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https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-07-2014-0076

1

INPRESS:Education+Training,Vol.57,No.5,2015

EmployabilitySkills:PerspectivesfromaKnowledge‐Intensive

Industry.

ChrisCollet1,3,DamianHine2andKarenduPlessis1,2

AustralianLearningandTeachingCouncilTeachingFellow,

1SchoolofBiomedicalSciences,

QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,

Brisbane,Queensland4001Australia

2UQBusinessSchool,

UniversityofQueensland,

St.Lucia,Queensland4072Australia

3CorrespondingAuthor:

ChrisCollet

Address:

SchoolofBiomedicalSciences,

QueenslandUniversityofTechnology,

GPOBox2434,Brisbane,QLD4001Australia

Contactdetails:

E‐mail:‐ c.collet@qut.edu.au

Phone:‐ 61‐7‐31385173

Fax:‐ 61‐7‐31381534

Acknowledgements:

ThisprojectwasfundedbyaTeachingFellowshiptoCCfromtheAustralianLearningand

TeachingCouncil.

2

EmployabilitySkills:PerspectivesfromaKnowledgeIntensive

Industry.

ABSTRACT

Purpose:Whiletheglobaleducationdebateremainsfocusedongraduateskillsand

employability,theabsenceofasharedlanguagebetweenstudent,academicandindustry

stakeholdergroupsmeansthatdefiningindustryskillsrequirementsisbothessentialand

difficult.Theaimofthisstudywastoassessgraduateskillsrequirementsinaknowledge

intensiveindustryfromademandperspectiveasdistinctfromacurriculum(supply)

viewpoint.

Design/methodology/approach:Skillsitemswerederivedfromabreadthofdisciplines

acrossacademic,policyandindustryliterature.CEOsandseniormanagersintheinnovation

andcommercialisationindustryweresurveyedregardingperceptionsofskillsingraduates

andskillsindemandbythefirm.Tworoundsofexploratoryfactoranalyseswereundertaken

toexamineemployers’perceptionsoftheskillsgap.

Findings:Firstorderanalysisresolved10broadconstructsthatrepresentcognitive,

interpersonalandintrapersonalskillsdomainsasappliedinthisindustry.Knowledge,

leadershipandinterprofessionalcollaborationfeatureasprominentskills.Secondorder

analysisrevealedemployers’perceptionsofgraduateskillsspecificallycentreon

organisationalfitandorganisationalsuccess.Anover‐archingthemerelatestoperformance

oftheindividualinorganisations.

Researchlimitations/implications:

Ourfindingssuggestthatthediscourseonemployabilityandthedesignofcurriculumneedto

shiftfrominstillinglistsofskillstowardsenablinggraduatestoperforminadiversityof

workplacecontextsandexpectationscentredonorganisationalpurpose.

Originality/value:Incontrasttotheheterogeneousnatureofindustrysurveys,wetargeteda

homogenoussectorthatisrepresentativeofknowledgeintensiveindustries.Thisstudy

contributestothebroaderstakeholderdialogueofthevalueandapplicationofgraduateskills

inthisandotherindustrysectors.

3

INTRODUCTION

Thehighereducationsectorplaysaleadingroleinthetransitiontoknowledge‐based

economiesthroughthesupplyoftechnologicalinnovationandskilledhumancapital(e.g.,

NCIHE,1997;EC,2003;NA,2007).However,concernshavelongbeenvoicedaboutthe

suitabilityofgraduatesforemployment,theapplicabilityoftheirskillstoachanging

economiclandscapeandthesubsequentimpactonproductivitythatarisesfroman

employabilityskillsgap(SCANS,1991;Packer,1993;NCIHE,1997;DETYA,1998;EC,2003;

Leitch,2006).Thedebateovergraduateskillsandemployabilityremainsoneofthecore

elementsofawidereducationdebatethatencompassesthecompoundinginfluencesofthe

globalisationofeducation(Adelman,2009),evolvingworkplacerequirementsandindustry

demographicswroughtbynewtechnologies(Levy,2010;FreyandOsborne,2013),increased

competitionfromrisingeasternmega‐economies(EC,2003;NA,2007)andthecurrent

climateofglobalfinancialinstability(NA,2010).Inthecurrenteconomicclimate,employer

demandscentreonanexpandedskillsset,includingtheapplicationofinterpersonaland

intrapersonalbehaviours,tounderpinthesystemicinnovationrequiredforevenmedium‐

termbusinesscompetitiveness(Stasz,2001;Harvey,2003;Casner‐LottoandBarrington,

2006;Moreland,2007;Finchetal.,2013;SA,2011;NA,2010;CBI,2011;WhitefootandOlson,

2012).

Commentatorshaveplacedtheblameforanemployabilityskillsgapatthefeetofdifferent

stakeholders.Atthenationallevel,Richens(1999)notesthatthestructureofeducation

makesitdifficulttoimplementsystematicchangeevenwhencollaborativeprocessesexist

betweenindustryandeducation.Attheuniversitylevel,highereducationinstitutionshave

failedtoimpartthenecessarybusinessandsoftskillsforgraduateemploymentineconomies

thatareincreasingcomplexandcompetitive(Harvey,2001;Stasz,2001).Atthelevelofthe

curriculum,academicsareuncomfortableteachingskillsbeyondtheirdiscipline‐specific

experience(Barrieetal.,2009;DelaHarpeetal.,2009).Ontheflipside,ithasbeenclaimed

thatemployershavenotcommunicatedtheirskillsrequirementsclearlytothehigher

educationsector(Rosenbergetal.,2012)andthatindustryhasitsownresponsibilitytotrain

graduatesforeachsector(Holmes,2001;Harvey,2001,2005).

Recentreportsalsonotethelackofempiricaldataregardingtherelationshipbetweenskills

andemployment(Masonetal.,2009;PellegrinoandHilton,2012;Rosenbergetal.,2012;

4

Mourshedetal.,2012;Heimleretal.,2012).Graduatesareemployedinnon‐routinework

environments.Thusemploymentandcareertrajectoriesaresimplynotamatterofmatching

skillsrequiredandskillspossessed(Holmes,2001;Harvey,2005;HinchliffeandJolly,2011).

Holmes(2001)paintsthetransitionintotheworkplacefromrecentgraduatetoworthy

employeeasaprocessofdevelopingasharedlanguagebetweenemployeeandemployer

aroundthevalueandapplicationofskillsinthespecificindustry.

PellegrinoandHilton(2012)drawattentiontothelackofasharedmeaningacrossand

betweenstakeholdergroups(academics,industryandstudents)intheirunderstandingof

skills.Inturn,thelackofasharedmeaninghasexacerbatedthelackofengagementamongst

thesegroups(Harvey,2005;PellegrinoandHilton,2012)totheextentthatithasbeen

claimed:“employers,educationprovidersandyouthliveinparalleluniverses”(Mourshedet

al.,2012).Thebiggestchallengerequiringresolutionrelatestothedifferentmeaningsused

byeachstakeholdergrouptodescribeskillsandtheirapplication(PellegrinoandHilton,

2012).Understandinghowskillsaredescribedandappliedinindustryisanimportantstepin

derivingsharedmeaningsbetweenstakeholders.

Tounderstandtheevolvingindustrydemandsaroundgraduateskillsrequiredinan

increasinglyknowledge‐intensiveindustryenvironmentwehavesoughttoassessindustry

expectationsandexperiencesofgraduatesworkinginindustryorganisationsatthefrontof

thetechnologyinnovationcurve.Specifically,ourstudyexaminesperceptionsofthe

employabilityskillsgapthroughtheeyesoftheCEOsandseniormanagersoftheAustralian

innovationandcommercialisationsector.Webreakdownandcontextualisebroadskills

descriptionsintocomponentelementsrelevanttothesectorandapplyaquantitativeand

inductiveexploratoryanalysisoftheperceivedgapbetweenemployers’demandsandwhat

theyseeinnewlyhiredgraduates.Oursurveyexploresskillsinuseattheorganisational

interfaceoftheindividual,theteamandthefirminaknowledge‐intensiveindustryfocused

onbringinginnovationtothemarketplace.Suchinsightsaddtothegreaterskillsdebateby

assessingskillsrequirementsthatwillfilterthroughtootherindustrysectorsovertime.Such

insightsarealsoessentialtothedesignofeducationprogramsinthehighereducationsector

thataddressemployerdemands.

BACKGROUNDTOTHECURRENTGENERICSKILLSFRAMEWORKS

5

Thissectiondoesnotintendtoprovideacomprehensivesurveyofthebroaderemployability

skillsdebateofthelasttwentyyearsbutratherprofilescurrentframeworksandsome

parametersofthedebaterelevanttothispaper.

