C 1-f A P T E R 3 1

ConclusionsJames G. Dickson’

US Forest ServiceSouthern Research Station, Nucogdoches, TX

In this chapter I recapture some of the salient points ofthe book, and offer some recommendations. Most of thematerial is taken from individual chapters of the bookand readers are referred to appropriate chapters for moredetailed information.

PEOPLE

Since arriving in the South over 10,000 years ago,humans have had profound effects on the land and itswildlife. In recent years these impacts on southernecosystems have increased as a direct result of the

human population; and its growth and influence on nat-ural resources. About 100 million people now live in theSouth. In the last 25 years, the human population ofSouth Carolina. Georgia, and FIorida has about doubled.This burgeoning human population has tremendousdemands on and profound effects on the land. Peopleneed places to live, and food and fiber; but also wantwilderness and wildlife.

The very nature of the people is changing too. Whatonce was a rural population is now an urban and subur-ban population. More than two-thirds of the peoplereside in metropolitan areas in each of the 13 southeast-

‘Current Address: School of Forestry. Louisiana Tech University. Ruston. LA

419

420 CONCLLJSIONS

In the South today the human population is burgeoning and predominantly urban (T Ho/brook).

ern States, except Kentucky, Mississippi, and Arkansas(U.S. Dep. Commerce 1995). Over the last severaldecades, populations in some rural counties have evendropped. Southerners who once were closely tied to theland and its capability, find themselves out of touchwith the land. Although this trend probably will contin-ue, many people still have a heritage and ties to theland. Hunting still is important to many who live in theSouth as well as to the region’s economy. For example,about one-third of the nation’s duck hunters and almosthalf of the total number of ducks harvested comes fromthe South. Although fewer people hunt today, theopportunity to hunt still is important. In addition, a widearray of southerners are interested in wildlife, and enjoyrelated activities such as wildlife viewing (See Chapter30, Wildlife Recreation).

Also, our technological advances have increasedour capacity to affect southern forest systems. The axe.fire brand. and plow are virtually gone. Now, large-

scale changes to the landscape are being wrought bymachines that dig coal, construct shopping malls, anddam rivers to form reservoirs. Also, there has been mis-use of some chemicals, such as pesticides. And thelong-term effects of some effluents remain largelyunknown.

LAND

The southern landscape always has been in a state offlux; changing in response to both natural and anthro-pogenic forces. Forests have dominated the South forthousands of years, although they have undergone pro-found changes. During the glacial period southernforests underwent drastic changes in response to climat-ic shifts. Historically and recently, wind storms, insects,and diseases have played a significant role in shapingthese forests. And humans have substantially changedthe landscape. For example, the once vast cypress

CONCLUSIONS 421

forests were cut to provide decay-resistant wood forhouses, boats, and other products. The once extensivebottomlands of the Mississippi Valley were cleared andreplaced by row crops. The forests of the South todayhave been molded by a wide variety of forces for a verylong time.

Data from the last half century have shown that thetotal area of forestland in the South has remained rela-tively constant. Although some land that was cleared isbeing restored to forest, the future forest land base prob-ably will decrease with the increased demands of agrowing human population. Also, even with the increas-es in young pine plantations, southern forests have agedsomewhat in the last 50 years. However, with increas-ing utilization of young hardwoods and pines, aging ofsouthern forests is not expected to continue, except onpublic land.

Currently, there are some programs such as theConservation Reserve and Wetland Reserve which sup-port the restoration of bottomland to forest. Also, thereis some effort, particularly on Federal land, to restorelongleaf pine and other mature upland ecosystems.

Several exotic and other pests may threaten naturalsystems and native species of the South. Some historicand current examples illustrate. The American chestnutonce was a dominant tree of the Appalachian Mountains,but was eliminated by the chestnut blight. The health oftoday’s oak forests is diminished by the gypsy moth. Thebalsam wooly adelgid threatens the Fraser fir forestshigh in the Blue Ridge Mountains. Dogwoods, which areimportant aesthetically as well as for wildlife food, arethreatened by dogwood anthracnose. Chinese tallow treeis invading and dominating prairie and bottomlandecosystems. The imported fire ant certainly negativelyaffects some species of native fauna, such as the north-em bobwhite (Mueller et al. 1999). And wild hogs com-pete with native species for hard mast during years ofshortage, and may adversely affect sensitive ecosystemsby their rootings and wallows.

WILDLIFE AND WILDLIFE HABITAT

There are hundreds of species of southern wildlife, andno general statement can describe their status or role insouthern ecosystems. In a broad sense, wildlife commu-nities are associated with and have changed in responseto habitat changes, and sometimes other factors.Migratory species depend on and are influenced bybreeding and wintering habitat often disjunct and quitedifferent from their southern habitat. Some neotropicalmigratory birds that have suffered recent population

declines probably are negatively affected by loss offorested wintering habitat in the tropics. Also, winteringduck populations in the South are greatly affected bybreeding habitat conditions in the northern prairie pot-hole region, which may vary year to year depending onland use, precipitation, and other factors.

