8/11/2019 Block 3 ES 332 Unit 1

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UNIT

THE NATURE OF THE

LEARNING PROCESS

Structure

9.1 Introduction

9.2 0bjecti1,es

9.3 Conccpt of Lcanliilg

9 . 1 'nl c L-'s\,chologist~s iews on L ea nin g

9.3. 2 Characteristics of Le~mnling

9.3.3

Behaviours not Attributable to Learning

9 . 1 The Lean ung Process

9.5 Principles of Leanu ng

9 6

Conditions A ffecting Leanu ng

9.7 Learning and Maturntion

9 8

Verbal Leanullg

9 I h e Nature of Verl~al camlllg

9.8.2 Process

o f

Vei-bal Leamulg

9 .8 .3 Implication li)r Classroom Practice

9.9 Leanung of Concepts

9 Na111rt. r Corrcej)ts

9 9.2

Process of Concept A ttaiiunent

9.10 Modes of Leanling

9.10.1 Leanling by Observation

9.10.2 Letuning by l~u itatio n

9.10.3 I,ei~rlllnp v

Trial

ai d Error

9.10 .4 Leanling by Insight

9.1 Transfer of Learning

'1.1 1 I Meaning and Na t~ u e f Transl'er ol'Lean ling

9.11.2 Types

of

Transfer of Leanling

0.11.3 Ir~iplicationsor School

9.12 Let Us S u~ li p

13 Unit-end Escrc iscs

9.14 Answers to Check Your Progress

9.15 Suggested Readings

9 1

INTRODUCTION

We Il;i.rfe discusse d in Bloc k 2 that all learners are not alike. They an: unique in tt~em scl\.es.

They ma . dlffcr in their l~ien tal apacities. interests. attitudes and values. They may also differ

b irtuc of their bei ng ilialc or female: rich or poor, of one caste or the othcr. You Iia\*c lso

studied how individual

differences

can be esptained on tllc basis of em.iroiunenta1 and

hereditary factors.

I ~ ~ t l u s u n i t .e shall discuss how learningtakesplacc inaa n in di ~i dl l ;~ la ~i dw la t

re

tlic guiding

principles of leanling. You w ill lean1 conditions of leanling. n~a tura lion nd the proccss of

leanling . You \\:ill also study the \.arious iilodcs or learning. Due i~n portailce as bccn laid on

\ferbal Icarning ;lnd lcarning o r conccpts. Iliiportant rroiil tl c teacher's point o r .rrie\~s the

kno\vledge of tllc proccss of tc~lls fer f leanling. Tllc nature and hp es of tr a l~ f c r f leanling

have bee n discusse d. Th e rolc of tllc teacher in llclping students to acquire the skill of transfcr

of leanu ng llas beell higl~lightcd .

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I I ~ P ~ S ~ : I I I ~ ~ I I ~l ~ r

2 ~ ~ i l r l i i l ~ g

rocess

9.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit. you sl~ ou ld e ablc to:

cspl ain tlie nature a nd principles o f the leaniing process:

illustrate the conditions inf li~e~ icingearning:

describe the various modes of learning: and

discuss the use of transfer of trailling in the new situation

9 3 CONCEPT OF LEARNING

What is leanling?How do we learn? These are sollie of Ule questions wh ich should be ansn.ered

by each one of us?of course. in our o~ v n

wy

he answ ers to the questions provide us a sorulid

bas is fo r under standing the nature of leanling. It is tllercfore uec es sa g that :ve should an;il se

the liaturc of learning from different angles. Learning occupies an iniportanl placc in

everybody's life

i11

the fanlily, and in scho ol. Schools are set up by soc iety for its children to

leanl. The children interact with the school en viro ~uu ent nd lean1 to ad just.

Let us tw to understand the c oncept of learning from p sych olog ~sts' oint of view. According

to this view-po int. the organism. f mm tllc nioinent of birth rather from tlie tiine of conception,

is surrounded by some kind of en~riromnent.Thc organism does not simply live in the

environment but is also acted upon by it.

In

tu rn the organism also acts upon the en\~iroiunent.

All s uch a ction-re action beha viours invo1k.e cliarlges and iiiodifications in (lie organism. Tlus

kind of change or modification is tenned 'lean~iiig'.Tliese 'changes can bc ii~tentional.

deliberate and controlled, or lnay take place witliout intention. i~ an uncol~trolled lap;izard

mann er. This may involve mod ification in various aspcc ts of belxr\:iour psycho-motor

beliaviorrr. verba l behaviour. cmolio nal bcliaviour or. in all its possibility. a conlbillatio: of

two o r niore of t les c aspects of belia\~iour.Tlius tlic ps cliologists ' \.ie\v poilit liolds ~ia t

leanling is a behavionral lnodificatioli due to tlic interaction bcl we c~ i lie orga~lisn i ~ ldhc

ern .i ro iunent ~ i ~a ki ngn impac t on the orgaiiisln itself.

9 3 1

Th e Psychologists Views on Learning

Many attciilpts lxive beell nude to define leanling. vet.

a

dcfiilitio~l

cceptable

to all has not

been cvolved. However, these definitions help us in visualizing fro111 different angles what

takes place d uring liuman learning. Mnnn defined learning 'as the process of be ing nlodificd.

more o r less pcnlianently, by w hat l ~ p p c n sn the world around us. by what we do. or by n.liat

\ye obscwe'. According to Huiider and Hilgard. 'leanling is the proccss

by

which beha\iour

(in the broad er sense) is originated or changed tluougli tr;iining procedures (whether in the

natural en~.iro~unentr in tlie laboraton.)'. For Boaz 'leaniing is

a

process by nbich tlie

individual ac quires various l~a bits , no\vledgc and attitudes that are necessary to m eet the

delllalid of life gc nc r~ l'. n the sallic waj. Geoch has also gi\.en a flcsible definition that

.learning a s \ye Incasu re it is m:re or less a penllanellt c1i;ingc in bcl ia\.io ur \vliich occu rs undcr

the mori\~arional onditions of p ~ic ticc '.

Co~ni ll il ls nd Fagin h a ~ e escribed 'leaniing as a sequence of illeiltal events or conditions

lcading to cllangcs in the

learner..

Tlic?. have fiirtlier elaborated the sequence of lncnlal e~ c li ts

(or llic process of learning) as follows:

Tlle lcanicr llas needs (or goals) and is Illerefore 111

a

slate of readiness to respo~ldTlic

readiness is Iiecessaq for learning lo take placc.

The leanicr niects a problem (or leanling situation) bj, solving whicli his need(s) is (are)

Ilkcly lo bc

satisfied.