TheSCANS(1991)reportintheUSlaidthegroundworkforcurrentframeworkswhenit

definedthreefoundationalskills(basicskills,thinkingskills,personalqualities)underpinning

fivecompetencies(useofresources,interpersonalskills,information,systemsand

technology)neededforsolidjobperformance.LordDearingechoedthesesamerequirements

inasubstantialreportthatchangedthelandscapeofhighereducationintheUnitedKingdom

(NCIHE,1997).Fromearlyskillsframeworksthatfocusedprimarilyontechnicalknowledge

andskills,criticalthinkingandcommunication,theSCANSandNCIHEreportsinitiateda

globalshifttowardsincludingskillsinknowledgemanagement,informationliteracy,

teamwork,careermanagementandcitizenshipasessentialforgraduateemployability.

Thecurrentskillsdebatefocusesuponteachingandlearningabroadlydefinedsetof

cognitiveandaffectivecapabilitieslabeledas21stCenturySkillsconsideredtounderpin

careersuccessinknowledgeeconomies.Table1providestherangeofperspectivesamong

skillsframeworksalignedaccordingtothedimensionsadvocatedbyPellegrinoandHilton

(2012)(seebelow).Theexampleshighlightthediversityofapproachesandcommonalities

betweenframeworks.TheglobalAssessmentandTeachingof21stCenturySkills[AT21CS]

projectdefinedfourdomainsofskills:waysofthinking,waysofworking,toolsforworking

andlivingintheworld(Binkleyetal.,2010).InEurope,theOrganisationforEconomic

CooperationandDevelopment[OECD]DefinitionandSelectionofSkillsProgrammedescribes

threeclustersofkeycompetencies(actingautonomously,interactinheterogeneousgroups

andusingtoolsinteractively)thatcanbemobilisedtomeetsocialandeconomicdemandsand

individualgoalsrelatedto21stCenturyworkandliving(OECD,2005).Inthiscontext,the

termcompetencyreferstotheapplicationofknowledgeandskillstomeetcomplexdemands.

BuildingontheConferenceBoardofCanada(CBC,2000)framework,theUnitedKingdom

CommissionforEmploymentandSkills(UKCES)derivedaframeworkthatemphasisesonthe

work‐readinessofgraduates(UKCES,2009).FocusingontheK‐12educationsector,the

Partnershipfor21stCenturySkills[P21CS]emphasizesmasteryofcoresubjectsand

interdisciplinarythemesasunderpinninglearningandinnovationskills,information,media

andtechnologyskills,andlifeandcareerskills(P21CS,2009).

6

*****INSERTTABLE1HERE*****

TherelationshipbetweenHEinstitutesandthelabourmarketiscontextspecificatthe

nationallevel(Tomlinson,2012).Thus,nationalgovernmentsandtheiragencieshave

developedandadoptedavarietyofinitiatives,approachesandpolicyinstrumentsthat

encompassskillsdevelopment(deWeert,2011;KottmannanddeWeert,2013)includingthe

benchmarkingofstudentlearningoutcomes(OECD,1999,2011;Jerald,2008).Forexample,

thehighleveldiscourse(e.g.,NCIHE,1997;DES,2003;Leitch,2006;UKCES,2009)informed

interventionistUKgovernmentpolicybysuccessivegovernmentsthatfacilitatedderegulation

oftheeducationmarket,greaterdisseminationofinformationregardingcareerchoices

(www.nationalcareersservice.direct.gov.uk)andincreasedHE‐industrycollaborationto

addresslabourmarketdemands(DBIS,2011,2013).Collaborativeeffortsinskillstraining

encompasssignificantfundingofprojectsaimedatuniversity‐industrypartnerships

(TallantyreandKettle,2011)andprogrammesdirectedtowardsworkplacementsand

employerownershipofskillstrainingpre‐andpost‐graduation(UKCES,2010,2013,2014).

IntheUSA,wherecurriculumcontentisstate‐controlled,theCommonCoreStateStandards

Initiative(www.corestandards.org)hasredesignedtheEnglishandMathscurriculumto

embodyabroaderviewofknowledgeandskillsrequisiteforworkandlife(NRC,2014).In

Australia,governmentpolicyhasfocusedonthevocationaleducationandtrainingsector

throughthedevelopmentofperformancedefinitionsaroundcoreskills(DEEWR,2008)and

workforceplanning(SA,2011;AWPA,2014)tosupportfutureskillsdemandsofthe

manufacturingindustry.IncontrasttotheUK,thenotionoffundingworkplacementsfor

Australianuniversitystudentshaslargelymetwithgovernmentandindustryinactiondueto

highcostandresourceintensity(Lomax‐Smithetal.,2011;AWPA,2014).

Followingformulationofskillsframeworkscametherealisationthattheassessmentofsoft

skillsanddeeperlearningoutcomesarepoorlydevelopedornon‐existentincurriculum

(Koenig,2011;PellegrinoandHilton,2012).Thissawensuingdevelopmentsalsofollowa

tangentialpathwayinthedevelopmentofprotocolsforskillsmeasurement(Binkleyetal.,

2010;OECD,2011;Koenig,2011;Bladesetal.,2012;Kyllonen,2012)andteachereducation

(Solandetal.,2013;NRC,2014).Sucheffortshavebeenattheexpenseofdevelopingmore

robustsecondandthirdgenerationframeworksbasedonempiricalresearch(Pellegrinoand

Hilton,2012;LaiandViering,2012).

7

PellegrinoandHilton(2012)examinedlistsof21stCenturyskillsandfoundcommonalities

theyproposedfittedthreeover‐archingdomainsofcognitive,interpersonalandintrapersonal

competencies(Table1).Theseauthorsacknowledgeforemosttheskillsineachdomain

support,enhanceorimpingeuponskillsintheotherdomainsandthecomplexrelationships

ofskillsremaintobefullyelucidated.LaiandViering(2012)alsonotethatfewrecognised

skillshavea“relativelyrobustandestablishedresearchbasiswithineducationand

psychology”.PellegrinoandHilton(2012)proposethetripartiteframeworkservesasa

startingpointforresearchthatfurtherdefineseachconstructanditsrelationshiptoother

skillsconstructs.Suchresearchisparamountindefiningtherelationshipbetweenskillsand

employment.

Asthedebateevolves,newskillsarebeingproposedasimportantinthe21stCentury,suchas:

actionorientation,leadership,executivefunction,socialinfluence,assertivecommunication

andserviceorientation(PellegrinoandHilton,2012,andreferencestherein).Animportant

elementisthelackofenterprising(orentrepreneurial)skillsingraduatestosupportbusiness

agility(Gibb,2002;Moreland,2007;SA,2011;NIH,2012;WhitefootandOlson,2012).An

entrepreneurialmindset,especiallyingraduatesofthescience‐basedandtechnical

disciplines,isadvocatedinordertobuildfoundationalplatformsforknowledge‐based

economies(EC,2003;NA,2007,2010;NIH,2012).Suchcallsarerecognitionthatskills

underlyingentrepreneurialactivityareimportantforcareersuccessoftheindividual(Gibb,

2002;NIH,2012;WhitefootandOlson,2012)aswellasbusinessgrowththroughinnovation

thatisbothsystemicandsustainable(Christensen,1997;SA,2011).

Itisimportanttonotethatskillsframeworksoftenreflecttheperceptionsofthegroup,

industry,academicorgovernmentconsultancy,developingtheframework.While

commonalitiesareevident,someimportantdifferencesthatimpactoneducationandtraining

forknowledgeintensiveindustriesremaintoberesolved.Table1servestohighlightthe

contrastingviewpointsoftheroleandvalueofskillsasdisplayedinpublishedskills

frameworks.Thevaryingimportanceplaceduponthebodyofdiscipline‐specificknowledgea

graduateshouldknowrepresentsaninterestingcaseinpoint,especiallywhenyouconsider

suchknowledgerepresentsthecornerstoneofuniversitygraduatecapabilitystatements.

8

TheOECD(2005),UKCES(2009)andAT21CS(Binkleyetal.,2010)emphasisebroadlybased

functionalknowledgeandskillsrelevanttopersonal,socialandeconomicwellbeingrather

thananin‐depthsubjectknowledgethatmayneverbeappliedoncegraduated.Inthese

frameworks,knowledgeasrecallofdisciplinefacts(Bloom,1956;AndersonandKrathwohl,

2001)hastransitionedtothegatheringandprocessingofknowledgesuchthattheessenceof

21stCenturyskillsis“whatstudentscandowithknowledgeratherthanwhatunitsof

knowledgetheyhave”(Silva,2008).Theoutcomeofthisperspectivehasknowledge,asa

construct,describedsomewhatnarrowlyasinformationliteracy(definedasevidence‐based

researchandbiasrecognition)andliteracyininformationandcommunicationstechnology

[ICT](AnaniadouandClaro,2009;PellegrinoandHilton,2012).

Otherframeworks,however,featuretheimportanceofdiscipline‐specificknowledge.The

P21skillsframeworkemphasisesa“focusonmasteryofcoreknowledgeandunderstanding

academiccontentathigherlevels”(P21CS,2009).Indeed,empiricalresearchshowscritical

thinking,afundamentalcognitiveskillandessentialgraduateattribute,isadomainspecific

constructthatevolvesasthepersonacquiresdiscipline‐basedknowledge(Kuncel,2011;Lai

andViering,2012).

