Build a Real Universal Turing Machine

Build a Real Universal Turing Machine By now had all necessary ideas… 1946 Turing’s plans got approval

Automatic Computing Engine (ACE) Progress was slow – lack of cooperation Turing without influence, disillusioned (…full ACE was not actually complete until 1957 (obsolete))

1947 Turing back to Cambridge Interest in Neurology Wrote early paper on Neural Nets Believed complex mechanical system could exhibit learning ability

1948 Turing and Champernowne wrote a chess program (for a computer that did not yet exist.)

1948 Manchester Computer completed Turing accepted post as deputy director Worked on software for Manchester Mark I 1950 “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” published … but became more interested in biology - morphogenesis

Alan Turing

““The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. helpful.

In considering the functions of the mind or In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be in what remains we find a further skin to be

stripped off, and so on. stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to

the skin which has nothing in it? In the the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”

Turing’s End March 1952 Arrested for “Gross Indecency”

No denial - Saw no wrong with his actions

Convicted – given choice Prison Oestrogen injections

Lost security clearance for GCHQ June 1954

Why apple?

Conspiracy theories… Security risk

Recognition: Turing Award established (ACM, 1966)

And three others…

Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)

Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)

Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)

1956 Dartmouth Conference: 1956 Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIThe Founding Fathers of AI

John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon

Ray Solomonoff

Alan Newell Herbert Simon

Arthur Samuel

Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI

John McCarthy

First degree in mathematics Graduate work on finite automata Got interested in digital computers after

Summer working at IBM Was teaching at Dartmouth

Brought together the researchers

Labelled the field “Artificial Intelligence”

Later… Worked on Formal Logic side of AI Invented LISP programming language Won Turing Award in 1971


Marvin MinskyLater… Society of Mind idea Work on artificial neural networks:

proved perceptrons can’t solve some problems Work in theoretical Computer Science:

2-pushdown-stack automaton = Turing Machine Won Turing Award in 1969 Recent book: The Emotion Machine

1951 built a neural net out of vacuum tubes,to train a simulated rat to get out of a maze

Combined learning with planning ahead in his Ph.D. thesis


Claude Shannon

Most famous of all participants,

but not for AI….Worked on analogue computer

with cogs and wheelsShowed that electromechanical

relay switches could solve boolean algebra problems

digital instead of analogue Lead to digital calculators

1948 “A Mathematical Theory of Communication”1950 created mechanical mouse

Could find its way out of a maze Learnt from experience

1950 wrote about chess playing computer programMade a fortune in Las Vegas applying his maths to roulette etc.


Ray Solomonoff

Algorithmic Probability probability of some string having been generated

by an algorithm

Applied to Induction Optimal Machine Learner

Theoretical idea… Not computable But can be approximated


Herbert Simon

Originally a political scientist – how bureaucracies function Became interested in organisational decision making Around 1954 he decided…

best way to study problem-solving is to simulate on computer Developed experimental technique of verbal protocol analysis Interested in role of knowledge in expertise 1978 won Nobel Prize in Economics

““Over Christmas, Over Christmas, Allen Newell and I Allen Newell and I

created created a thinking machine.”a thinking machine.”

January 1956January 1956


Alan Newell

1955 designed a chess playing program

Later… 1983 Developed SOAR architecture

Attempting a unified theory of cognition


Alan Newell Herbert Simon

1956 Logic Theory Machine Saw that theorem proving can be reduced to search Search tree to find a proof for a theorem Considered to be first AI program

1957 General Problem Solver Heuristics Means-ends analysis

1975 won Turing Award


Arthur Samuel

Developed a checkers playing program Developed alpha-beta tree idea Made his program learn to improve itself 1962 his program beat a state champion

McCarthy et al 1955

““We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out of artificial intelligence be carried out

during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. College in Hanover, New Hampshire.

The study is to proceed on the basis of the The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or conjecture that every aspect of learning or

any other feature of intelligence can in any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a principle be so precisely described that a

machine can be made to simulate it. machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to An attempt will be made to find how to

make machines use language, form make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and problems now reserved for humans, and

improve themselves. We think that a improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or significant advance can be made in one or

more of these problems if a carefully more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it selected group of scientists work on it

together for a summer.”together for a summer.”

1956 Dartmouth Conference: What was achieved?1956 Dartmouth Conference: What was achieved?

Not much People didn’t agree on the format and weren’t all there together Newell and Simon didn’t spend much time…

Too busy working on their logic theorist

McCarthy was disappointed But got people to know each other…

Main Thrusts of Work in Early Days…

1. Reduce the search tree for search programs For example, search programs for: Logic Theorems Geometry theorems Algebra

2. Make computers learn for themselves For example: Chess playing machines Checkers playing machines Pattern recognition

AI Developments from 1956 - 1963

Herbert Simon, 1957

““It is not my aim to surprise or shock you – It is not my aim to surprise or shock you – but the simplest way I can summarize is to but the simplest way I can summarize is to

say that there are now in the world say that there are now in the world machines that can think, that can learn and machines that can think, that can learn and

that can create. that can create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until – in a visible going to increase rapidly until – in a visible

future – the range of problems they can future – the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied.”which the human mind has been applied.”

Newell and Simon’s progress…

Discovered that humans don’t really act like Logic Theorist Psychologists Moore and Anderson had pioneered “think aloud”

experiments Other AI researchers were merely concerned with programs that

performed well Newell and Simon wanted programs that solved problems in the

same ways as humans They branched off… More Cognitive Science than core AI

Developed the general problem solver (GPS) Using heuristics Using means-end analysis Solved monkey-chair-banana type problems

Work at IBM…

Minsky hired Herbert Gelernter to work on new IBM 704 Geometry Theorem Prover Gave visual input of geometry problem by coding it in (not camera) This input reduced branching factor from 1000 to 5 Took Gelernter 3 yrs to program it (much longer than expected)

Also at IBM Samuel working on his checkers program Alex Bernstein working on chess program

Trouble at IBM…

AI work noticed by popular press Publicity attracted attention of IBM shareholders Asked T. J. Watson (president of IBM)

explain why research dollars were being used for "frivolous matters"

IBM noticed that customers were frightened of idea of "electronic brains" and "thinking machines“

1960 Internal report prepared recommended IBM stop AI IBM told customers

computers will only do what they were told

Bernstein became psychiatrist Gelernter became physicist Samuel went to Europe

McCarthy’s progress…

Developed LISP programming language List Processing Makes it easy to program AI ideas Makes it easy for a program to alter its own instructions McCarthy wanted programs to add to their own

commonsense To deduce consequences

Started looking at IF-THEN rules (like later expert systems) LISP was heavy on computer power – more useful in 1970s

McCarthy also pioneered idea of time-sharing computers

Minsky’s progress at MIT…

Sputnik left US behind technologically US created DARPA 1963 MIT got over $2M for Machine Aided Cognition MAC project brought MIT about $3M a year in grants thereafter

Minsky’s student James Slagle worked on SAINT program Solved symbolic integration problems Later evolved into MACSYMA

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Build a Real Universal Turing Machine