But for solving it a new in1crprcta:ion is require d becaus e pre\,iousl .

lcanled responses are inadequate for reacliiug the goal (or solution) and satis[>-iug iis

need ^).

Conscquent l~ ,ic intcrprets the situation with reference to his goals, and trics responseis )

\vlucli scenis to satisf?- his nce d(s). Tlle way lie pcrceives the situa tion (or proble m) and

thc rcsponse he iilakcs depends on thc 'readiness' of the learner and external coi~ditioils

of the situation or tlie problem.

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11is cspollsc Ici~dso the acl i ic~ .en~e ntf lus goal (or satisfaction of lus needs), he will

l l c

~ t o r e

f the I ca~mblg

rurrss

tend to interpret iuid respond to similar situations in future in the same way. Otllenvise.

lie keeps 011 t ~ i n gnd rc-intcrpretiiig tlie problem until satisfying conse quen ces/r ea~I ts

are acliie\ ed

On ailal sing tlie abovc and sinular other esp la~lati ons nd definitions of leaniing we can easily

infer tliat:

11ierc are ccrtain g c n c ~ il lui~icteristics f leariiing: illid

therc arc filcto~ s~ l i i c hnfluence leanung

9 3 2

Chal acteristics

o

Learning

A close look at the psycliologist's view o n learning reve als tliat there is a basic agreenient that

.learn ing' refers to sollie kind of cluinge in beluiviour arising fron i tlie experience of tlie learner.

Also. leanling involves hvo coiiiplemcntary processes:

Differentiation . that i s a process of div iding tlie tvhole into its colnponen t parts, and

I n t e g r a t i o ~ ~hat is a process of c onibining tlie parts into a new whole.

For example, J 011 nuglit have obse rved

a

youn g lea rner disiirantling a toy into several pieces.

Through

tlus act the learner attenipts to understand tlie structure or functioning of the toy by

breaking it into its conipone nts. This may be followed by an attenipts to put together all the

disniantled piece s to rebuilt the originiii toy. i.e..

integration

to

a

new whole.

I,e a~ kin g s goal tlirccted o r 1)urposive E v e q human being aspires to achieve sonie goals

111lus l~ f e hese goals Ins be achievable niuiiediately or 111a longer duration of time. w hich

nl e call 'shod-ternl' goals or tlie 'long -tenii' goals

If

these goals are stated in an explicit and

defimte manner. leamulg beconics nieaiun gfi~l nd purposive for tlie leanier

Le iim ing is iui iictivc process Suppose, as

a

teacher, you w ant your students to learn tlie

matlie~natlcalmultlplicatlon tables froni two to ten. A s far a s the purpose of learning in t h s

case is concerned.

11

know it prc c~s ely nd explicitly. Now how would youp roce ed to aclueve

tlils goa l? Perh aps. u n.111 present th e table s on e by one orally and ask the students to repeat

tlic tables wit11 you ln tlic coursc of doing so, aftcr some time the students would learn tlie

tables b~ lieuxt The g rcater the effort on tlie part o f the student, the better will he learn the

tables Thus wc se e tluit learning IS

a

for ni ctivity, rather a self-activity on the part of the

student

Lei11-ning s i nd iv id ui~ l Yo11 rniglit liavc observed tliat in a class there

re

some students wh o

learn thiugs quickl? w hile others learn it slowly. In fact. the rate of learning differs froin person

to person. In a class c v e y student is a unique person and he h s his own problerns, needs.

purposes. asp~ ra t io r~ .nterests. likes and dislikes. Due to differences in suc h personality traits

the students d~ffern the rate and alnount of learning.

Lcii iming is the outc ome of the interact ion of th e individual with the total s i tuat ion A

sh~denteanis by responding to tlie total leanu ng sitllation and not inth e context of sonie single

stimulus Moreover. in tlie act of doing so, all the three aspects of

a

learner's persolxllity:

physical, intellecttial and em otional, are affected. Therefore. a good teacher. o n the o ne luind.

sets tlic env~ ro~ uiie ntarciully for fraliung

a

leaniing situation and o n the other hand, lie takes

car: of the various m otiva ting f:ictors w lucli affect the learner.

Lea rn i ng is cre ativ e Learning is nct ~n cr el y ulnniing up of previous experiences, rather it

is the creative synthesis of the know ledge and experiences of the learner. In this sense learning

is

a

I;c\\. way of acting. an d it aims at higher level of thinlung wluch we call crea tive o r critica l

think ing. He re creative tliinkilig is tiof being u sed intl le strictly tecllnical sense. It siniply poiuts

ro\vards the lncntal process sugg ested by Crow and Crow. According to them critical tllinking

in\-ol\.cs lic follo \~.ing iiental rocesses:

Direction o this process interests and attention of tlie learner are directed towards a

goal.

Int cll) rct iitio n n tllis process llie leanier sees tlie relations betwee n \~iirious ypes of

infor~iiatlon \railable to him.

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the

Lean ing

Process

Selection

t is tllc proccss of recalling 2nd

selecting

such past cxpericnccs ~vhlch re

useful to

tlic Icanicr for u ~nd cnta ndin g lic net\. Icaniing sihia tion.

Insight

During tllis process Ilic lear~icr eco g~ li~ cslie relationships anlong the net\.

cxpcriellccs.

Creation t d eals wit11 the formation of ncw mental pattenls.

Criticism t is tlic process of c\,aluation of tllc feasibiliv of tlle sollition found by

fonn ing nc\v mental pattenls.

Le;iming is tr;msfer;rble

Whcn kno\vlcdge gained by interacting with some sihiation is

applicd to dcal wit11

a

new situation meaningfi~llg.ve say that lcanling is

transferred.

You

sllould note that tra~ lsfe rispo ssib lc etween the two situations, ifthe re is identity of the context,

idcnlit of proce durcs and identity of

attitudes

and ideals. For example. when nleasurelnellt is

taught in tlie classroom. the problems. escrcises or examples of everyday life arc used to

csplain the concept. This nlay be the \veiglit or the cost of vegetablcs in the market place. it

nxjy be t l lc area co~~eredy

a

square piece of furniture in your roonl and so on. All these

exainplcs represent the transfer of learning. Transfer of lean ung nlay take place fro m one field

of study to anollier an d fro111 the c lassroon l situations to th e real life situa tions, and thus this

cliaractcristic leads to econonly in leanung.

9.3.3 Behaviours not Attributable to Learning

We 1w.e discussed that

a

nlodification or change in beha\,iour is called 'leanu ng'. However

thcre are sonie bellaviours wh ich are du e to one o r the other type of m odifications yet these

are not tcnned 'learning'. For example. whcn

a

pi11 pricks ou r fing er. we withdraw it fro111 he

pin. Sinil arlg . ~ v h en very bright light falls

11

our eyes, we inmediately close our eyelids.