Employersurveysarealsoequivocalabouttheroleofdiscipline‐specificknowledge.

Technicalskillsrank11thintheNACE(2013)survey;whileanothersurveyhasmathematics

andscienceranked15thand16th,respectively,outof20skills(Casner‐LottoandBarrington,

2006).HarveyandMason(1996)report38%ofemployersconsiderknowledgeoflittleorno

importance,andsuggestashortshelflifeasthecause.Othersurveysreported,however,that

employersfavouredbothabroadrangeofwidelyapplicableskillsandknowledge,andin

depthtechnicalskillsandknowledgeinoneormoredisciplines(Saflund,2007;HRA,2010).

Withintheskillsmix,Saflund(2007)andRosenbergetal.(2012)reportemployercomments

thatitiseasiertoremedyalackoftechnicalknowledgethanadeficiencyinsoftskills.

Pointingtoapartialsolution,theNACE(2013)surveynotesthatemployersimposea

thresholdGPAwhenhiringgraduates,thisimpliesaperformancecriterionfordiscipline

knowledgedespitealowrankingoftechnicalskills.Thus,“employersview21stCenturyskills

asanadditiontocore(discipline)knowledge”(HoustoncitedinHilton,2010)and,implicitly,

graduates’technicalknowledgeisassumed(Saflund,2007).

9

Leadershipisaskillratedasveryimportantbyindustryand,yet,ithasnotfeaturedinskills

frameworks.PellegrinoandHilton(2012)describeleadershipasaninterpersonalskill

encompassingleadership,responsibility,assertivecommunication,self‐presentationand

socialinfluencewithothers.Ontheotherhand,Casner‐LottoandBarrington(2006)provide

industry‐centrictermstodescribetheconceptofleadershipasanappliedskillthat“leverages

thestrengthsofotherstoachievecommongoals”andastheuseof“interpersonalskillsto

coachanddevelopothers”.Leadershipranked10th(outof20skills)with~82%ofindustry

regardingtheskillas‘veryimportant’innewworkforceentrants(Casner‐Lottoand

Barrington,2006).Moreover,NACE(2013)rankedleadershipas2ndonalistofdesired

attributesandreports76%ofindustryseekevidenceofleadershipskillsongraduates’

résumés.MillennialBranding(2012)reportsthat50%ofcompaniesarelookingfor

leadershipskillsinnewgraduates.Anyperceivedleadershipdeficitingraduatesarisesfrom

theirlackoffamiliaritywithbusinessandcorporatecultures(Casner‐LottoandBarrington,

2006).AMcKinseymeta‐surveyofUSindustryreportsthatemployersarealreadyfinding

managementpositionsdifficulttofill(Manyikaetal.,2011),asentimentalsoexpressedinan

Australiansurvey(AIM,2009).Withagenerationalshiftbroughtonbyretirementofthe

babyboomergeneration,theimpactofaleadershipskillsdeficitonorganisationswillbecome

moreovertovertime.

Whilethediversityofstakeholdersinputintotheemployabilityskillsdebateishealthy,the

broadbaseofdiscoursehascontributedtoalackofsharedmeaningacrossandwithin

stakeholdergroups.Inturn,thelackofasharedmeaninghasexacerbatedthelackof

engagementamongstthesegroups(Harvey,2005;PellegrinoandHilton,2012).Thebiggest

challengerequiringresolutionrelatestothedifferentmeaningsusedbyeachstakeholder

grouptodescribeskillsandtheirapplication(PellegrinoandHilton,2012).Understanding

howskillsaredescribedandappliedinindustryisthefirststepinderivingsharedmeanings

betweenstakeholders.

BACKGROUNDTOTHEINNOVATIONANDCOMMERCIALISATIONINDUSTRY

Focusedonbringingcomplexemergenttechnologytothemarketplace,theinnovationand

commercialisationsectorisahighprofileindustrysectorwithsignificantinfluenceonfuture

healthofnationaleconomies(Christensen,1997;Wrightetal.,2007;Meyeretal.,2011).A

conceptualframeworkdisplayingthetypesoforganisationsintheinnovationand

10

commercialisationinfrastructureispresentedinFigure1.Thefigureprovidesanoverviewof

thevaluechainandthediversityofcontributorstothatchain,rangingfromresearchtosales

andmarketing,andincludesfundingagencies,lawyersandbusinessdevelopmentspecialists.

Thediversityofcontributorsunderscoresthenetworkednatureoftheinnovationand

commercialisationinfrastructure.Thesectorishighlydependentontechnicalknowledgeand

skills.Successintheindustryisdependentnotjustontheinherentnoveltyandutilityofthe

innovationbutontheabilitytoselltheinnovationinamarketpopulatedwithcompeting

technologiesorservices.Thesectordemandshighlyqualifiedgraduatesrepletewith

technicalmastery(definedassuccessinresearch(MacKinnonetal.,2010))andimbuedwitha

suiteofentrepreneurialandgenericskillsfocusedonacommercialimperative(Murrayand

Hsi,2007a,b,citedinHilton,2008).Furthermore,noonepersonmaymanagethepipeline

fromstarttofinishandthusplayersintheindustrymustalsohaveanappreciationoftheir

roleintheprocessaswellastherolesandapproachesofothercontributingdisciplines.Toa

largedegree,thehumancapitalneedsofthesectorcanbeconsideredattheforefrontof

emergingskillsrequirementsofknowledge‐basedindustries(Wrightetal.,2007;Phanetal.,

2009;Austinetal.,2009).

RESEARCHDESIGNANDMETHODOLOGY

ThenamesoftargetAustralianorganisations,theappropriatepersonnelandtheircontact

details,werecollectedthroughinternetsearchesofgovernmentandprivatedirectoriesof

research,developmentandcommercialisationorganisationsandthroughsearchtermssuch

as‘technologytransfer’,‘researchcommercialisation’,‘technologycommercialisation’,

‘intellectualproperty’andvariationsthereof.Theorganisationstargetedareknowledge‐

intensiveinnovationindustriesandtheadjunctstotheseindustries,andthusmaynotbe

representativeofthecommercialisationpipelinebutratherrepresentativeoftheinnovation

andcommercialisationpipeline(Figure1;Table2).AstheindustryinAustraliaissmall,the

surveywasundertakenbytelephoneinterviewtoimproveresponserates.

*****INSERTFIGURE1HERE*****

*****INSERTTABLE2HERE*****

Alistofskillswasdrawnfromabroadsweepacrossdisciplinesandreportsfromacademic,

industry,governmentandpolicyareas.Sourcesofskillslistsencompassedgenericand

11

specificcompetencesofmultipledisciplineswithintheEuropeanUnionTuningProject

(www.unideusto.org/tuningeu/competences)includingthesocialsciences(business,nursing

andhistory)andnaturalsciences(physics,chemistry,earthsciences);skillsandcompetencies

fromgovernmentandthink‐tankreports(suchasDETYA,1998;DEST,2002,2007);academic

literatureincludingthatcoveringentrepreneurship(suchasGartnerandVesper,1994;Gibb,

2002;McLeish,2002);andthegraduatecapabilitieslistsofanumberofAustralian

universities,werealsopartitionedintoindividualskilltraits.Skillswereanalysedthrough

identificationofoverlappingitemsandcorethemesfromthepublishedlists.Ourfinallistof

skillswasnotmeanttobeexhaustivegiventherapidevolutionofthegenericskillsdebate,

howevertheaimwastoprovidebroadcoverageoftheskillspresentinpublishedlists.

Leveragingtheextensiveexperienceofthetworesearchers,eachskillwasanalysedfor

contextualrelevancewithintheknowledgehierarchyoftheinnovationand

commercialisationindustryandacrossthebroadrepresentationofthevaluechain(Figure1).

Forinstance,informationliteracyisregardedasacoreskill,butwhatdoesthismean?

Definitionsintheliteratureprovidethatinformationliteracyisthecollectionofinformation

fromadiversearrayofsources,oftenusingmoderntechnologies(PellegrinoandHilton,

2012).Inthecontextof(modern)knowledge‐intensiveindustries,informationhasvalue,so

itisnotjustthecollectionofinformationthatisimportant,butalsohowinformationis

evaluated,assimilated,shared,andnewknowledgecreatedandleveragedwithinthefirm.In

thisparticularindustry,whereinnovationleadstoanewproductandintellectualproperty

protectionisanimportantaspectofthebusinessfunction,thedocumentationofthe

informationsourceandaccuratereportingofinformationarealsokeyelementsofthe

innovationprocess.

Asoutlinedinthepreviousparagraph,finalskillsitemswerederivedbasedonmanifestation

of,orrequirementfor,eachspecificskillintheinnovationandcommercialisationcontextand

consideredasgermanetotheindustry(Table4).Incontrasttomostindustrysurveys,the

researchdesignwechoseusedalargernumberofskillsitemsandapplications(>50)rather

thanasmallnumberofskillsitems(<15)toavoidthecompoundingissuesarisingfrom

assumingasharedlanguagethatdescribestheskillandinfersitsapplicationinindustry(see

above).Thisalsoprovidedamuchmorenuanceddataset.