The importance of habitat to vertebrate communi-ties is illustrated by the wildlife habitat relationships ofmature bottomland hardwoods. Southern bottoms areimportant wintering waterfowl habitat. Acorns are animportant winter food; and oak detritus and inverte-brates are nutritionally important for prebreeding woodducks and mallards. Also, southern bottomlands supporthigh densities of wintering birds that breed further north(Dickson 1978); as well as provide important breedinghabitat for a wide variety of birds, including severalspecies of concern, such as the prothonotary warbler,Swainson’s warbler, and swallow-tailed kite.

Some recent changes in wildlife populations appearto be associated with the aging of southern forests andthe loss of early-successional habitat due to clean farm-ing and improved pasture. Rabbits, ruffed grouse, north-em bobwhites, prairie warblers, Bachman’s sparrowsand other species associated with herbaceous habitathave declined in recent years. Bobwhites and quailhunting have declined since the 1940s. Bird dogs, oncea common southern sight, are rarely seen now. Thewhistle of the bobwhite has been replaced by the gobbleof the wild turkey.

With settlement and the exploitation of naturalresources, a few species, such as the passenger pigeonand the Carolina parakeet, have become extinct. Other

In recent decades, species associated with early-successional habi-tat generally have declined. For example, the whistle of the northernbobwhite has been replaced by the gobble of the wild turkey (J.Dickson).

The wild turkey-What an amazing wildlife success story, the return of America’s bird throughout the South, and the rest of forested NorthAmerica (D. Baumann).

species, however, have benefitted from our efforts torestore and manage them. Populations of several gamespecies, such as white-tailed deer, black bear, wildturkey, and wood duck were drastically reduced, andextirpated from vast areas. But they have been restoredand now thrive in appropriate habitat throughout theregion. Deer are found in every county in the South.Black bear range continues to expand, and populationsincrease where there are large blocks of suitable habitat.The number of bears in the South has increased six-foldover the last 30 years.

Also in recent years. there have been successes withsome nongame species of concern. Restrictions on pes-ticides, active management, and also probably reser-voirs and their fish populations have benefitted ospreyand bald eagles. In mature pine habitat. red-cockadedwoodpeckers are benefitting from habitat managementand specific measures such as artificial cavity insertsand translocations. River otter now play where they

have been absent for a long time. And in marsh systemsalligators are faring well again. Many of these specieshave proven far more resilient and adaptable than oncethought.

People/wildlife interactions are common now andare likely to increase as the human population and sub-urbia expand. In the South today, beaver dams andflooding are widespread, deer are eating yard plants,bears are feeding at garbage dumps and bird feeders,and alligators are showing up in swimming pools. Itseems ironic that state agencies that were restoring keyspecies such as deer a few decades ago, now are work-ing to resolve people/wildlife conflicts with some ofthese same species. Resolving conflicts can be particu-larly difficult because of the emotional and widelydivergent views held by the public regarding the controlof nuisance wildlife.

Species that are expected to fare well in the futureare those that are widely adapled to liuman- altered con-

CONCLUSIONS 423

It seem ironic that wildlife managers, who a few decades ago were restoring species, now are resolving people-wildlife conflicts (USDA WildlifeServices).

ditions, such as the ubiquitous coyote, raccoon, rockdove, and mockingbird. On the other hand, there is con-cern for species that have limited distribution, such asforest interior species, may have population viabilityproblems, or be otherwise imperiled, such as the swal-low-tailed kite and Swainson’s warbler. Also, there isconcern for the probable declines of some species ofvertebrate groups, such as bats, amphibians, and rep-tiles, for which our information is sparse.

THE FUTURE

For the future, particular efforts will be necessary torestore natural systems that have been decimated and toprotect and manage sensitive systems that are threat-ened. Managers need to address and emphasize ecosys-tem integrity rather than individual species. However,specific management measures may be necessary tocreate or maintain desired conditions. or to control for-est diseases, and insect and vertebrate pests.

We need more complete information to managesouthern wildlife effectively. We know little about the

The beaver and its activities often are at odds with man’s land useo b j e c t i v e s .

status or trends of many species, or even the life histo-ry of some. Long-term monitoring and research willfoster understanding of ecosystems’ function, and bettermanagement of forest communities and species.

424 CONCLUSIONS

T h e r e i s c o n c e r n f o r s o m e s p e c i e s t h a t a r e l i m i t e d i n d i s t r i b u t i o n o r a r e o t h e r w i s e i m p e r i l e d , s u c h a s t h i s s w a l l o w - t a i l e d k i t e ( T e m p l e - / n / a n d C o r p . ) .

State and Federal wildlife agencies deal with frag-mented and polarized users. To be successful in thefuture these agencies will have to receive public supportfrom a broader constituency. It is easy for people toassociate with individual animals. But generatingexcitement for wildlife populations or habitat is not soeasy. Wildlife agencies must generate enthusiastic sup-port of the public interested in the nonconsumptiveaspects of wildlife and develop from them a soundfinancial and political base.

Although obvious challenges lie ahead in our effortsto maintain forest systems and their wildlife communi-ties, all is not gloomy. Although most southerners nolonger live in rural areas, many still are interested inwildlife. We have reforested much of the South. Wehave had some successes in managing wildlife wherewe have identified and addressed problems. We haverestored primary game and some imperiled nongamespecies. And our southern forest systems and wildlifecommunities remain very resilient.