related to self-esteem, optimism, and self-efficacy. Thus, the

previous literature supported the notion that depression is characterized by feelings of

hopelessness and worthlessness that are often associated with self-sabotage and self-

defeating behaviors.

According to the DSM-5, high comorbidity exists between depression and anxiety

(APA, 2013). These may share certain commonalities symptomatically, such as fatigue,

restlessness, difficulty concentrating, and irritability (APA, 2013). Comorbid anxiety and

depression have been shown to be associated with a wide variety of negative outcomes,

including higher risk for vascular disease, worse quality of life, and greater suicide risk

(Brintzenhofe-Szoc, Levin, Li, Kissane, & Zabora, 2009). Apart from the observable

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physical problems that may arise due to this powerful comorbidity, individuals with

anxiety and depression may share a common factor known as fear of positive evaluation.

In a recent study of undergraduate students, Reichenberger et al. (2017) found

participants with both disorders to be highly concerned about being positively evaluated

by others, such as feeling uncomfortable when being complimented. The results indicated

that fear of positive evaluation was significantly related to depression and social anxiety.

In a similar study, Weeks, Heimber, and Rodebaugh (2008) also found evidence

indicating strong relationships between social anxiety and fear of positive evaluation.

Positive information received leads to increases in anxiety, especially in individuals

characterized by high self-consciousness and high desire to remain inconspicuous (Weeks

et al., 2008).

Interestingly, despite the high prevalence rates of depression in undergraduate

students (Gupta & Basak, 2013) as well as the high comorbidity between anxiety and

depression (APA, 2013), no previous studies have investigated the relationship between

depression and fear of success.

Fear of Success in College Populations

Although researchers approximate 11% of students suffer from debilitating forms

of fear of success, many are also affected by moderate levels of fear of success hindering

self-confidence and self-actualization (Gore, 2016; Terhune, 1996). Indeed, the

prevalence of fear of success has been shown to be higher during adolescence and young

adulthood (Gilbert, 1993). Fear of success may be especially devastating during college

or graduate school years, as these populations are susceptible to pressure from parents to

reach academic potential and make career decisions impacting individuals’ occupational

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futures (Taylor, 1982; Terhune, 1996). Every facet of this complicated period in a

student’s life is impacted by expectations generated by the uncertainty of the process to

success, often leading to worriedness, stress, and self-defeating tendencies (Stanculescu,

2013).

Previous research has found significant relationships among fear of success and

other variables, including locus of control (Taylor, 1982; Zuckerman & Allison, 1974),

grade point average (Canavan-Gumpert, Garner, & Gumpert, 1978), and vocational

indecision (Taylor, 1982). In a Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT) similar to Horner’s

(1968) study, college students demonstrated higher rates of fear of success than high

school students, with college students (especially men) reporting higher rates of external

attribution to success (O’Connell & Perez, 1982). Similar results were also reported by

Zuckerman and Allison (1976) who administered the Fear of Success (FOS) Scale and a

causal attribution task to a group of male and female undergraduate students. The results

indicated that students with high fear of success believed outside sources such as luck

play a significant role in their achievements compared to students characterized as low in

fear of success. Additionally, in a study of over 200 college students, Taylor (1982)

further supported the notion that fear of success is associated with external attributions to

success and found students high on fear of success also reported vocational indecision.

Taylor suggested that vocationally undecided college students are more likely to view

their behaviors as controlled by luck or chance, thereby producing feelings of

helplessness and inability to change outcomes.

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Fear of Success in Non-College Populations

Research has also investigated fear of success in non-college samples. These

samples have included athletes, performing artists, and individuals with eating disorders.

Athletes

Much like students, some athletes are prone to losing motivation and desire to

succeed, which may lead to self-sabotage of preparation/performance, guilt, and

underachievement (André & Metzler, 2011). In early clinical work with athletes, Ogilvie

(1968; as cited in Conroy, Poczwardowski, & Henschen, 2001) discerned five dimensions

of fear phobia: (a) fearing social isolation, (b) fear of discovering their true potential, (c)

feelings of guilt, (d) anxiety over surpassing a set record of an admired performer, and (e)

anxiety over having to exceed a previously established personal best performance to

satisfy others. Thus, researchers started to view fear of success in sports as a form of

dispositional competitive anxiety disrupting individuals’ behaviors, cognitions, and

motivation (André & Metzler, 2011). In other words, fear of success thinking involves a

paradox in that individuals seek success, but not so much as to experience the negative

aspects of attainment and achievement (Metzler & Conroy, 2004)

Anxiety may especially be debilitating in the time prior to performance. Prior to

competitions, individuals may be affected by somatic anxiety (e.g., physiological arousal)

and cognitive anxiety (e.g., concerns with negative expectations; Nicholls, Polman, &

Levy, 2010). According to Hanton, Mellalieu, and Young (2002), even athletes who do

not normally experience debilitating anxiety may feel steep increases of anxiety at onset

of performance. Furthermore, the level of anxiety experienced is related to an

individual’s performance expectations as well as perceptions of one’s own abilities.

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Recent studies of athletes just prior to competition indicated that individuals with low

emotional intelligence and low self-efficacy are more likely to experience anxiety as they

are not equipped to manage the stress prior to competition (Lu, Li, Hsu, & Williams,

2010; Nicholls, Polman, & Levy, 2010). This emphasizes the importance of accounting

for pre-competitive changes in anxiety when investigating fear of success and other self-

defeating behaviors.

In the limited amount of empirically conducted research on fear of success in

athletes, self-report and projective methods have almost exclusively been utilized to

assess this construct, especially the Fear of Success Scale (FOSS; Zuckerman & Allison,

1976). In a study comparing students and athletes in sports such as basketball, field

hockey, and soccer, Silva (1982) did not observe significant differences in female athletes

and non-athletes FOSS scores, while male athletes scored significantly lower on fear of

success than all other groups. Silva suggested that some socialization processes for

performance and achievement may be more similar for female and male non-athletes than

male athletes, although these differences have yet to be further investigated. However, it

should be noted that a recent study by Metzler and Conroy (2004) set out to test the

construct validity of the FOSS in college athletes. Their results suggested the scales were

not compatible with fear of success in sport settings. Instead, the Metzler and Conroy

recommended the assessment of an individual’s likelihood of making threat appraisals in

the context of success.