Such bchaviours are instant and we even do not feel that we are putting in any special effort.

These bch a~.i our s o not fall undc rthe Icanling cate goq ather these

are

called 'reflex actions.

Thcrc is anotllcr catcgon of beha\iours con~nionlykno\vn as 'biological instincts'. For

example.

a

cluld starts c n i~ ig

hen

lie feels Ilun gq: \ve feel like taking rest \\p hc ~iircd: \\ e are

attracted towards the opposite sex. Such bchaviours are natural and not Icanled, thercforc \ye

do not call tllcm leamcd beha\.iours

Sometimes niod iricatio~l r change in beha\.iours takes place due to accidents or ps,-cl~ological

dcfects. For esamplc liinpi~ig lovenlc~lts f

a ~ C T S O L I

fter ~ilee ting n accident or stammering

in spcecll due to som e dcfect in tongue. Wc again exclude such beluviours from the category

of learned beha\.iours. Si~lu larly ,here are some motor actio~lsvl~ ich child can perfon11 only

at a cc rta i~l ge. For instance, to sit with propcr posture. to ~v al k\,it11 steady step s, etc ., ilre

attained after a speclfic age. The beliavioun \vl~ ich re the o utcomcs o r maturity of the child

arc not called Icamed belia\~ iom . o \\,ever, in most of such cascs. mafurit and learning both

play their roles simultaneously and therefore it becomes difficult to dctcmline \vllich of tlie

two sh ould be hold responsible fo r the behaviou r. We \\;ill discuss tlus point in details later in

this Unit.

Check Your PI ogress1

Notes a) Write your aiw ver s in the space given below .

b) Compare your answers

\tit11

those given at the end of the unit.

i) Why is kno\vledge of the 'lean ung process' useful for a teacher

ii)

Sclcct Boaz dcrinitiom of the lcanling process. and e xp lai ~l hich of tlie characteristics

or lcaming t c~npll;lsises.

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9.4 THE LEARNING PROCESS

Hie Nature

o

the Leanlull Yrcwess

Uilderstandi~lg he l ea nl ~n g rocess is one of the most i~nportan t reas of study of educational

psychology. Tbe process of le anling continues througliout life. All human beings lean1 one

kind of beh av~ our r the o ther. There are various leanling processes tluough \vliicl~ e acquire

bclicfs. attitudes. and skills. The effect of leaning can be seen in our behaviour. our

pcrroimances at the stage as

a

music ian a dancer or a speaker. Our success in the jobs we are

cnguged in depends on the quality of le ~ m i n g e have gained tlwough our professional trailling.

You nugllt 1~ al.e bserved tllat a cluld begins to l ean ljust d t e r lus birth. At birth lie is practically

l~clp less nd depends to a great extent o n lus parents a nd other meinbers of the fanlily for his

sun i\:al. But as llc grons;lie acquirc s skills., hrough the process of leanung. wluch ~ l u k ei ~ l l

indcpcildcnt. and in duc course of time, a supporting member to lus family too. His early

cliildliood nio~.cnrcntsarc not \t r y distinct and specific but in due course of time these

n i o \ ~ c~ nen t sec on ~c irection-specific a i d ineaiungful. He soon learns that some objects, if

not Iwndled propcrlj-. will cut o r piilcli or b um lus fingers. He lea nls to respect his elders. In

fact he continues to Icnr~ihroughout his life, and the quality of his learning detenlune s lus

personality.

9 5

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Various theories or lcariuilg have been proposed to ex plain the process of leanling as

a

result

of se\,eral cspcrilne~lts onduc ted on aiumals. Of these. the theories based o n Thorndike's

connectioiusm Gutheric's contiguous conditioiuilg and Wertlurner's gestalt have gained

popularit - in the ricld of educ ation. He re we shall discuss the principles of lean uiig deduced

from these lcan ung theories.

Li ~w f effect The principle of law of effect is called thc 1;nv of satisfaction. According to

this principle. \yhen

a

modifiable coilnectio~ i ehveen a situation and response is made and is

;~cc om pan icd r rollowed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the link with that

s i t~~at io l ls increased. W hen tlic colu~e ctions liladc in such a way tllat it is accoillpaiied or

l'ollo\ve d b

an

aluioying state or afrairs its strength is decreased. To uilderstand the tenw

'sa tisf ii~ ig late' a nd .aniio ;iilg state', let us take an esainple of rhymes and poeins leanled by

children in the classroom . You ~iu gll t uv c noticed that the teacher accom plisl~es lus task

tlirougll action-rccilation. In f a c t . ~ ~ o u n gliildren by tlieir very nature like nlo\~enlents nd

aclioils and \\Iiate\,cr is taught b imo lvin g thein in sollie kind of game or action gives theol

pleasure o r satisfaction. On thc o ther hand if the are illade to lean1 something after restricting

{heir usual uiovelncnts and i~ltcrcsts. heir lca nung is delayed and luimpered. l'his situation

bccoliics quite 'a~uio .ing' to th c ~ ~ i .

>; \\

of

intensity Thc satislying situation gives pleasure to the leanlcr aiid thus it rewards

him. Espcriments 1ial.e established that Ilie greater the reward the inore it facililalcs leanling.

t

points to tlle fact tlut the more the rew ard, the stronger is the inoti\latio n

; I I I ~

tronger the

moti\,ation. the Faster and surer is the l ea ni ng . This is called the lirw of intensit?. The time

gap etween thc rcspolise and re\vard is an iinportant factor in detem liiung tlie crfect of reward

on lcanling,.T l ~ cliortcr the timc bet\veen response and reward, stronger is tlie learning.

L i ~ n

f

~ ) r i ~ c t i c cYou uught have heard a popular saying that 'practice inakes perfect'. Tlus

pro\.crb is the gist of the princ iple of le anli ng kno\vn a s the la\\, of exe rcise. Tllis law siinpl .

points toiiards thc fact Illat

if

the tlungs leanlt are. repeated tiille a nd a gain. tlic ~ gain

pennancnce in thc lear~~er 's11emoq7. O n the othe r ha nd, if the le anie r does not inake use of

his learning. lic forgets it in due cours e of tim e. You iiuglit lu ve by now uiiderstood \vh we

ask ou r students lo rcpcat the math ema tical tables agaiii and ag ain or write a amis-spelled word

corrcctl I nun ~bc r r t il l lcs .

L;IW f rei~diness Therc is another principle called the law of readiness. Tn siinple words. the

;issualptioo behind this law is that \vithout a will lo learn there cannot be true leam iilg. The

\ \ i l l lo lc;~nis. in Tact. tlic preparedness or readiness of nuild. It is also tenlied as

motivation.