12

Throughthesurveyweaimedtoevaluatethegapbetweentheskillsperceivedasrequiredby

industryandthoseperceivedasevidentingraduatesenteringtheindustry.Thus,eachofthe

61skillsitemsincludedtwoquestions:

Howimportant(IMP)istheskilltoyourorganisation?

Howevident(EVD)istheskillinthegraduatesyouemploy?

ThequestionnairedesignincludedaLikert5‐pointscalewithnoneutralpointtoavoid

courtesybiasonthepartofrespondentsandeliminateambivalence.Thesurveyalsoincluded

questionsthataddressedthedemographicsofrespondents’organisation,andthecredentials

oftherespondentandrecentlyemployedpersonnel.

Fromtheviewpointoftherespondent,therelativeimportanceofanyoneskillinbusiness

activityisevaluatedincomparisontoasuiteofotherskills.Therespondentisexplicitly

awareofthisprocessofthesurveyandrankstheskillsaccordingly.Inreviewingskills

evidentinthegraduate,however,therespondentisnotengagedinacomparativeranking;the

personisexplicitlyprovidingavaluejudgementaboutaperceiveddistancemeasure

(deficiency)thatimplicitlyprovidesanindependentmeasureoftheimportanceoftheskillin

therespondent’sactivities.Forthisreason,itisthedistancebetweenthemeansofIMPand

EVDthatprovidesmeaningfulmeasuresofskillsimportance(i.e.,IMPmeanminusEVDmeanasa

variableinitself),anditisthetestofthisdistancethatisthefocusofthisstudy.Inusingthe

subtractivedifferencebetweenthemeasuresofperceivedimportanceandevidence,wehave

soughttooperationaliseissuesofconcernaroundtheemployabilityskillsgapinthissector.

TheanalysisofresponsesutilisedSPSSv21.Ananalyticaliterativeprogressionwasfollowed

withdatatransformationandinterpretationasfollows:(1)one‐tailedt‐testsofsignificance,

withBonferronicorrectiontoallowforinflatedfamilywiseTypeIerrorrate(for61items,α=

0.00082;Field,2013),onthedifferencebetweenthemeansofIMPandEVD(testingμIMP>

μEVD),(2)testsofsizeeffectusingCohen’sdtest,and(3)classificationoftheIMPmean–

EVDmeanitemsintoconstructs(skillfields)usingfirstorderandsecondorderexploratory

factoranalysis(EFA).Kaiser‐Meyer‐Olkin(KMO)testsandBartlett’sTestofSphericitywere

usedtoevaluatethelinearassociationofitemsincorrelationmatrices.Constructswere

extractedusingprincipalcomponentanalysis(PCA)withPromaxrotation,toallowfor

correlationbetweenvariables,andKaisernormalisation(Field,2013).Internalconsistencyof

constructvaliditywasexaminedusingCronbach’sαcoefficient(Reinard,2006;Field,2013).

13

RESULTS

RespondentCharacteristics

Thesurveyrealised207responsesfromindustrypersonnelataresponserateof45%with

94.2%ofrespondentsrepresentingsenior‐levelmanagement:middle(25.1%)andupper

level(seniormanager:36.7%;CEO32.4%).Foursectorsdominatedtheindustrygroups

makingup88%oftherespondents:healthandcommunityservices(20%),propertyand

businessservices(20%),agriculture,forestryandfishing(22%)andamiscellaneousgroup

(various)(26%).Mining,manufacturing,governmentadministrationanddefence,utilities

andcommunicationserviceswereallatorbelow4%.Themajority(70%)ofindustry

organisationswereunder40yearsofagewith55%lessthan20yearsoldandoverhalfofthe

organisationsemployedupto100employeesandallhadlessthan2000employees.Asone

wouldexpect,thegeographicfocusoftheorganisationswaspredominantlyinternational

(49.8%)ornational(39.6%)withfewhavingaregional(8.2%)orlocal(2.4%)focus.

Thesurveyrespondentsrepresentahighlycredentialedpopulationofindividuals:42%hada

highestqualificationofaPhD,23.5%hadamaster’sdegreeand34%graduatedwitha

bachelor’sdegree(includingHonours).Oftheemployeeshiredbytheorganisationsinthe

lastthreeyears,themajority(83.8%)ofemployeeswererecentgraduates(37.3%)orhad

graduatedlessthanayearbeforehand(14.1%)orwerepreviouslyemployedgraduates

(32.4%).Non‐graduatesaccountedforonly16.2%ofrecentemployees.Alargepercentageof

graduatesemployedhadthehigher‐levelqualificationsofmaster’sdegree(12.9)orPhD

(31.6)and42%hadabachelor’sdegree.Thehighproportionofgraduateswithpost‐

bachelor’sdegrees(44.5%)supportsthenotionofanindustryrequirementforanadvanced

knowledgeandskillsbase.

AnEmployabilitySkillsGap

Atthesimplestlevel,thesurveysoughttotesttheemployers’perceptionsofaskillsgap

betweentheskillsindemand(i.e.,IMP)intheinnovationandcommercialisationsectorand

theskillslevelevidentingraduateemployees.TheaverageIMPmean=3.6comparedwiththe

averageEVDmean=2.78.Foreachofthe61items,theIMPmeanresponsewassignificantly

higherthantheEVDmean(Table3;p/2<0.001;onetailedt‐testwithBonferronicorrection).

Cohen’sdeffectsizesofmediumorlarger(>0.5)wereobtainedfor59itemswithsmallto

medium(0.320and0.456)effectsizesachievedfortwoitems.Thissuggestsasignificantand

14

meaningfulgapisperceivedbetweentheskillsconsideredessentialforindustry

activity/successandthoseevidentinrecentgraduates.

*****INSERTTABLE3HERE*****

DerivationofSkillsConstructsandDescription

TheKMOstatistic(0.924)indicatesthesamplesizeissufficientforthenumberofitemsinour

scalewhiletheBartlett’stest(χ2=8347,df=1830,p<0.001)indicatesthecorrelationmatrix

isnotanidentitymatrix(Field,2013).Togetherthesetwotestsindicateourcorrelation

matrixissuitableforfactoranalysis.Tenconstructs,eachwithEigenvaluesof>1,were

extractedusingfirstorderEFAbasedonIMPmean–EVDmeanforthe61itemsthattogether

explained63.5%ofthevariance(Table3).Cronbachαvaluesexceed0.7forallfactors,

includingfactorswithnine,10and15variables(at0.880,0.905and0.911,respectively),

indicatingahighlevelofinternalreliabilityinthefactoroutcomes.

Table3showsalignmentofskillsitemsineachofthe10extractedconstructsanddescribes

thelabelsappliedtoconstructs:

Knowledge/Learningconstructprojectsanoutcomesfocusrelatingtotheprocessof

individuallearningandalsotheleverageofinformationandknowledgeinan

organisationalsenseinwaysthatcontributetointellectualcapitalandaddvalueto

companies.Anunderstandingofthetechnicaldisciplineandthetwoway

communicationwithspecialistsisparamounttobothunderstandingtheneedsofthe

companyandaccuratelyimpartingknowledgeregardingexternaldevelopments.Such

activitiesareimportantinknowledgeintensiveindustriesformaintainingsustainable

competitiveadvantage(WangandNoe,2010).

EnterpriseLeadershiprecognisesacoalescenceofhigherorderactions,attitudesand

personalitiesthatarenecessarytoprogressnewventures(BassandBass,2008).Inan

organisationalsense,knowledgeofadministrativesystemswouldplayanimportant

roleinachievingpositiveoutcomes.

BusinessFunctionrelatestosystemsthinkingandcomprisesacoreofbusiness

knowledgerelatingtoelementalfunctioningofanybusinessentity.

TechnicalManagementrecognisesthatcareersinthisindustrybuildonafoundationof

disciplineknowledgeandtechnicalmasterytoincludehigherorderskillsapplication

andleadershipinaprojectcontextthatisclientfocused.

15

TeamWorkerrecognisesasuiteofinward‐focusingskillsthatareimportantindividual

pre‐requisitesthatcontributetotheeffectiveperformanceofateam.

InterprofessionalCollaborationisoutwards‐focusedandrecognisesasuiteofskillsthat

coalescearoundactivecollaborationandcommunicationwithotherprofessionalsin

interdisciplinaryteamenvironments.Thisconstructrecognisestheneedforthefirm

tointeractthroughcomplexrelationshipsinvolvingmultipleentitiesinthevaluechain

(Figure1).

LeadershipAntecedencecomprisesskillsconsideredenterprisinginnatureandthat

contributetotheperformancedynamicsofboththeindividualand,through

communication,thefirm(Gibb,2002).