In a recent study utilizing self-report in conjunction with projective methods,

André and Metzler (2011) conducted a study of French elite athletes who completed

questionnaires of sport anxiety as well as the Performance Success Threat Appraisal

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Inventory (PSTAI). The PSTAI measures several dimensions of fears relating to fear of

success, including fearing motivation, overstating success, increasing expectations, and

experiencing social isolation and rivalry. André and Metzler found all subscales to

contain high internal consistency, except for “fear of overstating success”, which

suggested athletes were less concerned with superficial recognition from others and more

with the negative consequences of social isolation. Another interesting finding from this

study was that elite men with high anxiety, self-doubt, and concentration difficulties

exhibited higher levels of fear of success than men scoring low on fear of success. This

effect, however, was not observed in the female sample.

Performing Artists

Several similarities exist between athletes and performing artists, such as similar

mental and physical demands (Conroy, Poczwardowski, & Henschen, 2001).

Furthermore, their respective artistic and athletic performances may lead to anxiety and

heightened experiences as well as potential for unlimited fame and recognition

(Bramante, 2015). However, differences also exist in terms of the longevity of their

respective performing careers, their motivation toward performance, as well as the

criteria evaluating their success (Bramante, 2015; Conroy et al., 2001). For instance,

performance feedback in the sport domain is more objective (e.g., scores and distances)

than feedback in artistic environments from critics, colleagues, and audience, which

creates different performance contexts (Conroy et al., 2001).

Conroy et al. (2001) conducted semi-structured interviews with eight adult elite

athletes and eight elite performing artists, a process comprised of transcription of

videotaped interviews followed by content analysis by three independent raters. The

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results showed that artists reported greater desire to please others when performing, had

greater fear of losing themselves in their performance, and stated greater fear of failing to

communicate effectively when performing. Furthermore, artists were more likely to

attribute their success to others while blaming themselves for failure, thus making them

especially susceptible to self-defeating behaviors (Bramante, 2015; Conroy et al., 2001).

Bramante (2015) conducted a study of 100 New York City performing artists and

found a significant positive relationship between fear of success and procrastination (a

common self-defeating behavior). While regression analyses found self-esteem,

conscientiousness, and extraversion to be strong predictors of procrastination, fear of

success was not found to be a significant predictor.

Individuals with Eating Disorders

Surprisingly, there is a paucity of fear of success research focusing on samples

with diagnosed clinical disorders. For instance, to date, only one study has examined the

relationship of fear of success with anorexia nervosa. According to Gilbert (1993), the

connection between anorexia nervosa and fear of success is heightened during

adolescence and young adulthood, a time when academic achievements and social

acceptability or rejection are key areas of concern. Thus, Gilbert (1993) investigated this

relationship in a study of women with anorexia nervosa or bulimia. The results indicated

the anorexia nervosa group had greater fear of success scores compared to the bulimic

group and the control group (i.e., no eating disorder). However, no significant differences

were found between the bulimic group and the control group. Thus, an interesting

differentiation can be observed. Specifically, anorexics’ behaviors were more

achievement-oriented as their eating patterns relied on controlled eating related to success

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and failure, while bulimics’ self-induced vomiting was not achievement-oriented but was

simply conducted to actively reduce and prevent weight gain (Wyrwicka, 1984). This

study exhibited a previously unknown strong link between anorexia nervosa and fear of

success, thereby emphasizing the need to continue to examine the relationship between

fear of success, eating disorders, and other clinical disorders.

Review of Tools Used to Study Fear of Success, Anxiety, and Depression

Measuring Fear of Success

In the first empirical study of fear of success, Horner (1968; as cited in Balkin &

Donaruma, 1978) employed projective methods to measure fear of success, in a Thematic

Apperception Test in which cues were verbally administered and participants were

required to elicit their own imaginative stories in response to success-related cues.

Subsequently, independent raters scored the collected responses based on participants’

reported negative consequences following success, denial for the success, or activity

away from future success (James, 2014). However, this projective method gave rise to

many concerns, including the extreme flexibility in the scoring system, the formulation of

the verbal cues, and a lack of discriminate validity in its ability to be able to measure fear

of success in a way that significantly differentiates itself from other constructs such as

anxiety (James, 2014). For this reason, fear of success research has become less reliant on

projective methods.

Since Horner’s original study, however, fear of success research has adopted self-

report as the main method of measurement (Bramante, 2015; Gore et al., 2016; Mulig et

al., 1985; Stanculescu, 2013; Taylor, 1982). Undoubtedly, the most widely used

questionnaire in the fear of success literature is Zuckerman and Allison (1976)’s 27-item

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Fear of Success Scale (FOSS). The FOSS was built to assess three perceptions of success

– the costs, benefits, and attitudes toward success (Zuckerman & Allison, 1976).

However, this questionnaire yields one single composite score that measures fear of

success. Participants are required to rate their responses to items on a 7-point Likert scale

ranging from “1” (total disagreement) to “7” (total agreement) to items such as “often the

cost of success is greater than the reward” or “I become embarrassed when others

compliment me on my work.”

While the FOSS is the most popular instrument for the assessment of general fear

of success, the Pappo Fear of Success Questionnaire (FOSQ) has also been previously

administered in a limited number of studies (Gelbort, Winer & Hogan, 1985; Terhune,

1996). The FOSQ is a reliable 83-item questionnaire composed of “yes” or “no” items,

such as “When playing competitive games I make more mistakes at the end than at the

beginning” (Pappo, 1983, p. 38). The FOSQ evaluates several aspects of fear of success

in academic settings, including preoccupation with evaluation, competence, and self-

doubt.