Tlicrc is

a

colnlno n sa .ing 'j- ou can lakc a horse to water but you caiulot make him drink'. In

tlic salnc way. iI'a stl ~d c~ its rorced to do a thing tvhcnh c is not ready to do it' we canno t expect

good rcsul ts i r o ~ uiini.

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I ~ ~ c l e ~ . s t a ~ ~ ~ l i r ~he L e : ~ n ~ h ~ grcress

Besides the pri~icip les iscussed above, there are other guiding priiiciples which you can usc

for encouraging learning in your students. Let us take a quick look at them:

For efficient leanling the ~ilateria lo be learnt should be presented in

ogrcnl ur?it \

irnd riot

piecemeal

Tlie lnore logical the sequence in the leanling activities or events. is the morc efficient is

tlie learn ing.

Le an in g is facilitated if the material is ~nea ningf ulo tlie students

The inore t l~ ective participation of the students. the more efficient is learning, wliicl~s

always us eh l for retention.

You should note that all the

principles

are pofcnt In themselves. but m a cla ssro o~n ituatin-.

they operate alniost simultaneously.

Check Your Progress

Notes

a) Write your answer in the space given below

b) Conipare your answer with the one given at the end of tlie unit

A one-day cricket n iatch between India and Anstralia is being played at Bonlba . and is co \cr cd

by

TV

and AIR. Tlic students are feeling restless in you r class. Explain their be lia ~io ur n tlic

basis of the principle(s) of lea nin g.

9.6 CONDITIONS AFFECTING LEARNING

Leanling does not take place in a \.acuum. It is in the context of some content (Icarni~rg

~naterial) .When we say that a student is learning, we just gi1.e an inconiplete sta tc 'n ~ c~ ~ t.

Vi

should say

a

student is leanu ng ~ v h a t? nd tlie answer to 11us 'wh at' indicatcs to\\ ilrds tllc

colilent a student is expected to lean1 or the ob* jecti~,e se is going to acli ie\, c. Besid cs Ical.ncr

and conte~it ,n a conventiollal classroom. there is

a

teacher wh o throug h [lie act of his tcaclii~lp

helps the students leani. Thus there are three categories of co~lditions v11icl1af fe c~ cal-ning

namely the co nditions related to contcllt. the teacher and the learner. Let us discuss tlrcsc ~ l ~ r c c

categories of conditions.

Fig

9 1

Conditiol~s cl:~ted o Content, Te i~che r

I I I C ~

St~nlellt

U~ lle ss ou lulow 'what to teach' and the st~ideiit nows 'what to learn',

t

will bc impossible

to c a p 11 the process of learning. The answers to these tsvo questions specify tlic contcnl or

the curriculmn. The activities, the objectives and the organisation of tlie curric ulu ~n etcn l~in c

the ~l at ur e f the learning process.

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Though Llle d~rect~vesor s tn~ cturing ean l~ng ~t i lat ionsn the classroonl are made available

TheN lture

Lr lnlillz

to \o il b the cum culuni. ~t 1s you who 'through ,our resowcefulness' can nmke intelligent

use o i hc cumculum Thus your

resourcefulness

is yet another factor

affecting

the leanu ng of

ur sh~dcnts

The conditions related to students are perhaps the most importanlt in facilitating efficient

learning. This is the reason why cducationisls stress on providiiig a favourable leanung

em:ironnlent to the students. W hether in school o r at llonle th student shouldb c given a calm,

c1e;in iglited and well-ventilated space for h s tudy and related activities. Tlus creates a proper

p11ysic:il a nd psycho logica l ern.iro nnle nt fo r lean ling .

Tlle physical an d mcn tal llealtli of the stude nt also affect his lca nun g. Oidy a pli ;sically and

nlcntally alert student ca n lean1 properly. Sometimes s tudents s l ~o \ \~eficiency in learning.

sinlpl bcca use tlley may not be properly nlo tivated, or they inay not be interested in what is

bciulg taught to th c ~n .t may bc because you nugllt have used defec tive nlethod of teaclung or

thc leanling ac ti\.itics .ou ha\ c cljosen are beyon d the ir maturity level. It is also possible that

tlie

student

is

over-burdened

due to heavy home assignnieilt given to him in one o r more

ac;rde~nicub.jccts. Sucli l p~ ic ti ce reates ululecessaq tension in the nund of the student and

;I(

tlie sanic tinic encroaches upon lus playing or relaxillg time. Consequ e~itly.he student feels

tired and bored in his study.

9 7 LEARNING AN D M ATURATION

111

the preceeding sec~iollsyou have seen that maturation is an inlportant factor ~vluch

influences learning. Thoug h m aturation and learning processes are closely related, yet these

rernls slio dd not be used interclangeably-. Maturation is a natural process. For nlaturation a n

c\Ternal still~uluss not nec ess ap . and its sequence is biologically predetermined. O n the other

hand leanling is a change in tlie indi~.idual nd is not a result of geiietic inheritance. It is a

process \~ luchakes placc as

a

result of 'stinluli' from '~vithout'.Activity, cxperience and

training lead to changc s in the bellaviour in the process of lean ung.

The beha\-iou r s said to have matured if

a

bellaviour sequence de velops through regular stages.

(irrcspecli\.e oTintcn.eniiig

practices

or training). Iftrailling procedures do not m odify or speed

up chc bcl\a\.iour. suclr proccdures are not inlportant and the changes are not classificd as

lcarning.

l'hc s\vi~ nm ing f tadpoles and the flying of birds can be attributed priillarily to maturdtion.

Bnl in thc casc of liulnan beings it is not easy to decide whether the activities result fro111

niaturatioi~ r leanung. The niost s i~ np le xample is that of a child.

The

cluld learns to talk

only w hen lic rcaclies a certain sta ge or ag e in maturation. It is also equally true that he does

~ i o t ca r~ lhe language just becausc he attain that age. The lan giage is ta ~i gl ~to him. l'hc

1:lnguage \vl iich he learns is that \~ lu c h ie hears . I t is v e n clear that the h ~ oroccsscs

~~raturat ionnd leanling are closcly related to each other. Maturation the process of

1c;rrning. Learning is effective if appropriate m aturity has be en attained. Lcarning takes place

onl . i tlie stage for that type of learning has been aclu e~.e dhrough a proccss of maturation.