Improvecomprisesskillsrelatingtolifelonglearning.Theconstructcontainsonlytwo

items,butnonetheless,wasnotdiscardedastheEigenvaluewasabove1,theitemsare

welldefinedandtheconstituentitemsintuitivelycluster.

Progresscomprisesasuiteofskillsthatrecognisestheprocessofpickingapotentially

winningtechnologyandprogressingthetechnologythroughtoaproduct(i.e.,

innovationtransformation)(Wrightetal.,2007,andreferencestherein).

Createreflectsafocusedpracticeoftheindividualtocreatenewknowledge.The

sharingofnewknowledge,however,alignsintheconstructKnowledge/Learning,

whichmayunderscoretheimportanceofknowledgemanagementwithinthefirm.Our

constructsdistinguishbetweenknowledgegathering,filteringandleveragewithinthe

firm(Knowledge/Learning)versusbuildingnewknowledge(Create)andthusreflect

theclassiccognitivecategoriesofEvaluation(orEvaluating)andSynthesis(or

Creating),respectively,asdefinedbyBloom(1956)andAndersonandKrathwohl

(2001).

DerivationandDescriptionofMetaconstructs

Toexaminerelationshipsbetweentheconstructfields,asecondroundofEFAwas

undertakenusingthe10constructsasvariables.TheKMOstatistic(0.917)andBartlett’stest

(χ2=1201,df=45,p<0.001)indicatethematrixisfactorable.Principalcomponentanalysis

realisedtwometaconstructswithEigenvalues>1thatexplain68%ofthetotalvariance

(Table4).While21stCenturyskillsframeworksrecognisethreeclustersofskills:cognitive,

interpersonalandintrapersonal(PellegrinoandHilton,2012),suchdistinctionsappearnotto

berecognisedintheseend‐userdemandresponses.Rather,thetwometaconstructs

16

essentiallyprescribedomainsoffunctionoftheindividualinanorganisationalcontextinthis

specificindustrysector.

*****INSERTTABLE4HERE*****

OrganisationalFitcomprisesskillsconstructsthatrepresenta(basal)scopeandlevelof

knowledgeandskillsrequiredofemployeestoworkinthecurrentandeverchanging

businessstructuresandstrategiesofinnovationandcommercialisationorganisations.When

consideredasawhole,theskillsfieldsthatresolveinthismetaconstructdescribethe

individual’sfitintoanorganisation’sstructure,strategyandculture.Ontheotherhand,the

metaconstructOrganisationalSuccessdescribeshigherorderskillsassociatedwitha

successfulcareerinthesector,reflectingrespondentperceptions,andinevitablysome

respondentbias.Thelattermetaconstructisbasedonexperientiallearning,buildingupon,

ratherthanderivedfrom,explicitinstruction.Graduatesentertheindustrysectoras

technicalexpertsandusuallylearntheirbasicbusinessandmanagementskillsastheyrise

throughtheranksoftheorganisationaswellasgaintheexperientialknowledgeneededto

progressnewtechnologiesintoproducts(Pisano,1994).

DISCUSSIONANDCONCLUSIONS

TheEmployabilitySkillsGap

Aperceptionofadeficiencyingraduateskillsimpliesthatindustryconsidersitcandobetter,

andmaybebeingheldbackbygraduatesinitspursuitofproductivity(Packer,1993).

Conversely,perceptionsthatgraduateskillsexceedrequirementsmeansthatindustrydonot

utilisetheskillsoftheiremployeesandthisrepresentsanunusedcapacitywithinthe

organisation.Insurveyingindustrywithanextendedlistofskillswelookedtoassess

whethergraduatespossessedindividualelementsaroundabroadskilldescription(e.g.,

teamwork,problem‐solving)thatmetindustryexpectations.Inthisknowledgeintensive

industrysector,theperceptionsoftheimportanceofall61skillsitems(asdefinedby

IMPmean)issignificantlyhigher(P<0.001)thanperceivedasevident(EVDmean)ingraduates.

Ourresultsempiricallyconfirmtheconcernsregardingthedeficiencyinskillsbetween

graduateexitandemployerrequirementsthathavebeenvoicedoverthelast20yearsin

policydebateanddescriptivesurveysoftheUS(e.g.,SCANS1991;Casner‐Lottoand

Barrington,2006;Saflund,2007;NACE,2013),UK(HarveyandMason,1996;NCIHE,1997;

17

Harvey,2003;CBI2011)andAustralian(DETYA,1998;DEST,2002,2007;AIM,2009;SA,

2011)workforcecontexts.Beyondthis,ouranalysishascategorisedtheskillssothatthey

canbebetterunderstoodforthepurposeofchangeandredesignofcurriculuminthehigher

educationsector.

SkillsfromaDemandPerspective

Ratherthanascribeimportancetoitemsinalistofskills,wefocusedonthedifference

betweenskillsimportancetotheorganisationandskillsevidentingraduatesasperceivedby

theemployerasameasureoftheemployabilityskillsgap.Asascaledevelopmenttechnique,

thisapproachmirrorsimplementationoftheconsumer‐basedExpectation‐Confirmation

Model(PoisterandClaytonThomas,2011)andtheuseofSERVQUALinresearchingservice

quality(Ladhari,2009).Inourscalewearenotconsideringtheindividualgraduatebut

rathertheexperientialperceptionofwhatgraduatesasacohortbringtotheorganisationand

whatskillsareimportanttoeachorganisation.Thus,ourresultsreflectaninterpretationof

skillsbyahighlycredentialedandsuccessfulbusinesscohortinanindustrythatleverages

knowledgeandinnovationforcommercialoutcomesandliesattheforefrontofinnovation

andtechnologymanagement.Bypopulatingthesurveywithanextendedlistofskills

contextualisedfortheindustry,wehavesoughttoovercomethelimitationsofanassumed

language(Mourshedetal.,2012;PellegrinoandHilton,2012).Ourstudydoesnotpre‐empt

thecomplexrelationshipsbetweenskills(PellegrinoandHilton,2012;LaiandViering,2012)

butseekstodrawrelationshipsaroundinterpretationthroughexploratoryfactoranalysis.

OfthetenskillsconstructsderivedfromfirstorderEFA,eightmaptothethreebroadclusters

recognisedbyPellegrinoandHilton(2012):cognitivecompetencies(Knowledge/Learning,

Create,BusinessFunction,TechnicalManagement,Progress),interpersonalcompetencies

(Interprofessionalism)andintrapersonalcompetencies(TeamWorker,Improve)(Table1).In

contrast,twoconstructscontainelementsthatspancompetencydomains.Leadership

Antecedencefeaturesbothinterpersonalandintrapersonalskillsandrecognisesthatcareers

inthissectorrequirehighmotivationaldriversandwell‐developedcommunicationskills.

EnterpriseLeadershipcontainselementsthatspanallthreedomainsofcompetencyand

recognisesthatsuccessfulnewventuresareattheheartofthisindustrysector.Both

constructsfeaturetraitsconsideredentrepreneurialorenterprising(GartnerandVesper,

1994;LumpkinandDess,1996;Gibb,2002).Althoughthesectorisconsideredhighly

entrepreneurial,‘entrepreneurship’asaconstructwasnotresolved.Theseoutcomesmay

18

reflectapervasivenessofenterprisingbehavioursacrossthesectorratherthan

entrepreneurshipperse‐beingentrepreneurialisalesserrequirementthanbeingan

entrepreneur(Gibb,2002).

Ourexploratoryfactoranalysisalsoprovidesforfurtherdiscussionofthreeelementsofthe

employabilityskillsdebatearoundknowledge,teamwork/collaborationandleadership.

Furthermore,andnotsurprisinglyfromanindustryviewpoint,ourskillsconstructsand

metaconstructsinferanemphasisonoutcomesandperformanceratherthanpresenta

processorientedviewcharacteristicofcurriculum.

TheRoleandValueofKnowledge

KnowledgeasdefinedinthenarrowsenseasinformationliteracyandICTliteracy(Silva,

2008;PellegrinoandHilton,2012)orinthebroadfunctionalsensewithinthecontextof

everydaytasks(OECD,2005;Binkleyetal.,2010)seemsinadequatewhenweconsiderour

constructs.Incontrasttotheequivocalroleofcontentknowledgethatfeaturesinthe

employabilityskillsdiscourse,discipline‐specificknowledgederivedfromexplicittraining

featuresintwoofourconstructs:KnowledgeandTechnicalManagement.Technical

knowledgeservesasbothaprerequisiteforindividualandfirm‐centredlearninginthe

cognitiveprocessofinformationevaluation,synthesisanddisseminationaswellasthe

applicationofcriticalthinkingskills(Knowledge).Buildinguponthebaseofdiscipline

knowledgeandtechnicalmastery,successfulcareersinthisindustryincludehigherorder

skillsofleadershipandmanagementthatarederivedexperientially(TechnicalManagement).