Contrary to FOSS’s ability to measure general fear of success in students, the

FOSQ aims to assess solely academic underachievement (Gelbort et al., 1985). Thus, for

the current study, the FOSS was chosen since the goal was to measure general fear of

success.

Measuring Anxiety

In previous literature studying fear of success and avoidant behaviors, a wide

variety of instruments have been employed to assess anxiety, including the State-Trait

Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorusch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983), the

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Achievement Anxiety Scale (AAT; Alpert & Haber, 1960), and the Performance Success

Threat Appraisal Inventory (PSTAI; Conroy et al., 2001).

The STAI is a 40-item self-report questionnaire that has been previously found to

be a valid and reliable detector of anxiety in different populations, including geriatric

patients (Kvaal, Laake & Engedal, 2001), high school students (Hishinuma et al., 2000),

and undergraduate students (Maynard et al., 2010; Rothblum, Solomon, & Murakami,

1986). The STAI’s popularity stems in part from its ability to briefly yet accurately

measure two forms of anxiety – state anxiety and trait anxiety – using a 4-point Likert

scale ranging from 1 (“almost never”) to 4 (“almost always”). Another self-report

questionnaire utilized for the study of fear of success and anxiety is the AAT, a 19-item

questionnaire designed to assess whether anxiety in relation to academic performance is

facilitating or debilitating using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “never” to “always”

(Alpert & Haber, 1960). The AAT was specifically constructed to determine whether

anxiety aids in academic performance (facilitating anxiety), anxiety interferes with

performance during tests (debilitating anxiety) or if both or neither anxieties are present.

A more recent study of elite athletes by André and Metzler (2011) assessed fear of

success in the sport domain via the PSTAI. This 22-item instrument assesses five

dimensions of threat appraisals, including fear of losing motivation, fear of overstating

success, fear of increasing expectations, fear of competing time demands, and fear of

social isolation and rivalry (Conroy et al., 2001). Each dimension is assessed on a five-

point Likert scale ranging from “do not believe” (-2) to “believe 100% of the time” (+2).

While this study demonstrated the PSTAI appears to be a promising and reliable

instrument for the assessment of anxiety in fear of success research, this instrument must

18

be further investigated in the future in order to confidently establish its reliability and

validity in athlete as well as student populations.

Measuring Depression

As previously discussed, despite the high prevalence of depression and its

significant associations with self-defeating behaviors, no previous studies have

investigated the relationship between depression and measures of fear of success.

However, in a single study of depression and fear of positive evaluation in undergraduate

students, Reichenberger et al. (2017) utilized a German translation of the Center for

Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977) to assess depression. The

CES-D is a 20-item questionnaire designed to measure individuals’ experiences with

depressive symptoms in the past week. Items such as “I could not get ‘going’” and “I felt

that I could not shake off the blues even with help from my family or friends” are rated

on a 0 to 3 scale (0 = Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day), 3 = Most or all of the

time (5-7 days)). Total possible scores range from 0 to 60, with higher scores indicating

greater presence of more severe depressive symptoms and scores higher than 16

indicating risk of clinical depression (Reichenberger et al., 2017). The CES-D is highly

reliable (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.89 to 0.92) been successfully used to treat a wide variety

of populations differing in race, age, nationality, as well as patients with varying medical

conditions, including systemic sclerosis (Yang, Jia, & Qin, 2015).

Fear of Success and Fear of Failure

In any study of fear of success, it is important to discuss fear of failure.

Specifically, fear of failure is an avoidance behavior occurring as a result of anticipatory

shame due to real or perceived failure (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009). Individuals with high fear

19

of failure view failure as threatening because they associate it with shame, lower self-

esteem, and uncertainty in future endeavors (Sagar & Stoeber, 2009; Tresemer, 1977).

Thus, fear of success and fear of failure are similar because they are avoidant behaviors

arising as a way to avoid the negative outcomes of success (e.g., increased expectations

from others) or failure (e.g., shame; André & Metzler, 2011). Based on Atkinson’s work

in 1964, original achievement motivation research has defined achievement striving as a

function of an individuals’ approach to success minus a tendency to avoid failure

(Tresemer, 1977). However, following Horner’s (1968) revolutionary fear of success

study, many scholars have proposed that fear of success must be added to the equation, as

this is also a factor that may reduce tendencies to achieve (Jackaway & Teevan, 1976;

Karabenick & Marshall, 1974; Piedmont, 1995). Based on the aforementioned

similarities between fear of success and fear of failure in hampering achievement, it is not

surprising that previous research has found these two factors to be significantly correlated

(Rothblum, 1990). Thus, fear of success and fear of failure may conjointly influence

performance as they are independent motives that may result in decreased achievement

motivation (Jackaway & Teevan, 1976; Piedmont, 1995). In other words, fear of success

and fear of failure may be viewed as “opposite sides of the same coin” (Conroy et al.,

2001, p. 303). Regardless, the current study will focus on fear of success.

The Present Study: Hypotheses

The current study investigated the role of anxiety and depression in predicting

fear of success in undergraduate students to further the understanding of this complex

phenomenon. While fear of success has also been observed in athletes and performing

athletes, there is strong reason to believe that students are especially susceptible to the

20

negative effects of fear of success. Indeed, students are exposed to financial, social, and

academic stressors, with previous research finding strong associations among fear of

success, anxiety, and self-defeating behaviors (André & Metzler, 2011; Stanculescu,

2013).

Despite the high rates of anxiety and depression in undergraduate students (Gupta

& Basak, 2013), no previous studies have investigated the relationship between

depression and fear of success. Furthermore, previous literature yielded mixed results

regarding gender differences in fear of success. While some researchers reported higher

rates in women due to importance placed on gender roles (Mulig et al., 1985; Horner,

1968), others have found men are more likely to score high on measures of fear of

success (André & Meltzer, 2011). Thus, based on past research, it was hypothesized that:

(a) anxiety will be a significant and positive predictor of fear of success,

(b) depression will be a significant and positive predictor fear of success, and

(c) given mixed findings in the literature regarding fear of success and gender,

this study will continue to investigate the role that gender has in fear of

success.