You . ;is a teacher, should k n o \ ~ ow to dlfferenciate between uiaturational development with

that of cll a~ ige s ue to lean ling . For esanllple. 1.011 have a typical human brain w luch dev elops

\\.ill1 agc. It is a matur,ition p rocess . But \.our k no\vledge, y our h abits wlucli are due to som e

kind o I nlodificadon of your brain-function, are acquired tluough stiini~ lus-resp onsectivities

or ill othcr words. leaniing. A iriore silnplc example c an be -yo ur biceps depend o n maturation.

but tlicir sir c also depe nds 011 llle alnouilt of pllysical esercise you do . The m odificition in size

is tlius not the product of inatumtiou rather it d epcnd s upon stiniulus by.cxerciscs and respollse

of tlie muscle to this eserc isc.

121atriration is i ~np orla nt or learning . Beforc w e leanlan ytlung. our sensor?., llolor and iienToais

srnlccurcs sllould atlaill a certain lc\.el of m aturity. We cannot make a n infant drive a bicycle

siniply becausc hc lras not acquired thc appropriate maturity Sinularly. it is practically

i~npossibleo nlakc a six-month old bab\- learn ~liultiplicationables. So until a certain level

o f i i i n t ~ ~ ra t i o~ is acq1111cd y the cluld. training (o r lcaming) (nay bc of

110

avail. So you should

bear iu 11u11dhat ( i) driring thc carly development period olt lie child. grcater lc\.el of nlatl~rit-y

brings morc cfficicut Icanliug. and (ii) leaning of complex skills require a lughcr lc~zelof

~natui-it

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9 8 VERB L LE RNING

I ~l t l erskt~~di l~ehr I,c*;rrlbigI rt~ess

heck

Your Progress

3

Notes

: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Conlpare your answer with the one give11 at the end of the unit.

At the time of adilussion Madan was tested and found to be a cluld of abo\.c-a\,cr;~gc

intelligence. He has alw ays been praised by lus teachers for lus acadeiilic progress in the c1;lss.

But, recently the teachers hav e obse wed that lus achievelllent in the class is not t ~p to licir

satisfaction. What. in your opinion, can be the reason'?

Verbal learning 1.e. teaching through talk o r lecture is a conlm on pfilchce in cl assm o~ll round

the norld.

t

entails unparting of lulowledge by the teacher on any topic through d~ scou rsc

Yet. verbal learning is considered by most n lodernc ognitiv e psycl~ ologists s either lnadcquatc

or ineffective in ellsuring learning in students. For, verbal leanu ng is often constdcred

a

passl\ c

leanlin g experience. as the action is colllpletely undertaken by the teacher The studcnls arc

therefore. looked upo n as inactive or passive recipients of knowledge.

David Ausubel disagreed with tius view of verbal learning and instead held thar

i r

was

a

meaningful tfiinsaction of knowledge. According to him. the students attending to a \ ,chal

discourse is not passively listening to but is actively incorpofiiting into hisher exisring

cognitive st nlc h~ re hatelrer is being presented.

9.8.1

The Nature

of

Verbal Learning

According to Ausubel (1963 1977) learning is equivaleilt to subsumption wluch is the

inclusion of new information illto an existing cognitive stn ~c tur e. lus entails the follo n ing

process:

Recognising (of the verbal infonnation),

Relating (new illfomlation to what already exists in the cognitive sti~ ~c tur e).nd

Meaningful learning (as a result of the above).

For esainple. if you want to teach students about 'i~ loth s'.The patte rn oC Icarning according

to Ausubel would include, the recognition of the orgaiuslll as an 'insect' or -slnall \\ iilgcd

creature' i.e. placing the new information in some existing catc go n of child's cogniti\pc

stnicturc . The second step would then be to related this infornlation with what already cs ts

in his stnlcturc. Tlus is done in te r m of coinparing (he new infonnarion 'moth' to \vhat is

already known a bout insects. in terms of sinularities and differences. This res ults in meaningCt11

learning for the cluld.

Ausutbcl argues tllat organising and exp laining relation slups. both old and new . is the (ask oC

the teacher, and not of the student, such that it becomes meaninglul for the student. Tli~ss 111

contrast to the propon ents of d is co x~ ev earning like Bn lner. who held that t11c task oC

organisin g information should be uildertaken b3 the students. only tlleil will leanling becomc

mncalungful. Verba l learning, proposed by Ausubel. entail s struchlring kno\\ ledgc b thc

teacher in its final form for the students. The advantage of verbal learning over disco\ cn

learnin g is that it (verbal learning) would:

il~c lude larger body of infonnation.

requirc less rcsourccs. and

be econonlical in tenlls of time.

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9 8 2

Process of Verbal Lea rning

The

Nature

of

the eanii~iz roccss

Ausubel explains the process of meaningful verbal learning with the help of the following key

concepts:

Su hs um er he subsumer is akin to Piaget's concept of schema. It is a conceptual framework,

~v h e r e inhigher 1e1-el concepts include (subsume) other ideas. Subsunling involves

incorporating new inaterial meaningfully, w it lun this conceptual framework.

Suh sum ptio n The process of building the cognitive structure (subsumer) by subsunung new

i~lfonllatioilllto it takes plac e in two vital way s:

I )

De riva tive sub sum ptio n Wh en the new infomlationis derivedfrom the already existing

stricture

the process of derivative subsunlption takes place. For instance, if a general

category of 'nla nunals ' is already present in the cognitive structure, the specific example

oT

a

horse. elephant, etc., even when presented as new information is derived easily and

therefore is easily learned. Th is is comparable to Piaget's concept of assimilation.

i i )

Co rrela tive suh sum ptio n W hen the new information requires that the existing structure

be altered. corrc1ati1.e s~l bsu nlpt ion akes p lace. In the earlier exam ple, if the new

i~lfonlla tioil as .wllale'. The existing structure will have to change to acconunodate the

ilen kind o f mamlullal. Tlu s kind of Ieaming is more challenging, yet wh en acquired. is

better rem e~nbe red. lus is coinparable to Piaget's concept of accommodation.

Dissociative suhsu mp tion Remembering is dissociative subsunlption i.e., it requires the

ability to separate new learning from the old. Ausubel holds that recall is facilitated or

enhanced, according to the dissociability of the new information. Information which is sinular

to wllat already exists, will b e learned fa ster yet paradoxically because of the simil'arity with

the existing structures. learning is low in dissociability and therefore difficult to recall. W hen

infonnation is unique or different, the reverse occurs. Because of the change required in the

cogniti1.e structure. these a re llarder to learn, but are eas ily recalled once learnt or subsum ed.

For instance, because of the sinularity in inforn~ ation, tudents would learn easily the

colnparison of organ systems of various a ni n d s? .e. of the cockroach, frog,

rat

and human

being. At the same ti~llet would be difficult to recall the infonnation for the same reason, a

lug11 dcgree of overlap in infon nation. O n the other hand, ifyo u were to teach all organ system s

of a particular org aiu s~ il ay. llunlan being , it would be difficult to learn the concept due to the

degrcc of difference in inforillation but easy to recall once learnt for the same reason.

