Heriot-Watt University Research Gateway

Blended waste oil as alternative binder for the production ofenvironmental friendly roofing tiles

Citation for published version:Sam, SS, Habib, NZ, Aun, NC, Yong, CS, Bashir, MJK & Ping, TW 2020, 'Blended waste oil as alternativebinder for the production of environmental friendly roofing tiles', Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 258,120937. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120937

Digital Object Identifier (DOI):10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120937

Link:Link to publication record in Heriot-Watt Research Portal

Document Version:Peer reviewed version

Published In:Journal of Cleaner Production

Publisher Rights Statement:© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

General rightsCopyright for the publications made accessible via Heriot-Watt Research Portal is retained by the author(s) and /or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing these publications that users recognise and abide bythe legal requirements associated with these rights.

Take down policyHeriot-Watt University has made every reasonable effort to ensure that the content in Heriot-Watt ResearchPortal complies with UK legislation. If you believe that the public display of this file breaches copyright pleasecontact open.access@hw.ac.uk providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately andinvestigate your claim.

Download date: 04. Apr. 2022

Journal Pre-proof

Blended waste oil as alternative binder for the production of environmental friendly roofing tiles

Suubitaa Spencer Sam, Noor Zainab Habib, Ng Choon Aun, Chee Swee Yong, Mohammed J.K. Bashir, Teoh Wei Ping

PII: S0959-6526(20)30984-7DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120937Reference: JCLP 120937

To appear in: Journal of Cleaner Production

Received Date: 07 June 2019Accepted Date: 04 March 2020

Please cite this article as: Suubitaa Spencer Sam, Noor Zainab Habib, Ng Choon Aun, Chee Swee Yong, Mohammed J.K. Bashir, Teoh Wei Ping, Blended waste oil as alternative binder for the production of environmental friendly roofing tiles, (2020), Journal of Cleaner Production https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120937

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

© 2019 Published by Elsevier.

Graphical Abstract

Figure A: Production of WEV Roofing tile

Fly ash

Mixed thoroughly & Compacted

Heat cured at 190°C for 15 hours

+ +

Catalyzed WEV oil

Sand WEV Roofing Tile

Parameters for the optimization process

Amount of WEV oil

Ratio of WEV oil

Compaction method

Curing temperature

Curing duration

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

1

Blended waste oil as alternative binder for the production of environmental friendly

roofing tiles

Suubitaa Spencer Sama, Noor Zainab Habibb, Ng Choon Auna*, Chee Swee Yongc,

Mohammed J. K. Bashira, Teoh Wei Pinga

aFaculty of Engineering and Green Technology, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar,

Perak, Malaysia

bHeriot-Watt University, Dubai International Academic City, P. O. Box 294345, Dubai,

U.A.E

cFaculty of Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia

*Corresponding author: Ng Choon Aun; Email: ngca@utar.edu.my; Tel: (60) 468 8888; Fax: (60) 466 7449

Abstract

Excessive emission of carbon dioxide and huge consumption of energy during the production

of traditional building materials is a global issue needed to be concern by the society. The

carbon dioxide released from the manufacturing process are one of the main contributors

which lead to the deterioration of global warming. This study focused on the feasibility of

using waste oils as blended binder to produced environmental friendly roofing tiles. The

blended binder composed of waste engine oil and waste vegetable oil, woks together with

sand aggregate and fly ash to produce an innovative building materials, namely WEV-

Roofing tiles. A series of parameters including the composition of materials and

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

2

manufacturing conditions were being optimized in order to determine the best formulation in

the production of WEV-Roofing tiles. Basic requirements for standard roofing tiles,

including flexural strength, water absorption and permeability tests were conducted to

determine the mechanical properties of WEV-Roofing tiles, according to the American

Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM C 67 – 07a, C 1167 – 03, and C 1492 – 03).

Furthermore, the embodied carbon and embodied energy of the optimized tiles were found

at 0.30 kgCO2/equivalent and 0.55 MJ/kg respectively, which is lower compared to the

traditional building materials. The recycled and reused of waste materials to produce an

environmental friendly roofing tiles is the main challenges of this research study.

Keywords: Waste engine oil; Waste vegetable oil; Roofing tiles; Embodied carbon;

Embodied Energy.

1. Introduction

Clay or cement is served as a binder in the production of traditional building materials. It was

reported that they possessed of relatively higher embodied carbon and energy compared to

green building materials (Hammond and Jones, 2011). Solely in the cement industry, a total

of 5% of carbon dioxide (CO2) was emitted to our environment (International Energy

Agency, 2009). CO2 is the main contributor which led to the occurrence of global warming.

The excessive release of carbon dioxide during the manufacturing of Portland Cement (PC)

consequently resulted in negative effect towards our earth (MojtabaVainejadShoubi et al.,

2013). To avoid the deterioration of global warming, a more environmental friendly and

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

3

sustainable development should be proposed. This can be achieved by decrease the usage of

cement in the production of building materials. Green technologies can be employed in the

construction sector by replacing cement with alternative waste materials in the manufacturing

process.

Waste engine oil is one of the most commonly waste generated from the automotive industry.

Solely in United States, 7.6 Mt of waste engine oil was generated annually. The waste engine

oil that had been recovered worldwide was less than 45% and the remaining 55% was thrown

by the end user in the environment (Fadel et al., 2003). WEO possessed of significant amount

of heavy metals and hazardous components, simply disposed without a proper treatment

would subsequently endangering the marine and human life (Hamad et al., 2013).