21

Chapter 2: Methods

Participants

The participants in this study consisted of 425 undergraduate students (18 years or

older) enrolled in lower-division introductory psychology courses at a comprehensive

university in Southern California. Table 1 displays demographic information for the

present study. The average age of all participants was 19.8 years old (SD = 2.3).

Table 1 Demographics (N = 425)

n % M age SD Gender

Women 325 76.5% 19.74 2.17 Men 99 23.3% 19.80 2.51 Other 1 0.2% 18.00 -

Ethnicity Hispanics 238 56.0% Caucasians 56 13.2% Asians 47 11.1% African Americans 19 4.5% Mixed 42 9.9% Other 23 5.3%

Classification Freshmen 205 48.1% Sophomores 105 24.6% Juniors 74 17.4% Seniors 39 9.2% Did not answer 2 0.7%

Procedure

The students who voluntarily enrolled in this study using the SONA System and

received participation credits for their time spent completing the requirements of this

study. As part of the lower-division psychology course requirements, students were able

to select from multiple studies in order to fulfill their participatory credits. Students who

did not wish to participate in any studies were able to submit an alternative assignment.

22

This project was a part of a larger study, which assessed students’ emotional status and

attitudes about their own views on personal achievement. The study was approved by the

institutional review board (IRB) at the university.

All participants who agreed to participate were presented with an informed

consent form (Appendix A) that provided them with the present study’s purpose and

procedures as well as a reminder that all information they shared was confidential,

anonymous, and securely stored. Participants were also reminded that their participation

was voluntary and that they could skip any questions they were not comfortable

answering. Those who agreed to participate completed a brief online questionnaire.

Characteristics of the participants were collected with standard demographic questions.

Measures

The three questionnaires were Zuckerman and Allison’s Fear of Success Scale

(1976), Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (1983), and Radloff’s Center for

Epidemiological Studies- Depression (1977). All three instruments are presented in

Appendix B.

Fear of success. The Fear of Success Scale (FOSS) is a widely used 27-item self-

report measure designed to assess benefits, costs, and attitudes toward success

(Zuckerman & Allison, 1976). As seen in Appendix B, the response options ranged from

1 = total disagreement to 7 = total agreement. This instrument was chosen over other

alternative measures of fear of success due to its ability to measure general fear of

success while showing convergent and predictive validity in studies of undergraduate

students (alpha = .72; Gore et al., 2016).

23

State and trait anxiety. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was used to

measure state and trait anxiety (Spielberger et al., 1976). The STAI is a 40-item self-

report questionnaire. Participants are asked to indicate their response to statements such

as “I feel nervous” or “I am worried.” The response scale ranged from 1 = almost never

to 4 = almost always. The STAI has been shown to be valid and reliable (alphas ranged

from .73 to .86) in undergraduate students (Rothblum et al., 1986).

Depression. The 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies – Depression (CES-

D) scale was used to assess individuals’ depressive symptoms experienced within the past

seven days (Radloff, 1977). Participants respond to items such as “I could not get

‘going’” and “I felt that I could not shake off the blues even with help from my family or

friends.” The response choices ranged from 0 = rarely or none of the time (less than 1

day) to 3 = most or all of the time (5-7 days). This scale has previously shown to be

reliable in a variety of populations, including undergraduate students (alphas ranged from

.89 to .92; Yang et al., 2015).

24

Chapter 3: Results

Descriptive analyses and Cronbach’s alphas were calculated for all measures in

order to establish their reliabilities (see Table 2). Consistent with previous studies, all

three questionnaires were found to have good internal consistency reliability.

Furthermore, values in the skewness column in Table 2 were calculated via division of

skewness by standard deviation, with scores above a 3.0 value indicating skewness by

conventional standards (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Calculations of skewness suggested

the CES-D was the sole value appearing to be positively skewed, thereby indicating that

while some depression was observable in the present sample of students, a majority of

participants did not report high levels of depressive symptoms. However, fear of success

and anxiety appeared to be more symmetrical (i.e., skewness scores below 3.0).

Factor analyses were conducted in SPSS using a one-factor extraction by

maximum likelihood for the FOSS questionnaire to determine whether the items were

measuring fear of success in a single construct. Previous literature has found varying

results regarding FOSS items assessing a single fear of success construct, with the

number of factors ranging from one to as high as nine different factors (Metzler &

Conroy, 2004). Although two to three factors within the FOSS were considered in the

present study, multiple factors were ultimately rejected. This was based on extraction

methods in which values below .320 were not included (i.e., they did not load on the fear

of success factor). As seen in Table 3, a single fear of success factor was found in which

21 out of 27 items were included. It should also be noted that in creating the factor score

for fear of success, scores from 85 subjects were listwise deleted from the FOSS (i.e.,

individuals who did not fully complete the questionnaire), but the scores from these

participants were included in measures of STAI-State, STAI-Trait, and CES-D. Despite

25

this, a large number of participants still remained (n = 340), and thus the modified 21-

item fear of success factor was used.

Table 2 Results for Descriptive Analyses and Reliability

Measure M SD Skewness Cronbach’s Alpha (α)

Fear of Success Scale with 21 items* 0.000 0.929 2.771 .851 State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-State (STAI-State)

2.055 0.569 1.227 .929

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Trait (STAI-Trait)

2.264 0.844 -1.371 .910

Center for Epidemiological Studies- Depression (CES-D)

0.827 0.854 7.517 .890

Note. *In creating a factor score, values were standardized, which resulted in a mean of zero and a standard deviation approaching a value of one.

26

Table 3 Factor Matrix Displaying Items for the Fear of Success Scale Item Factor Loadings 1 2

.248

.367 3 .498 4 .551 5 6 7

.284 -.081 .405

8 .395 9 .476 10 11

.474

.273 12 .507 13 .494 14 .498 15 .317 16 .447 17 .432 18 19

.576

.285 20 .549 21 .467 22 .451 23 .556 24 .562 25 26

.521

.194 27 .352 Note. Items below a value of 0.320 were excluded and are italicized. This factor analysis yielded the FOSS-21 factor.