Leadersinthesectorareusuallyhighlycredentialedandtheindustryfocusisonthe

applicationof,andvalue‐addingto,deepknowledgeofatechnicaldisciplinetowards

developingaviablecommercialproductforthemarketplace.Suchanoutcomesupportsthe

notionthatdisciplinaryknowledgeisbothvaluedbyindustryandassumedforgraduates

(Saflund,2007;Hilton2010).

Ontheotherhand,theimportanceofexperientialknowledgeintheinnovationand

commercialisationsectorisacknowledgedbyresolutionoftwoconstructs:BusinessFunction

andProgress.BusinessFunctioncoversrequisiteknowledgeforunderstandingandeffecting

commercialoperations.Progressrelates,atfirstglance,toknowledgerequisiteforcareer

successinthespecificindustrysectorsurveyed,howeveritcanbearguedthattheskills

constructappliestoanyknowledge‐intensivesectorseekingsustainabilitythroughsystemic

19

innovation(Christensen,1997;Wrightetal.,2007).ItisalsonotsurprisingthatBusiness

FunctionandProgressresolveinthemetaconstructOrganisationalSuccessinthissector.Ata

seniormanagementlevel,organisationaltransformationandviabilityisdependenton

businesssystemsthinkingandtheexperientiallearningderivedfromplotting

commercialisationpathwaysforcomplextechnologicalinnovation(Pisano,1994).

TeamworkversusInterprofessionalCollaboration

Ourconstructshighlightadistinctionbetweenthetraditionaldescriptionsofteamwork

versuscollaboration.Teamworkisatopiccentraltoskillsframeworksanddescriptionsoften

include‘abilitytoworkingroups’,‘workingtogetherforcollaborativelearning’and‘division

oflabour’(LaiandViering,2012,andreferencestherein).Theelementscoalescinginthe

constructTeamWorkerrepresentintrapersonalskillsthatcontributetotheeffective

performanceofateam.OurconstructInterprofessionalCollaboration,however,comprises

interpersonalskillsandextendsbeyondteamworktoencompassaninterdisciplinary

environmentthatincludesinteractingwithothers,professionalsandnon‐professionalsalike,

whichfacilitatespositiveorganisationaloutcomes.Theconstructalsoindicatesaservice

orientationthatiscentraltothisindustrysectorwherecomplextechnologicalinnovationhas

tobedemystifiedandsoldtonon‐expertssuchasventurecapitalistsandotherinvestors,

lawyers,financialmanagersandend‐users.Resolutionofaconstructemphasising

interprofessionalcollaborationismostlikelydrivenbythecomplexrelationshipsand

diversifiednatureoftheorganisationsoperatingalongthevaluechainoftheindustrysector

wherealliances,andlicencingisparamount,andnegotiationisamajorbusinesstoolfor

royalties,annuitiesandreturns.Together,theconstructsrepresenttwosidesofthesame

coin.

Ourresultsmakethedistinctionbetweenbringingknowledgetoateamorfirm(i.e.,

multidisciplinarity)andlearninginprofessionalcontextsthatleadstointerdisciplinarity.

Interprofessionalismisdefinedasanapproachtoworkinginteamsthatemphasiseshighly

collaborativeproblemsolvingwheredifferentprofessionslearnwith,fromandabouteach

othertoimproveoutcomes(Barr,1997;Bromage,2009).Consideredanimportantaspectof

healthcaretrainingsincethe1950s,interprofessionalismhasalsobeenrecognisedasa

phenomenonrelevanttooneofthemostinterdisciplinaryofknowledge‐intensiveindustries,

biotechnology(MacKinnonetal.,2010).Inthishightechnologysector,wheretheproduct

developmentpipelinecantypicallystretchto15years,innovationandcommercialisation

20

requirescontributionfromavarietyofprofessionsincludingscientists,technicalexperts,

engineers,intellectualpropertylawyers,businessconsultants,venturecapitalistsand

entrepreneurialmanagers(Figure1).Inthemedicalandalliedhealthprofessions,theterm

interprofessionalismencompassesbothknowledgeacquisitionandleverage,and

collaborationbetweenprofessionstoimproveoutcomes(e.g.,Hammicketal.,2007).Inour

study,however,skillsrelatingtoacquiring,applyingandleveraginginformationand

knowledgeinthisindustrysectoralignwithinotherconstructs.Thus,theperceptionsofthe

innovationandcommercialisationindustrysupportadivideinactualorganisationalpractice

betweentheroleandapplicationofknowledgeandinterprofessionalism(asadaptive

behaviours)toachievepositiveoutcomes.Ineffect,theconceptsofteamworkand

interprofessionalismaremorerobustthanisusuallyconceptualisedincurriculum(Hammick

etal.,2007;Riebeetal.,2010)astheyaregivenmeaningandpurposeinaction.

Leadership

Althoughleadershiphasonlyrecentlyfeaturedinskillsframeworks,keyleadershipskills

featureinourconstructs:LeadershipAntecedence,EnterpriseLeadershipandTechnical

Management.Suchconstructsareintuitiveforanindustrysectorchargedwithbringing

technologicalinnovationthroughR&Dandcommercialisationtothemarketplace.The

importanceofleadershipalsoemergesfromthesecondorderEFAwherefourskills

constructscoalescetoformthemetaconstructOrganisationalSuccessthatrepresents

leadershipandexperienceasenablersofsuccessofboththeorganisationandtheindividual.

TheelementsinOrganisationalSuccessrepresenthigherorderappliedskillsinmanagement,

evaluationandprogressionofintellectualcapitalandorganisations.Theemphasison

leadershipinoursurveyoutcomesundoubtedlyreflectsboththedemographyoftheindustry

respondentsasseniorlevelmanagers,whohavealreadybeenselectedbasedontheirown

leadershipskills.Nonetheless,theemphasisonleadershipskillsinourresultshighlightsa

dimensionofincreasingimportanceinthecurrentskillsdebateasorganisationslearnto

harnesstheeducationandskillsofemployeestoachievetheirownorganisationalgoals.

GraduateSkillsDeficienciesTranslateasIndustryRequirementsforPerformance

Overall,ourexploratoryanalysissuggeststhattheindustry’sperceptionofskillsfavoursan

outcomesfocusdrivenbythecommercialimperativeratherthantheprocessorientation

oftencharacteristicofcurriculum.TheoutcomesfocusisreinforcedinsecondorderEFA

wheretheskillsconstructsderivedfromfirstorderanalysiscoalesceintwometaconstructs

21

thatcentreonorganisationalpurpose.Theshiftofunderstandingskillsfromaprocess

(curriculum)perspectivetoanoutcomesfocusaroundorganisationalfitandsuccessalso

suggestsindividualperformanceisacorethemeinknowledge‐intensivebusinessesoperating

inaglobalisedeconomywherecapacitytodriveinnovationisthemajorcompetitive

advantage.Indeed,performanceemergesasaninherentthemeintheskillsclassification

derivedinthisstudy.Whiletheacademicdiscoursefocusesonmeans,theindustryfocusis

moreeconomicallypragmatic,placingemphasisonindividualperformancetoaddressthe

commercialimperative(i.e.,focusedonends).HinchliffeandJolly(2011)alsoreportthat

employersperceiveperformance,interpretedasdeliveryandresults,asakeycomponentof

graduatetransitionintotheworkforce.Inthisregard,(applied)performanceinthe

workplaceisdistinctfromacademiccapacityinHEIenvironments.

Implications

Ourstudyprovidesinsightintothevalueofskillsandtheirapplicationfromtheperspectiveof

thefirm.Thebroaderstakeholderunderstandingofasharedlanguagecanassistgraduate

employabilityoutcomes(PellegrinoandHilton,2012;Mourshedetal.,2012).Incontrastto

theheterogeneousnatureofmostindustrysurveys,wesampledahomogeneousindustry,the

innovationandcommercialisationsector,andassuchtheskillsrequirementsand

interpretationsrepresentanarrowrangeofresponses.However,theimportanceoffit,

successandperformancedirectlyreflectthoseconcernswitnessedinindustrysurveys

regardingemployabilityskillsrequirements(Harvey,2003,2005;Casner‐Lottoand

Barrington,2006;Saflund,2007;NACE,2013)andwhereindustryhasvoicedconcernsin

thinktankreports(e.g.,Hilton,2008,2010;PellegrinoandHilton,2012).Thusthe

imperativesoftheinnovationandcommercialisationindustrycouldbeconsidered

representativeofknowledge‐intensiveindustriesingeneral(PellegrinoandHilton,2012;

Mourshedetal.,2012).

Intheinnovationandcommercialisationsector,employersviewgraduateskillsfromthe

perspectiveoforganisationalfit.Fitinthiscontextisdependentonthecognitive(knowledge)

andpersonalskillsthatsupportthecompetitivenessandmarketadvantageofthefirm.In

turn,organisationalfitpromotesthesuccessoftheindividualandthefirm.Thus,discourse

aroundemployabilityshouldshiftfrominstilling(listsof)skillsperseinstudentstoenabling

graduatestoperform,competentlyandeffectively,post‐universitytomeetadiversityof

workplacecontextsandcommercialexpectationscentredonorganisationalpurpose.