9.8.3

Implication for C lassroom Practice

Tlle major iillplication of A usube l's theory of verbal learning for classrooill practice is the usc

oT an adl-anced organ iscr. Ausubc l subscribes to the no tion that new ideas are best introdllccd

from the general (abstract) to the specific (co~icrete).This implies that students illdst be

provided with a conccptutill franrcwork on wlu ch they c an anchor new ideas being elaborated

later. Thc advanc ed orgaluser scn .es tlus vety purpose. It introduces the inain ideas and makes

all the relationslups between these ideas explicit. It is like an overview of the lesson or the

leanliag poimit(s) to follow. To aid leanung and retention of information, the advanced

orgtuuser nlust e~llplrasise oth sinularities and differences.

There are two types of advanced org a~u sers :

Coml)a~-a t ivetl\.iinccd orgii nise r lus type of the advanced organiser is based onderivative

subsunlption and im.olves direct conlparisons. For example. comparing the digestive system

of aninlnls and h ~ un an eing before introducing the human digestive system.

E s p o s i t o ~ ~i d ~ ; ~ n c c t l~ ~ g i i n i s e rTh is type of the advance organise is based on oblique and

not on direct conlparisons. For example. when two systems, such as the circulatoq and the

respirator are

compared a

new subsu~ners sought to be established as a n offslloot of an

existing one.

Other inlplications o r \ e h a l learning are as follows:

The lecture mctl~ods neither ineffective nor passive iforg ~u se db as edo nth eo ry fverbal

leanling.

It is ncces san Tor the teacher to asses s the cllild's existing cognit ive structure before

introduci ng ilen in Tom ~ation

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Ueclerslanding the Leanling Process

Since leani~ngs facilitated when new information is similar

l o

the esisting one. points

of siiililarity inust be established.

Since recall is facilitated wheil differences are distinct, differences bchveen ncw and

existing knowledge nlust also be highlighted.

Check Your Progress 4

Note Compare your answers with those given at the cnd of the unit.

i) Verbal learning is

a)

Lcanling a new laiiguage

b) Oral practice

c

Understanding verbal idonnation

ii)

Verbal learning takes place through

a)

S~~bsunlption

bj

Dis~ociation

c) Subsumer.

iii) Learning through derivative subsuinption is easy/difficult) but recall is

.(easy/difficult).

iv) Advanced organisers must build knowledge from abstract/concrete) to

(abstractkoncrete).

9 9 LE RNING OF CONCEPTS

Bruner in his book,

Study of Thinkmg

points out that concepts help us to identify the objects

of the world around us and thus reduce the complesity of our environment This is thc reason

that paramount inlportance is attached to the learning of concepts in our school cuniculuni

What is a concept? What is it that we learn? And low is it attained? we shall

t y

to answer

these questions in this section.

9 9 1

Nature

of

Concepts

For Hilda Taba, concepts

are

complex systems of highly abstract ideas which canbe built only

by successive experiences. We define a concept as ordered infonnation about the

characteristics of one or more objects, events or processes. This infomntion enables us to

differentiate a particular object or class of objects from other objects. I11

facf

concepts refers

to sonie identifiable public entities and also mental constructs of individuals.

Concepts as public entities re described and defined in the fomi of organised inform;ition in

encyclopedias, dictionaries and books. The meanings of concepts are accepted by the p~blic,

or a gronp of persons who speak the same langt~age.

It has bccn also found that we acquire concepts according to our unique learniiig experiences

and matmtional patterns. The coiicepts thus acquired are used in thinking about the social and

physical environment around us. In t hs sense, we define concepts as mental constructs or

ideas cohstructcd in the ~n ind epending lipon perception. Obv~ously, particular concept i.e.,

an object, event or process is restructured

as

we acquire more maturity and more experience.

For instance, a five-year old child and a botanist both have a concept of tree. and both can

recognize a fcw clramples of trees, yet their concepts of tree differ to a large extent.

In psychological temunology, a concept is a class of stimuli whch have common attributes.

By stimuli here we mean objects, events, orpersons. The stimulus is apicture, a word (spoken

or written) and so on. We usually designate a concept by its name. like student, teacher, bright

students, dedicated teachers, good schools. etc. All these concepts referto some categories (or

classes) of stimuli. However, there are some stimuli which do not refer to concepts. For

example Arun (a student), iscovery

of India

(a book), and Miss Dorijya (a teacher). These

stimuli are particular and not classes or categones. The difference between

a

particular stimuli

and

a

concept can be understood by the simple logic. The concept 'student' undoubtedly

includes Arun as also many other students; but Arun is

a

case in itself, it does not foml a

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categoly or class or studcnls. Wlicn \\.c talk about conccpts. jvc should reiiicmbcr llut ~ v co

1101 rcfcr to a particular stilnu li but lo a class or c1;lsscs of stim uli.

9.9.2

Process o f Con cept Attainment

It is neccssag

t11;1t

c sliould know tlic salicnt features of

a

conccp l wli ic l~ nay Iielp us in

d~stinguisliilig

t

fro111 otlicr c o ~~ c cp ts .onccpt attribute is a distincti1.c fc~~turcf a collccpr

and s o it \ uries Trolii co lic cp~ o co~iccp t . ct us t ikc a co~iccptlake'. Tlic ~ n a in tlributc \\.111cli

d i s t i np i s l ~ cst L'rolii otlicr allied conccp ts. like ocean . sea, pon d and well. is its s i x . Tlicrc

;ire otlicr attributes o r ake likc Ivatcr. dcptli, etc.. but tlicsc are con mion to otlier al l~ cd o~lcc pls

also. Tliereforc tlic sizc bccoiiics an attribute \vlucli helps in distinguishing I;ikc froiii otlicr

conccp ts (lakc is sniallcr tllun ocean and sca, but bigger in size as conipared to

a

pond or

;I

well). Herc the size llas become tlle concept attributc.oflakc.

Attributc

\ slues

arc tllc p;~rticular harigcs an attribute may underg o. We 11aI.e stablislied sizc

as an attlibute in tlie case o r concept of lake. It may have severid ~~alucsrom ;In appreciable

to a \.e% large din~eiision.11 tlic s am e w a y anot hcr concept, say a liu ~iia n eing. call tu \.c o~il .

t ~ o~ttribule alucs-a inan or

a

woman, dead or alive, single or m amc d. Wlien a n altriburc lias

a wide r,lngc of

\.slues.

we call usc othcr attributes to identify tlie concept.