Fear of Success, Anxiety, and Depressive Symptoms

As seen in Table 4, correlational analyses conducted among all variables were

utilized to examine the relationships among all measures. Both state anxiety and trait

anxiety were significantly correlated to each other, thereby suggesting they measured

similar, yet different forms of anxiety. Both state anxiety and trait anxiety were found to

be significantly and positively correlated with fear of success. Similar to previous

27

findings demonstrating a strong link between depression and anxiety, the present study

found depressive symptoms to be significantly and positively correlated to both state

anxiety and trait anxiety. Finally, depressive symptoms were significantly and positively

correlated with fear of success.

Table 4 Correlations for All Measures

1 2 3 4 1. Fear of success 1.00 2. State anxiety .24** 1.00 3. Trait anxiety .31** .77** 1.00 4. Depressive symptoms .31** .66** .75** 1.00 * p < .01. ** p < .001.

An initial regression analysis was conducted to determine the contribution of

anxiety and depressive symptoms to fear of success (see Table 5). Since correlations were

not above r = .90, multicollinearity was not problematic by conventional standards

(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Furthermore, because correlations between predictors were

present, partial and part correlations were also reported in Table 5. As predicted,

depressive symptoms were a significant and positive predictor of fear of success scores.

In the multiple regression, state anxiety was not significantly related to fear of success.

However, trait anxiety was found to be positively and marginally significantly related to

fear of success. Overall, all three measures accounted for 11% of the variance in fear of

success. These results were also supported by partial and part correlations, which further

indicated that state anxiety’s unique contribution was unrelated to fear of success, when

accounting for trait anxiety and depressive symptoms.

28

Table 5 Summary of Regression Analysis for Measures Predicting Fear of Success

Predictor β t p r Partial r Part r State anxiety -.03 -0.37 .715 .24 -.02 -.02 Trait anxiety .18 1.95 .053 .31 .11 .10 Depressive symptoms

.20 2.55 .011 .31 .14 .13

R2 .11 F(3, 335) 13.85 p < .001

Gender Differences

Mean comparisons for male and female participants were calculated and

compared for all measures, and independent-sample t-tests were conducted in order to

detect any significant differences among means (see Table 6 and Figure 1). Overall, male

and female participants were found to significantly differ on all measures. Men scored

higher than women on fear of success. However, women scored significantly higher than

men on state anxiety, trait anxiety, and depressive symptoms. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d)

indicated small to moderate effects.

Table 6 Mean Comparisons for Male (n = 99) and Female (n = 325) Participants

Men Women M SD M SD t p Cohen’s d

Fear of success 0.22 0.73 -0.06 0.97 -2.28 .024 .31 State anxiety 1.91 0.53 2.10 0.57 2.98 .003 -.34 Trait anxiety 2.11 0.49 2.31 0.50 3.50 .001 -.40 Depressive symptoms 0.72 0.39 0.89 0.51 3.02 .003 -.35

29

Figure 1. Comparison of mean scores for men and women on all measures. All differences were significant at p < .05. FOS = fear of success; SA = state anxiety; TA = trait anxiety; DEP = depressive symptoms. * In creating a factor score for fear of success, values were standardized. Additionally, regression analyses were conducted to assess and compare

significant predictors for men versus women. As seen in Table 7, results found depressive

symptoms to be a significant and positive predictor solely in women but not in men.

Furthermore, the three predictors were found to account for 19% of the variance in fear of

success for men, but only 11% of the variance for women. Based on these results, there is

a likelihood of suppression of the relationship between state anxiety and fear of success

such that there was a positive correlation between the two, and a negative beta in the

regressions.

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

FOS* SA TA DEP

Mea

n Sc

ores

Men

Women

30

Table 7 Gender Differences in Predictors of Fear of Success

Predictor β t p R2 Men (n = 99) .19

State anxiety -0.09 -0.49 .629 Trait anxiety 0.31 1.45 .151 Depressive symptoms 0.23 1.42 .160

Women (n = 325) .11 State anxiety -0.01 -0.13 .896 Trait anxiety 0.19 1.85 .065 Depressive symptoms 0.19 2.12 .035

31

Chapter 4: Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of anxiety and depressive

symptoms in predicting fear of success in undergraduate students. Due to elevated levels

of social, financial, and academic stresses during college years, student populations are

particularly susceptible to the harmful effects of balancing a multitude of responsibilities,

often leading to increased anxiety and depressive symptoms (Gore et al., 2016; Mistler et

al., 2012). Therefore, a significant and positive relationship between anxiety and fear of

success was hypothesized. Furthermore, this was the first study to investigate the

relationship between fear of success and depressive symptoms. It was hypothesized that

depressive symptoms would be significantly and positively related to fear of success. The

final purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in fear of success since

previous research has yielded mixed results.

Fear of Success and Anxiety

Anxiety was assessed in two forms, state anxiety and trait anxiety, which allowed

an examination of this construct in terms of current, situation-specific anxiety as well as

more general and stable anxiety. Although correlational analyses demonstrated moderate

yet significant correlations between both forms of anxiety and fear of success, regressions

were not able to confirm the hypothesized results of anxiety as a significant predictor of

fear of success scores.

Overall, results were not fully congruent with some earlier studies of participants

whose anxiety was associated with fear of success (André & Metzler, 2011; Mulig et al.,

1985; Piedmont et al., 1995). However, it should be noted that some of these studies

assessed different forms of anxiety, including test anxiety (Piedmont, 1995) and sport

32

anxiety (André & Metzler, 2011). Also, other studies have found mixed results, with

some even concluding anxiety is not significantly correlated to fear of success (Tresemer,

1977). Therefore, there is not enough evidence to conclude anxiety is a strong predictor

of fear of success, which suggests that those who fear success may not necessarily always

experience anxiety, but this relationship may instead be influenced by other factors, such

as neuroticism (Dymond & Roche, 2009). Furthermore, it is possible that anxiety and fear

of success are not meaningfully different and that those who are intrinsically anxious are

also more likely to have higher levels of fear of success.