22

Intransitiontocareers,workintegratedlearninghasassistedinpromotingindustryfocused

learningenvironmentstostudents(Peggetal.,2012).Howeverourfindingssuggestmore

needstobedonetonarrowtheskillsgapandteachtheemployabilityskillstocreatethe

industryreadygraduatesdemandedbyknowledge‐intensiveindustries.Skillssuchas

leadership(Peggetal.,2012),interprofessionalcollaboration(Taajamaaetal.,2014),systems

thinking(Remington‐Doucetteetal.,2012),informationleverage(WrigleyandBucolo,2011)

andserviceorientation(SwapandWayland,2013)areoftenlearnedfromtheviewpointof

isolatedsubjectsorco‐curricularactivitieswithsuchskillspoorlyintegratedintothe

mainstreamcurriculum.Forknowledge‐intensiveindustries,however,wearguethatall

graduatesalsorequireanunderstandingofthecommercialimperative.

Howthencancurriculumberedesignedtoaddresstheaddedskillsperspectivespointedtoby

thisstudy?Currentprogramscannotaffordtosacrificedisciplinaryknowledge,ascore

technicalknowledgeremainstheparamountconsiderationofemployersinsuchindustries.

Thedemandfortechnicalknowledgeislikelytoincreaseasthemergingofdistinctdisciplines

–theconvergenceparadigm–continuestoaccelerateandfuelinnovationandindustrial

evolution(MIT,2011).Ratherthanfluencyinonediscipline,knowledge‐intensiveindustries

willbeseekingtechnicalknowledgeinmultipledisciplinestoaddresscomplex‐problem

solvinganddecision‐makingprocesses.Thissentimenthasalreadybeenrecordedinasurvey

offirmsoperatingintheITsectorintheBostonregion(Saflund,2007).Soensuringtechnical

knowledge(frommultipledisciplines)iscoupledwithskillsfocusedonthecommercial

imperativewillinevitably“over‐inflate”degreesincreasingthetimespanrequiredtodeliver

suchdegrees(seeColletandWyatt,2005).

Themotivationforthisstudywastoanalyseacuttingedgeindustrythatoperatesinadvance

ofmostmainstreamindustries.Thereisnotatemplateformanaginginthisindustry.Forthe

specificsoftheinnovationandcommercialisationindustrysector,ourstudyalsohighlightsa

careerandorganisationalprogressionfromscience(discovery)throughtechnology

(application)tomanagement(implementation)thatisrarelysupportedbyanintegrated

educationprocess.Inthetransitionfromdiscoverytoimplementation,managementprovides

anextensiontothescienceandtechnologyunderpinningtheorganisationratherthanasan

add‐onactivity(LiyanangeandPoon,2003;Phanetal.,2009;Austinetal.,2009).Freyand

Osborne(2013)believethattheglobalshifttoknowledge‐intensiveandtechnology‐rich

23

industrieswillrequireemployeeswhoarebothhighlyskilledtechniciansaswellascreative

businessmanagers.Comprehensive,integratedcurriculaarerequiredwheretargeted

businessconcepts,processesandtoolsareembeddedintechnology‐baseddisciplinesto

preparestudentsforcommercialrealities.Suchcurriculashouldbemainstream,ratherthan

boutiqueofferingsinHEIs(forexamplesseeColletandWyatt,2005;Barretal.,2009;

Thursbyetal.,2009).Suchskillsimpartedingraduateswouldbeeasilytransferredinto

differentworkplacecontextsandfacilitatesmoothertransitionintotheworkplace.This

instillationisalsoavalidroleforbusinessschoolstoplayintheiruniversities.

Roos(2014)arguesthatbusinessstudentsneedtolearnaboutscienceandtechnologyasthis

iswheremuchofinnovationoccurs.Businesseducationneedstobridgethedividebetween

naturalandsocialsciences.Similarly,facultiesofscienceandtechnologyneedtosearchfor

anddiscoverthevalueofthecommercialimperative,toevolvetowardsamiddleground.If

thecurriculumredesignsuggesteddoesgainmomentum,wewillseeintegrativeMBA

programscognisantoftheunderpinningscience,technologyandpathwaysto

commercialisationincreasinglytaketheirplacealongsidecurrentstand‐aloneMBAprograms.

Insummary,ourdemandsideviewofgraduateskillsprovidesataxonomyofskills.However,

listsremainjustlistsuntiltherelationshipsbetweenitemsareestablished(Pellegrinoand

Hilton,2012).Theconnectionsbetweenskillsneedtobedrawntounderstandthedrivers

thatcreatethefunctionalgraduateasawhole.Ourstudyhasbeguntoteaseoutthe

connectionsbetweenskillsandexploretherelationshipsbetweenskills,organisationalfitand

performance,intermsoftheindividualandthefirminacompetitivemarketplace.Yetmore

progresstowardsclosingthegapneedstobemade.Itisnotthatemployershavefailedto

articulatetheirdemandsclearlytothehighereducationsector(Rosenbergetal.,2012)as

employershaverespondedadinfinitumtosurveysdominatedbysimplelists(LaiandViering,

2012).Thefailuretogeneratethesecondandthirdgenerationskillsframeworksthatare

empiricallymeaningful,widelyacceptedandvalidatedinindustrysettingspresentsamissed

opportunitytodateforthegraduatesofhighereducation.Goodpolicyreliesonrobust,

evidentiallysupportedguidancetocoordinateandassistallstakeholders–students,industry

andHEIs–simultaneously.

24

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[LegendtoTable1(nextpage)]

Table1:GenericskillsframeworksmappedtothetaxonomyofPellegrinoandHilton(2012).

TheOECD(2005),UKCES(2009),P21CS(2009)andAT21CS(Binkleyetal.,2010)

frameworksaremappedtothethreeclustersofkeycompetenciesdefinedbyPellegrinoand

Hilton(2012)as:cognitive,interpersonalandintrapersonal.

34

SkillsFrameworks

OECDKeyCompetenciesOECD(2005)

UKCES Employability Skills UKCES (2009)

21stCenturySkillsAT21CS(Binkleyetal.,2010)

Partnershipfor21stCenturySkillsAdaptedfromP21CS(2009)

Transferable21stCenturySkills(Pellegrino&Hilton,2012)

COGNITIVECOMPETENCYCLUSTER

Usetoolsinteractively Uselanguage,symbolsandtext

interactively Useknowledgeandinformation

interactively Usetechnologyinteractively

Thinking and solving problems Creativity, reflecting on & learning from own

actions, prioritising, analysing situations,, developing solutions

Using numbers effectively Measuring, recording measurements,

calculating, estimating quantities, relating numbers to the job

Using language effectively Writing clearly & in a way appropriate to the

context, ordering facts and concepts logically Using IT effectively Operating a computer using basic systems and

learning other applications as necessary, using telephones and other technology to communicate

Understanding the business Understanding how the individual job fits into

the organisation as a whole, Recognising the needs of stakeholders, judging risks, innovating, contributing to the whole organisation

Waysofthinking Creativityandinnovation Criticalthinking,problem

solving,decisionmaking Learningtolearn,metacognitionToolsforworking Informationliteracy ICTliteracy

Coresubjects&21stCenturythemes Coresubjects:English, world languages, arts,

mathematics, economics, science, geography, history, government & civics

21stCenturythemes:literaciesinglobal awareness, finance, economics, business and entrepreneurship, civics, health, environment

Information, media & technology Information literacy

o Access & evaluate information o Use and manage information

Media literacy: analyse & create media ICT literacy: apply technology effectively Learning & innovation skills (1) Creativityandinnovation

o Thinkcreativelyo Workcreativelywithotherso Implementinnovations

Criticalthinking&problemsolvingo Reasoneffectivelyo Usesystemsthinkingo Makejudgements&decisionso Solveproblems

Cognitive Cognitiveprocesses&strategies

o Criticalthinkingo Problemsolvingo Analysis,interpretationo Reason,argumentationo Decisionmakingo Adaptivelearningo Executivefunction

Knowledgeo Informationliteracyo ICTliteracyo Communication–oral,aural,written

Creativityo Creativityo Innovation

INTERPERSONALCOMPETENCYCLUSTER Interactinheterogeneousgroups

Relatewelltoothers Cooperate,workinteams Manageandresolveconflicts

Working together and communicating Cooperating, being assertive, persuading, being

responsible to others, speaking clearly to individuals & groups & listening for a response

Waysofworking Communication Collaboration(teamwork)

Learning & innovation skills (2) Communication & Collaboration

o Communicateclearlyo Collaborate with others

Life&CareerSkills(1) Social & cross cultural skills

o Interacteffectivelywithotherso Workeffectivelyindiverseteams

Leadership & responsibility o Guide&leadotherso Beresponsibletoothers

Interpersonal Teamwork&collaboration

o Communicationo Collaborationo Teamworko Cooperation,coordinationo Interpersonalskillso Empathy/perspectiveo Trusto Serviceorientationo Conflictresolutiono Negotiation