The nu mber of con ccpls ma , v a n f rom concept to concept . An orange l ias I 'our

attributes-shape. s i x . colour ;lnd texture. Co~ilp lcs oncept like beautiful and dcmocr;lc ~ may

have a dozc nor more atlribr~lcs.t lias been o bs en ed that as the number of attributes increases,

the difficulty of le an iu g thc coilccpt increascs. Tlus is tlie reason tl~ ato save 1i11icnd to reducc

tlic aiiiount of strain. \vc ofi c~ ignore soluc oT1.h~ ttributes and try to combiue old , a few into

\.arict\, or pattenls.

J .S . Bn ~n cr emonstrated hou ;i person attains

a

concept by using tlie abo1.c ~ile~~tio~icd

clla~ ictcr istics f tlic concept attribute. For this purpose lie used

a

set of cards. All thc cards

had pictures of various sliapes squa rc, circle or cross; colours red. grccli or black. and

nunlbcrs single. doublc ortriplc. Each card thus combined fourattributcs f i ~ y r ehape. figurc

number. figure colour. and preselicc o r absence of borders. The esper i~lleiit erliosc a concept

say a black squa rc altd kcpl it in liis nlind. Tlie subject wa s asked to identify this conccp t by

sclccti~ig card. Tlic csp cri~iie ntcr sked the subject \vhether or not tlic card was ail ins ta ~~ cc

of the concept. On tlie basis of tlie iilfonl~atioiipro\:ided by the es per i~n eii tcr lie subject

selccted anotlicr card to deteniuilc unidcntified attributes of tlie concept and continued doing

so t il l 11c f o ~ ~ n dlic corrcct answ er i.e., tlie card with black square. By using tlis experiment

Bnlncr tried to esplaiii explicitly tlie process of co~ ice pteanling.

Checli

Your Progress

Notes

: a ) Write your an swer in tlie space given below.

b) C01iip;irc .our aIls\ver 1~ 1t hhe one given at the end of the unit.

In Sect io~i .4 we ha\ e tried to de velop the coilcept of leanling. Go througli tl is sc ctioi~

carefull . and identify tlie concept itttribute and attribute values of the concept leanling.

Hint i) Coiicept attribute : a distinctive feature of

a

concept.

~ i l Attribute value s : particular change n attribute might ~111dergo.

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I ~~tlcrst;~ndinghe Lc an~h~grocess

9 10 MOD ES O F LE RNING

Right fro m birth itself w e lean1 many skills. like reaching for and graspiitg toys. standing up

and stepp ing fonvard unfaltered and unaided. speaking, etc. Laterw e learn more conlplex skills

and acquire the ability of solving various types of problelns. Thus there is a gradual change

fro m the sim plerf orm of learning to the conlplex ones, like problem solvin g. There is no single

way of acquiring all types of learning However. here we s lu ll discuss three important inodes

of learning. By understanding hon nltich each mode operates. you should be able to design

your classroom teaching more effecti\ ely.

9 10 1

Learning by Observation

Obse rvation is a basic requisite for all kinds of leanling . By observation, here. we do not illeail

sinlpl 'seeing' a tlung. rather. it refers to the act of perceiving or ob se ni ng tlie stimulus. Thus

in the process of obse n~a tion e not o d y take the help of our eyes alone (as for 'seeing') but

we also use all our sense organs. T lie presence of a stim ulus can be recorded with the liclp of

our capability of perceiving. seeing. listening, smelling, tasting and touching.

It may amu se or take yo u by surprise if it is said that "we have eyes yet we are blind". Such

a statement may confuse you unless it is clarified. The point of emphasis here is that there are

so m any things or objects around us, but we tC&e notice of only a few of them and others are

left unheeded. Just ponder upon tlus explanation and you will realize the underlying truth. In

fact we pay attention to the lllings of our interest only. But we can never be certain nhether

interest precedes atten tion or it is attention which gives rise to interest. It is because the two

are inseparable. Interest is the feeling side of attention.

By nature, all living beings

are

interested in something or tlie other. Tlu s interest is aroused as

a result of the in ~p ul se voked by instincts. The greater the impulse the inore is the amount of

interest.attached to it. And the greater the interest. the more tlie attention paid to the object.

Therefore it is said that interest is latent attelltion: and attention is interest in action. H ow e~ ~ e r,

the necessary condition of both interest in and attentioil to any object is that tlle mind is so

organised, either iiulately or tluou gh experience. tllat it can tllil* about the object. and nlaiiitaill

a desire to know nlore and nlore about it. This e p e of ulental or psycl~omotor ctivity lead us

to learning a bout tlle object.

We often use 'observation' in order to foster leanling in our students. We evoke interest

children by presenting concrete objects, illustrations, pictures. models. etc., in class and

relating the topic to them. However. tlus interest is of primitive nature and we should

11 1

be

satisfied with this kind of interest only. The interest c;ul be sustained only

if

the studenrs are

given the opportunity of observing new tlungs and new phenonieiia. and bring variety to our

teaclling. Ifwe

tv

to keep their attention on old objects for a lon g tinie.

t

becomes boring for

the studen ts. If tliey are encouraged to o b se ne various aspects of the concept to be learned.

we can help them sustain their attention for a longer time and thus help them learn more about

the concept.

'The following steps can be folloived in learning througl ~ b s e ~ a ti o n :

i)

Grasping the nleaniilg of the deillo~~stratioilf an action

ii)

Trying to fix images of how the model looks in each step of the

demonstration

iii) Fortuulating silent ve ha l directions for the stcps im.011 ed in the per fon nan ce/ dem o~ ~tr a-

tion

i ) The learner may also deri\re some benefit of slight imitative n~o vem ents f arms. legs and

other parts of the body.

9 10 2 Learning by Imitation

Living being s can learn a great deal by observing but tliey sliould also

t

to copy others for

perfecting their perfonnances and learning. Like observation, imitation is also an innate

tendency of the ch ld . Inutation is the tendency to repeat the ob sen ed actions ofothers. 111 ilie

beginning the child learns his movenients. actions and gestures by inlitation. Tlie capaciw of

imitating is iZ e vmuch pronunent in children and you must have observed that thev take delight

in inututing. As they grow. they learn Inany athletic. industrial and professional skills by

imitating moving picture denlonst~itions f skilled perfoniiaiice. Modelling also has a great

value

in

learning. Modelling includes inlitation of special personalities such as a student

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mutates the actions inlmediately of the well knowncricketer Sachin Tendulkar. Inutation also

The Nature of

the Leanlhlg

~roces s

means the inventiorlof new things or actions. Teachers should give opportunities to the students

for selfdevelopment. Their creative tendencies should be exploited or highlighted.

Trever has reduced all kinds of imitation into two broad categories (a) unconscious, and

(b) deliberate. Under the first category, the individual imitates what he sees, quite unwillingly.