The strong correlations of state anxiety and trait anxiety to depressive symptoms

potentially explain why anxiety was not found to be a significant predictor of fear of

success. This could be due to a suppression effect, in which significant positive

correlations became negative and non-significant in regression analyses. Hence, these

results suggest state anxiety does not appear to influence FOS in the presence of trait

anxiety and depressive symptoms.

Fear of Success and Depressive Symptoms The second hypothesis concerning the relationship between depressive symptoms

and fear of success was supported. Results found a significant positive correlation

between depressive symptoms and fear of success, and depressive symptoms was

established as a significant predictor of fear of success scores. Since depressive

symptoms and fear of success have not been previously investigated in the same study,

these results helped elucidate a previously unexplored area of fear of success research.

Given that depressive symptoms are associated with feelings of worriedness and fearing

33

negative judgments from others (Bramante, 2015; DeLisle & Holden, 2009), these

feelings may lead to self-defeating behaviors such as fear of success.

This newly found relationship opens the door for future studies of depressive

symptoms and fear of success. Descriptive analyses found depressive symptoms to be

positively skewed, thereby indicating that a majority of this particular student population

was not experiencing severe depressive symptoms. Thus, future research should consider

studying this relationship in depressed clinical populations to further explore the

relationship between these variables and to establish self-defeating tendencies as a

possible explanation for the significant relationship found between depressive symptoms

and fear of success. Since depressive symptoms appear to be a stronger predictor of fear

of success compared to state and trait anxiety, future studies of clinical populations

should be conducted in order to assess whether anxiety re-emerges as a significant

predictor or whether anxiety is not significantly involved in influencing fear of success.

Furthermore, because studies have previously found anxiety to precede depression,

(Breslau, Schultz, & Peterson, 1995; Parker, Wilhelm, Mitchell, Austin, Roussos,

Gladstone, 1999) it is also possible that the relationship between anxiety and fear of

success is mediated by depressive symptoms.

Gender Differences The third purpose of the present study was to investigate the influence of gender

effects on fear of success. Men scored significantly higher than women on fear of

success. However, the regressions did not find any of the factors to be significant

predictors of fear of success, except for depressive symptoms in women. Thus, while

women were more anxious than men, this did not necessarily translate to higher fear of

34

success. Another interesting finding was that these predictors accounted for a larger

percentage of change in fear of success in men than women. It is possible that these

results were due to the demographics of the sample, which included a population

consisting of university students studying psychology who were predominantly women

and Hispanic.

Findings also corroborated the notion that fear of success is not a characteristic

found predominantly in women. Hence, the present study did not support Horner’s

original findings stating that fear of success is highly prevalent in female students

compared to male students. As previously mentioned, a partial explanation for these

changes over time may include that colleges and universities are no longer predominantly

populated by men (Ivers & Downes, 2012). Some scholars postulated that while women

avoid violating roles viewed as “feminine”, men fear criticism from family and friends

regarding their scholastic performance (Balkin & Donaruma, 1978; Metzler & Conroy,

2004). These differences must be further investigated in future research while also

accounting for demographic factors such as culture, age, and ethnicity.

Limitations

The present study has certain limitations that should be addressed in future

research. First, self-report questionnaires were utilized to assess all constructs, which may

be influenced by idiosyncratic differences, such as under-reporting of symptoms. Also,

this could result in shared method variance that could artificially inflate the relationships

between the variables. Another limitation is that students completed the questionnaires

online rather than in-person, which potentially allows them to perform other tasks while

completing the questionnaires. To address this issue, “check questions” were included in

35

each questionnaire to ensure that participants were reading each item and answering to

the best of their ability. An example of a check question includes “Please answer ‘almost

never’ to show you are reading the survey carefully”. Data of those who incorrectly

answered two (2) or more of these check questions were excluded from the analyses. As

well, while the online nature of the study allowed for the efficient recruitment of a

relatively large sample of university students, it also allowed participants to begin the

questionnaires and finalize their submission at a later time.

Furthermore, because correlational and regression analyses were utilized, these

methodologies do not allow for causality to be established. For instance, it cannot be

determined whether depressive symptoms cause fear of success or whether fear of

success causes depressive symptoms to arise. However, virtually all previous studies of

fear of success have likewise relied on self-report measures to assess this construct in

student populations, as it is difficult to assess fear of success in an objective, non-self-

reported manner. Future research might consider collecting data across time to determine

the direction of the relationships between anxiety, depressive symptoms, and fear of

success.

Another limitation is the creation of the FOSS-21 factor. When factor analyses

were conducted, a single factor was created, which included 21 items and excluded 6

items of the original FOSS. While FOSS has been largely used in the past to assess fear

of success and does appear to be reliable, many researchers have not found all items

within this questionnaire to assess a single construct. For example, some researchers have

identified four underlying factors and sometimes as many as nine different factors

36

(Metzler & Conroy, 2004). Thus, it is essential for future research to clarify the

underlying factors within the FOSS.

Readers should be careful when generalizing the findings of this study to other

populations. First, the sample was composed mostly of women. While this may be

representative of the undergraduate student population studying psychology at the

university, this may not be the case for other educational institutions or other fields of

study. Second, the sample consisted solely of undergraduate students enrolled in a

psychology introductory course at a university in California, with over 50% of

participants reporting being Hispanic. These demographics often differ in other

geographic locations, and thus results should not be generalized to all populations. Future

research should seek to investigate fear of success in populations varying in age,

ethnicity, religion, and other characteristics to formulate a comprehensive investigation of

fear of success.