Leadershipo Leadershipo Responsibilityo Assertivecommunicationo Self‐presentationo Socialinfluencewithothers

INTRAPERSONALCOMPETENCYCLUSTER

Actautonomously Actwithinthebigpicture Formandconductlifeplansand

personalprojects Defendandassertrights,

interests,limitsandneeds

Positive Approach Ready to participate make suggestions, accept

new ideas & constructive criticism, take responsibility for outcomes

Self Management Punctuality & time management, fitting dress

& behaviour to context, overcoming challenges and asking for help when necessary

Livingintheworld Citizenship–localandglobal Lifeandcareer Personalandsocial

responsibility–includingculturalawarenessandcompetence

Life&CareerSkills(2) Initiative & self-direction

o Manage goals & time o Work independently o Be self-directed learners

Productivity & accountability o Manage projects o Produce results

Flexibility & adaptability o Adapt to change o Be flexible

Intrapersonal Intellectualopenness

o Flexibility,adaptabilityo Artisticandculturalappreciationo Personalandsocialresponsibilityo Appreciationfordiversityo Continuouslearningo Intellectualinterestandcuriosity

Workethic/Conscientiousnesso Initiative,self‐directiono Responsibility,perserverance,productivityo Selfregulation:forethought,performance,self‐

reflectiono Professionalism,ethicso Integrityo Citizenshipo Careerorientation

Positivecoreselfevaluationo Self:monitoring,evaluation,reinforcemento Physicalandpsychologicalhealth

35

Table2:NumbersoforganisationssurveyedinthedifferentcategoriesrepresentingtheAustralianinnovationandcommercialisationindustryinfrastructure(seealsoFigure1).TypeofOrganisation NumbersurveyedVentureCapital 44R&DConsortium 28R&DFundingAgency 11Commercialisation/TranslationalOrganisation 15ManagementandFinancialConsulting 17GovernmentAgency 7CommercialLaw 9ResearchFacility 8ResearchCentre 25ResearchInstitute 22ResearchOrganisation 21TOTAL 207

36

[LegendforTable3(nextpage)]

Table3:Thetenskillsfieldsconstructs(column1)resolvedbyfirstorderprincipal

componentanalysiswithPromaxrotationandKaisernormalisation.Eachconstructshows

highCronbachα(CA)values(column2)andEigenvalues>1(column2)thattogetherexplain

66%ofthecumulativetotalvariance(column3).Column4describesthealignmentof

individualskillswithhigherorderskillsfieldsconstructswhilecolumns5and6providethe

meansofIMPresponse(Im)anddifferencebetweenthemeansofIMPandEVD(IM‐IE)foreach

skillitem,respectively.Forall61items,one‐tailedt‐testswithBonferronicorrectionshowed

IMPMeantobesignificantlyhigherthanEVDMean(p/2<0.001)(datanotshown).Thesizeeffect

wasdeterminedusingCohen’sdtestand59itemsshoweddvalues(column7)>0.5(medium

tolarge),withtwoitemsreturningdvaluesof0.320and0.456indicatingasmalltomedium

sizeeffect.

.

37

Skill Field Construct

Eigen-value /

CA

% of Var Items IM IM-EM

d value

Factor Load’

#1 Knowledge

20.800 / 0.905 34.098

Evaluate information and data Accurately report information Synthesise information and data Accurately document information from different sources Critically question Communicate effectively with discipline specialists Understand essential concepts relating to the specific discipline Share new knowledge with others Basic general knowledge in technical area Retrieve information from different sources

4.61 4.55 4.51 4.44 4.47 4.32 4.41 4.19 4.11 4.48

1.07 1.03 1.13 0.95 1.13 1.03 0.77 0.79 0.75 0.66

1.302 1.290 1.327 1.142 1.187 1.186 0.928 0.995 0.892 0.880

0.849 0.846 0.845 0.816 0.704 0.662 0.622 0.594 0.532 0.531

#2 Enterprise Leadership

5.327/ 0.911 8.732

Lead a new venture Marshal resources for a new enterprise Identify key people in a venture Gain management support for a new enterprise Inspire others Negotiate Knowledge of administrative systems Form an effective team Willingness to take risks Work effectively in uncertain environments Influence team behaviour to promote positive team outcomes Plan business ventures Recognise an opportunity Work autonomously Adapt to new situations

3.22 3.36 3.64 3.40 3.71 3.73 3.03 3.80 3.30 3.97 3.98 2.97 3.95 3.98 4.17

0.81 0.95 1.08 0.80 0.84 1.20 0.90 1.05 0.60 1.04 0.98 0.83 1.37 0.71 0.88

0.760 0.887 1.035 0.728 0.900 1.220 1.237 1.000 0.624 1.112 1.077 0.756 1.500 0.762 1.039

0.784 0.783 0.773 0.708 0.703 0.680 0.670 0.658 0.657 0.645 0.610 0.599 0.570 0.523 0.458

#3 Business Function

2.067/ 0.839 3.389

Knowledge of accounting Knowledge of financial systems Knowledge of general principles of law relating to business Knowledge of marketing

2.61 3.08 2.86 2.82

0.52 0.81 0.80 0.70

0.456 0.710 0.664 0.690

0.835 0.804 0.781 0.732

#4 Technical Management

1.967/ 0.880 3.225

Manage a project Mentor Reach a timely independent decision Apply knowledge in practice Build positive customer relations Apply discipline knowledge to solution of problems of an unfamiliar nature Apply discipline knowledge to solution of problems of a familiar nature Deep knowledge of a specific discipline

3.98 3.45 3.86 4.35 3.98 4.02 4.17 3.83

1.13 0.86 0.95 1.10 0.90 1.22 0.68 0.59

1.155 0.829 1.025 1.370 0.813 1.338

0.757 0.566

0.760 0.704 0.695 0.693 0.672 0.668

0.661 0.657

#5 Team Worker

1.792/ 0.794 2.937

Behave in a non-judgmental manner Respond positively to feedback Appreciation of cultural diversity Reflect on own performance Interpret team dynamics Awareness of roles and responsibilities of team members

3.99 4.22 3.86 4.20 3.84 4.00

0.69 0.77 0.31 1.01 1.01 0.85

0.743 0.935 0.320 1.167 1.061 0.919

0.763 0.682 0.658 0.623 0.589 0.553

#6 Interprofessional Collaboration

1.594/ 0.845 2.613

Adapt one’s own skills and knowledge to fit with other professionals Work collaboratively with other professions Work in an interdisciplinary team Communicate effectively with non-experts Appreciation of the client's perspective

4.09 4.36 4.25 4.16 4.29

0.90 1.00 0.83 1.17 1.14

1.061 1.158 0.935 1.299 1.165

0.807 0.766 0.698 0.693 0.670

#7 Leadership Antecedence

1.429/ 0.713 2.343

Effective written communication skills Effective oral communication skills Strong action orientation Drive to succeed

4.52 4.45 4.12 4.40

1.34 1.01 0.87 0.65

1.660 1.294 1.070 0.875

0.710 0.694 0.609 0.556

#8 Progress

1.358/ 0.839 2.227

Knowledge of commercialisation pathways Understanding of technology valuation Understand emerging technology and its potential impact Understanding of new product/service development processes

3.25 3.06 3.66 2.99

1.12 0.84 0.77 0.87

1.021 0.709 0.743 0.801

0.788 0.766 0.715 0.708

#9 Improve

1.235/ 0.828 2.024 Responsibility for continuing professional learning

Initiative for continuing professional learning 4.07 4.01

0.52 0.62

0.580 0.680

0.833 0.810

#10 Create

1.195/ 0.794 1.958

Acquire new external knowledge Assimilate new external knowledge with existing knowledge Create new knowledge

4.32 4.36 4.00

0.71 0.83 0.80

0.914 1.089 0.782

0.716 0.610 0.564

Cumulative % of Variance: 63.5

38

Table4:SecondorderEFAresolvedtwometaconstructsthatsuggestorganisationalfitand

organisationalsuccessunderpintheindustryresponsetoskillsrequirements.Column2

providesthederivedEigenvaluesandCronbachα(CA)values.

Metaconstruct Eigenvalue / CA % of Variance SkillsFields Factor

Loading

#1OrganisationalFit

5.558/ 0.635

55.583

KnowledgeInterprofessionalismCreateTeamWorkerLeadershipAntecedenceImprove

0.872 0.792 0.789 0.745 0.734 0.705

#2OrganisationalSuccess

1.272/ 0.678

12.716

EnterpriseLeadershipProgressBusinessFunctionTechnicalManagement

0.895 0.849 0.822 0.816

Cumulative%ofVariance 68.299

39

Figure1:Conceptualframeworkoftheinnovationandcommercialisationindustrydisplayingthe

typesoforganisationsandtheirrelationshiptothepipelineprocess.Abbreviationsused:R&D=

researchanddevelopment,R&d=researchandinitialdevelopment.