In deliberate imitation the individual copies an act with a definite deliberateness to inutate,

because of his interest in the act itself, or due to the result hc expects to secure on account of

imitation

9 10 3 Learning by Trial and rror

In many situations we learn by trial and error. Here we make a number of attenlpts for a

particulartask or problem and find some attenlpts rewarding. The satisfying feeling of rewards

strengthens particular stimulus response connections wlule the unsuccessful attempts

are

stamped out through practice. This type of learning is based on Thorndike s theory of

connectionism. It implies that through conditioning. specific responses re linked wit11 specific

stinluli. These connectionsbetween stimuli and responsesare foxmed through random

trial

and

error. The law of trial and error was formulated after experimentations on a hungry cat

imprisoned in a cage. Wlien the cat could press the lever of the cage through several trials, it

would get food

s

the reward. The number of unsuccessful attempts reduced through practice

and successful attenlpts got strengthened. The law has significant implications in classroom

learning. When used appropriately by the teacher, they can help in developing the slulls,

vocabulary and nieniorizing abilities of children.

Throndike conducted

n

experiment in which exercise was made the independent variable

while other factors were held constant. He experimented upona college student who was asked

to draw 3-inch line wllile blind-folded. Mere repetition did not bring any change or

improvement. Some subjects were given more th na thousand trials. On an average, there was

no iinprovenlent fro111 the first to the final trial. Practice without knowledge of results failed

10 produce any result. some of the laws underlying trial and error learning

are

aw of readiness,

law of effect, and law of exercise. As regards the law of exercise, Throndike began to think

that reward and punishment were not equal and opposite in effect. Reward strengthens the

connection considerably whereas puiushment does not weaken the connection to the same

degree. The intensity and speed of reward in influencing learning are greater th n that of

puiushnent. Reward also brings healthy and desirable improvement in the personality of the

cluld. In this way. TluonQke began to give more importance to reward and praise in place of

puiusllment and blame.

9 10 4 Learning by Insight

Most of the l e m n g in 111imail beings takes place not only through observation or imitation,

but also by solviilg problems wluch they come across in their day-to-day life. While solving

problenl

if an

iildividual reaches the solution a11 of a sudden, we say that he has learned by

insight. In fact. the person reaches the solution by understanding the relation between different

aspects of the problenlatic situation. In our daily life we describe his mode of learning by using

phrases like seeing the point, or getting the idea.

Learning by insight was introduced by Gestalt psychologists. Gestalt means shape, form or

configuration. To understand the process of insight the learning we describe here KoNer s

famous experiment of chimpanzee and bananas.

A chimpanzee was placed in a cage. Outside the cage, on one side were put some bananas. The

chimpanzee was hungry. Its long arms could not reachthe bunchofbananas. Some sticks were

placed near the door inside the cage. The chimpanzeefirsttried to reachbananas withits hands.

It did not get success. After several attempts and failures, it sat in a comer, seem to brooding

on the problem. Suddenly, it juniped, seized a stick and pulled the bananas toward itself.

Kohler repeated the experiment by bringing somevariations in the design On the basis of his

experiments he described the process of learning by insight as follows:

The learner perceives the situation in its totality.

He ailalyses the ~.arious spects of the situation and tries to establish a meaningful

relationship anlong them. On the basis of this new perception he redefines the situation.

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\ , ' l l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ t l l ~ l l ~

\lL' ~ , L ' ; ~ ~ l l ~ l l ~

'I'lN'l'h-

Tins procc ss gocs on till lie solves tlie probleniatic situation all of i sudden. Tliat is what

\\ e llcall

\

licn

\ve

say tlmt a leamc r sudden& gets an insight into the solution.

Ch edi Your Progress 6

Notes

a)

Write your answ er in the space given below .

b ) Coinparc your answer with tlic one given at the end of the unit.

Give

csaillples froni classroon~ituations for tlie various rnodes of Icarning.

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9 1 TRANSFER O F LEARNING

Onc o f thc in~ por taii t haracteristics of leanung is that tlic acquired skills, habits. knowledge

i~nd r t i t~~i ics ,ntlocncc the a cquisition of new leanling due to s ome kind of carry-over effect.

'ni e c a m -over of fccliiigs. habits, skills. and kiiowlcdgc from one lea nung area to another is

called transfer of Iraiiui~g r leanling. Ps~chologists xplaiiled the nature of the transfer of

leanli ng proccss. \Ve shall

l q

o understand tl ~ elature of the transfer of le arning with the help

o f v a r i o ~ ~ s. i c noints of psycl~ ologis ts s reflcctcd

in

Ilieir the ories.

9 11 1 Meaning and Nature of Transfer of earning

According to tllc oltlcr \,ic ~v .ransfer of lea nun g iiiiplies tllat training in one faculty of the nund

map 11clp in

t l ~ c

unctioning of otlier faculties as well. Various faculties of nund m em o~ y,

reasoning. j ~dgcment. ob sc na ti on etc..--are discipliiled o r m in ed through various ac ad en ic

subjccts. Langni~gcs nd inatl~cniatics ive training to tlie nilid wluch helps in leanling other

subjects,

A

person wllo possesses

a

good knack for language: can lean1 and retain any fact

c:isil

Throndikc.

by

proposing tltc th eo q of identical elements took the stand that reseniblence arid

siinilarit belwcen sitilatioiis lias considerable effect on the amount and kind of transfer of

learning that can be carned over from one situation to the other. For instance, take

inemorisation. When a str~d ent ractices ~neinorisation n one subject area?11e beconies capable

of ~nel norisin g ther subjects as well, to some extent. A ndi t is qu itepossible that he memorises

tlie content of sonie other subject area quickly. According to this view point, this plienomenon

1s not due lo an improv ed faculty of mem ory, rather it depends upon the extent to which the

two situations sh are identical elements of content, attitude, method o r aim.

Judd say s that transfer of leanling is notlung but a generaliza tion. According to the principles

of generalization proposed by Judd tlie development of special skills, the mastery of specific

facts. forniation of particular liabits and attitudes in one situation have transfer valne only if

the sk~lls ,acts, luibits, etc.. are svsteni;itised and related to otlier situations in which they can

be utilized.

In tlie opinion of Hilgard. transfer of learning is possible o d y wh en a person develops the

abi lihr of finding out the identity of relationslups and usin g it to solve problems in new

situations and fo r this. insight is nec essan

Anailalysis of the above mentioned views of psycholog sts leads us to the follo wi ngi ~~ fere nce s

in regard to the nature of transfer of learning:

Transfer of learning can also bc vicwed a s problem solving, in which experience i n one

task influences

performance

another.

Transfer of learning co mes from similarity of conten ts, similarity of techniques, similarity

of principles. or a combination o f tliese.

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