Future Directions

This was the first study to investigate the relationship between depressive

symptoms and fear of success. While this study shed new light on the relationship

between depressive symptoms and fear of success in undergraduate students, these results

open the door for further investigation of fear of success in clinically depressed

populations, such as medical inpatients. For instance, fear of success could be assessed in

patients with major depressive disorder to evaluate whether fear of success is associated

with negative outcomes in the hospital, such as length of hospital stay, decreased quality

of life, or symptom severity. Furthermore, while it is fundamental to pinpoint the role of

the predictors of fear of success, the next step in future research should be to help

37

decrease fear of success. For instance, if depressive symptoms are a significant predictor,

then perhaps future research should investigate whether fear of success decreases once

participants undergo treatment for depression and whether this change is associated with

positive outcomes, such as improved academic performance.

Conclusions Even though approximately one in ten students report suffering from debilitating

fear of success (Gore et al., 2016), there is a paucity of research investigating the

characteristics associated with fear of success. This study aimed to contribute to fear of

success literature by studying the link between anxiety, depressive symptoms, and fear of

success in undergraduate students. Results established depressive symptoms as a

significant contributor to fear of success scores, which may be due to the self-defeating

tendencies of fear of success. Gender studies revealed that men, not women, were more

likely to experience higher fear of success – a result mirroring current fear of success

research rather than Horner’s original work. The overall goal for the future is to help

reduce the negative impact of fear of success as well as increasing knowledge of this

topic in other populations, such as individuals with clinical depressive disorders.

38

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Appendix A

Consent Form

California State University, Northridge CONSENT TO ACT AS A HUMAN RESEARCH PARTICIPANT

How Do I Feel?: Assessing Emotional Status and Attitudes Toward Personal Achievement

You are being asked to participate in a research study. “How Do I Feel?: Assessing Emotional Status and Attitudes Toward Personal Achievement” is a study conducted by Julieta Dascal as part of the requirements for the M.A. degree in Clinical Psychology. Participation in this study is completely voluntary. Please read the information below and ask questions about anything that you do not understand before deciding if you want to participate. A researcher listed below will be available to answer your questions.

RESEARCH TEAM Researcher:

Julieta Dascal, B.A. Department of Psychology

18111 Nordhoff St. Northridge, CA 91330- 8225

julieta.dascal.756@my.csun.edu

Faculty Advisor: Gary S. Katz, Ph.D.

Department of Psychology 18111 Nordhoff St.

Northridge, CA 91330- 8255 (818) 677-2964

gary.katz@csun.edu PURPOSE OF STUDY The purpose of this research study is to assess students’ emotional status and attitudes about their own views on personal achievement.

SUBJECTS Inclusion Requirements You are eligible to participate in this study if you are an undergraduate student over 18 years of age. Time Commitment This study will involve approximately 30 minutes of your time. PROCEDURES The following procedures will occur: Participants will be asked to complete an online survey containing various scales that will assess feelings and emotions as well as attitudes toward personal achievement. Once the survey is

47

completed, participants will be presented with additional information about the study through a debriefing form. RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS The possible risks and/or discomforts associated with the procedures described in this study include: fatigue, and/or mild emotional distress due to questions about anxiety or depression. You may skip any question or discontinue any task by notifying the examiner at any time. This study involves no more than minimal risk. There are no known harms or discomforts associated with this study beyond those encountered in normal daily life. BENEFITS Subject Benefits You may not directly benefit from participation in this study. Benefits to Others or Society The information collected from this study will help further the understanding of the relationship between emotional status and an individual’s perceptions of their own potential to achieve a task and succeed. Investigating this relationship will help establish the relationship between these two factors in order to potentially help students overcome their psychological barriers regarding achievement. ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION The only alternative to participation in this study is not to participate. COMPENSATION, COSTS AND REIMBURSEMENT Compensation for Participation Students enrolled in PSY 150 and PSY 250 at California State University, Northridge will receive participation credits for their time spent completing the requirements of this study. Other participants will not be compensated for their participation. Costs There is no cost to you for participation in this study. CONFIDENTIALITY Subject Identifiable Data No identifiable information will be collected during the study. Your responses will not be associated with your name; therefore, your responses will be anonymous. Data Storage All research data will be stored electronically on a secure computer with password protection. Data Access The researcher and faculty advisor named on the first page of this form will have access to your study records. Any information derived from this research project that personally identifies you will not be voluntarily released or disclosed without your separate consent, except as specifically required by law. Publications and/or presentations that result from this study will not include identifiable information about you. Data Retention The researchers intend to keep the research data until the research is published and/or presented and then it will be destroyed after five years.

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IF YOU HAVE QUESTIONS If you have any comments, concerns, or questions regarding the conduct of this research please contact the research team listed on the first page of this form. If you have concerns or complaints about the research study, research team, or questions about your rights as a research participant, please contact Research and Sponsored Projects, 18111 Nordhoff Street, California State University, Northridge, Northridge, CA 91330-8232, or phone 818-677-2901. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION STATEMENT You should not continue with this study unless you have read the consent form. Participation in this study is voluntary. You may refuse to answer any question or discontinue your involvement at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you might otherwise be entitled. Your decision will not affect your relationship with California State University, Northridge. Your participation indicates that you have read the information in this consent form and have no questions about the study.

By clicking on “Yes” below, you agree to participate in the study and acknowledge that you have been informed of any possible risks or benefits that can occur from your participation.

Yes No

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Appendix B

Questionnaires

Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) A number of statements which people have used to describe themselves are given below. Read each statement and then circle the appropriate number to the right of the statement to indicate how you feel right now, that is, at this moment. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any one statement but give the answer which seems to describe your present feelings best.

1 = Not at all 2 = Somewhat 3 = Moderately so 4 = Very much so 1. I feel calm………………………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 2. I feel secure………………………………………………..………1 2 3 4 3. I am tense………………………………………………….……… 1 2 3 4 4. I feel strained……………………………………………………... 1 2 3 4 5. I feel at ease……………………………………………….…….... 1 2 3 4 6. I feel upset………………………………………………...……… 1 2 3 4 7. I am presently worrying over possible misfortunes…….....…….. 1 2 3 4 8. I feel satisfied……………………………………………...……... 1 2 3 4 9. I feel frightened………………………………………….............. 1 2 3 4 10. I feel comfortable………………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 11. I feel self-confident……………………………………….……… 1 2 3 4 12. I feel nervous…………………………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 13. I am jittery……………………………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 14. I feel indecisive………………………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 15. I am relaxed……………………………………………….……… 1 2 3 4 16. I feel content……………………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 17. I am worried……………………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 18. I feel confused…………………………………………….……… 1 2 3 4 19. I feel steady……………………………………………….……… 1 2 3 4 20. I feel pleasant……………………………………………..……… 1 2 3 4

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A number of statements which people have used to describe themselves are given below. Read each statement and then circle the appropriate number to the right of the statement to indicate how you generally feel. There are no right or wrong answers. Do not spend too much time on any one statement but give the answer which seems to describe how you generally.

1 = Almost Never 2 = Sometimes 3 = Often 4 = Almost Always 1. I feel pleasant………………………………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 2. I feel nervous and restless……………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 3. I feel satisfied with myself …………………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 4. I wish I could be as happy as others seem to be………………………... 1 2 3 4 5. I feel like a failure…………………………………………….………… 1 2 3 4 6. I feel rested ……………………………………………………………... 1 2 3 4 7. I am “calm, cool, and collected” ……………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 8. I feel that difficulties are piling up so that I cannot overcome them……. 1 2 3 4 9. I worry too much over something that really doesn’t matter…………… 1 2 3 4 10. I am happy……………………………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 11. I have disturbing thoughts……………………………………………… 1 2 3 4 12. I lack self-confidence…………………………………………………... 1 2 3 4 13. I feel secure…………………………………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 14. I make decisions easily………………………………………………….1 2 3 4 15. I feel inadequate………………………………………………………... 1 2 3 4 16. I am content…………………………………………………………….. 1 2 3 4 17. Some unimportant thought runs through my mind and bothers me…..... 1 2 3 4 18. I take disappointments so keenly that I can’t put them out of my mind.. 1 2 3 4 19. I am a steady person……………………………………………………. 1 2 3 4 20. I get in a state of tension or turmoil as I think over my recent concerns

and interests …………………………………………………………… 1 2 3 4

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Radloff’s Center for Epidemiological Studies- Depression (CES-D) Instructions: Circle the number for each statement that best describes how often you felt or behaved this way DURING THE PAST WEEK.

Rarely or none of the time. (less than 1 day)

Some or a little of the time. (1-2 days)

Occasionally or a moderate amount of time. (3-4 days)

Most or all of the time. (5-7 days)

1 I was bothered by things that usually don’t bother me. 0 1 2 3

2 I did not feel like eating. 0 1 2 3

3 I felt that I could not shake off the blues even with help from my family or friends.

0

1

2

3

4 I felt that I was just as good as other people. 0 1 2 3

5 I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing. 0 1 2 3

6 I felt depressed. 0 1 2 3

7 I felt that everything I did was an effort. 0 1 2 3

8 I felt hopeful about the future. 0 1 2 3

9 I thought my life had been a failure. 0 1 2 3

10 I felt fearful. 0 1 2 3

11 My sleep was restless. 0 1 2 3

12 I was happy. 0 1 2 3

13 I talked less than usual. 0 1 2 3

14 I felt lonely. 0 1 2 3

15 People were unfriendly. 0 1 2 3

16 I enjoyed life. 0 1 2 3

17 I had crying spells. 0 1 2 3

18 I felt sad. 0 1 2 3

19 I felt that people disliked me. 0 1 2 3

20 I could not get “going”. 0 1 2 3

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Zuckerman and Allison’s Fear of Success Scale (FOSS) In this questionnaire you will find a number of statements. For each statement a scale from 1 to 7 is provided, with 1 representing one extreme and 7 the other extreme. In each case, circle a number from 1 to 7 to indicate whether or not you agree with. the statement. This is a measure of personal attitudes. There are no right or wrong answers. Please answer all items. (1 indicates disagreement and 7 indicates agreement). 1. I expect other people to fully appreciate my potential……………….…….. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 2. Often the cost of success is greater than the reward………………………... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3. For every winner there are several rejected and unhappy losers…….….….. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 4. The only way I can prove my worth is by winning a game or doing well on a task…………………….………………..………..….….….….…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 5. I enjoy telling my friends that I have done something especially well…….. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6. It is more important to play the game than to win it.…..………………. …. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7. In my attempt to do better than others, I realize I may lose many of my friends…..………………..…..…………………………….…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8. In competition I try to win no matter what..…..……………………..….…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. A person who is at the top faces nothing but a constant struggle to stay there…..…………………..………………..……….….….. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10. I am happy only when I am doing better than others……………….….…... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11. I think "success" has been emphasized too much in our culture……….…... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12. In order to achieve one must give up the fun things in life…………….…... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13. The cost of success is overwhelming responsibility………………..….…… 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 14. Achievement commands respect……………..……..……..…….….….…… 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15. I become embarrassed when others compliment me on my work….….…… 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16. A successful person is often considered by others to be both aloof and snobbish……………..……..……..…….…..……….….…… 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17. When you’re on top, everyone looks up to you.…….…..……….…. ….…... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18. People's behavior change for the worst after they become successful….….. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 19. When competing against another person, I sometimes feel better if I lose than if I win………..……..……..…….…..…….….…… 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20. Once you're on top, everyone is your buddy and no one is your friend….…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 21. When you're the best, all doors are open.…….…..……….…………….….. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22. Even when I do well on a task, I sometimes feel like a phony or a fraud….. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 23. I believe that successful people are often sad and lonely..…………..….…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24. The rewards of a successful competition are greater than those received from cooperation………..……..……..…….…..…….….….….…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 25. When I am on the top the responsibility makes me feel uneasy….…..……. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 26. It is extremely important for me to do well in all things that I undertake……1 2 3 4 5 6 7 27. I believe I will be more successful than most of the people I know….….…. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7