As an effort to reduce the waste oils disposal issues, many attempts were done by converting

it into other useful materials. It was reported that in the present of metallic-char as catalyst in

the microwave pyrolysis process, waste engine oil can be converted to pyrolysis-oil and

pyrolysis-gases (Lam et al., 2015). The microwave pyrolysis process helps to crack the

hydrocarbon chain of waste engine oil into C5 to C15 hydrocarbon, which possessed similar

properties as gasoline and diesel (Wan et al., 2017). It was found that WEO can be used as

an additive to enhance the durability of concrete (Chin, 2012). It should avoid the excessive

addition of WEO as the compressive strength of the concrete produced would be decreased

along with the amount of WEO added (HeshamDiab, 2011).

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

4

Waste vegetable oil (WVO) accumulated in the sewerage system may also result in adverse

environmental impact (Beddu et al., 2015). In Malaysia, waste vegetable oil was used 2 to 3

times before being disposed and it was reported that 84% of Malaysian dumped the waste oil

into dustbins, drainage system and onto the soil (Hanisah et al, 2013). Compared to clean

cooking oil, waste vegetable oil possessed of higher viscosity, higher specific heat and darker

in color intensity (Kulkarni, M.G. and Dalai, A.K., 2006). The high free fatty acid level and

high viscosity were due to degradation process (Sanli et al., 2011). The components present

in the waste vegetable oil were monoglyceride, triglyceride, diglyceride and saturated fatty

acids (Beddu et al., 2015). The free fatty acid present in the waste cooking oil and brown

grease was between 15% and 100% (Kulkarni and Dalai, 2006). The comparison of literature

reviews and the present work is stated as per Table 1.

WVO is a valuable waste materials, which can be easily converted into biodiesel production.

By esterified the free fatty acids present in the WVO using mineral acid pre-treatment,

followed by alkali trans-esterification process, it can be converted into biodiesel with 88%

conversion efficiency (Sahar et al., 2018). It was found that when co-processing the waste

plastic and used cooking oil with microwave vacuum pyrolysis process, an oil product

contained C4 to C24 hydrocarbon chains can be generated, which is comparable with the

commercial grade gasoline and diesel (Lam et al., 2019). Used cooking oil can be utilized as

an alternative binder in the production of building materials. The production of Vegeblocks

using vegetable oil with suitable selection of materials, adequate compaction and heat curing,

compressive strengths exceeding 25 MPa had been achieved (Zoorob et al., 2006). Waste

cooking oil can also serves as lubricant in concrete production. The concrete that contains

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

5

waste cooking oil showed better mechanical properties, higher workability and reduction in

interfacial transition zones and air voids size (Beddu et al., 2015).

Incorporation of supplementary cementitious materials during the production of high strength

concrete able to avoid the cracks, as the present of supplementary materials able to decrease

the heat release during the hydration process, whilst decrease the shrinkage of concrete. A

grade 35 lightweight concrete can be produced with the consumption of palm kernel shell

and the compressive strength and density are influenced by the sand content (Johnson et al.,

2008). The mechanical properties such as comprehensive strength, flexural strength and split

tensile strength of concrete mix of M60 grade showed an improvement with substituent of

cement up to 15% in high strength concretes (Swaroopa and Tejaanvesh, 2015). Fillers such

as fly ash and sand affect the characteristics of the moist cured foam concrete and a greater

ratio of strength to density was achieved by fly ash than sand (Kunhanandan and

Ramamurthy, 2006).

The pressing issue of this study is to produce environmental friendly roofing tiles by utilizing

alternative, more environmental friendly materials. WEV oil is the new type of blended oil,

which can be used as alternative binder in the production of WEV roofing tiles, whilst avoid

the usage of conventional binders (cement or clay) which are considered relatively

environmental unfriendly. In addition, maximizing the incorporation of waste materials in

the production of building materials seem to be a good approach to decrease the disposal of

waste materials into the landfill. Several objectives are enumerated to be achieved at the end

of this study which are as follow:

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

6

1. To utilize blended binder (waste engine oil and waste vegetable oil) in the production

of roofing tiles.

2. To optimize the tile compositions and manufacturing process and optimizing the

amount and ratio of WEV oil.

3. To calculate and compare the total embodied carbon and embodied energy of

optimized WEV roofing tiles produced with the commercialized products.

2. Materials and methodology

2.1 Materials

The materials used to produce the roofing tiles are waste engine-vegetable (WEV) oil,

pulverized fly ash, river sand and sulphuric acid.

2.1.1 Waste engine-vegetable (WEV) oil

Waste engine oil was obtained from a local Perodua car station whereas the waste vegetable

oil which defined as waste palm oil was collected from a local Pelita restaurant in Malaysia.

The waste oil has been filtered and can directly use in the analysis at room temperature. WEV

oil which is dark brown in color has specific gravity of 0.90, density of 0.91 g/cm3 and

kinematic viscosity of 65.87 cS. WEV oil is composed of monoglyceride, triglyceride,

diglyceride and saturated fatty acids which are stearic acid, palmitic acid, additives,

magnesium, polychlorinated biphenyls, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, lead, copper, chromium and

chlorides. Infrared spectra of the waste oils were determined by using PerkinElmer Spectrum

FTIR RXI spectrometer. The Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) analysis was used to

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

7

determine and quantify oil oxidation, presence of additives, state of oil and a spectral

snapshot of the base oil and other substances available (Al-ghouti, M.A. and Al-atoum, L.,

2009). FTIR spectroscopy was also used to determine the molecular structures via certain

absorption bands that are related to the functional groups of the compounds (Ullah, 2014).

The samples were scanned over a region of 400 until 4000 cm-1. Thermal behavior of the

WEV oil was examined by Thermogravimetric Analyzer model (METTLER TOLEDO

TGA,SDTA851e) from 25°C and 500°C with the heating rate of 10°C/min and nitrogen

purge rate of 10 ml/min.

2.1.2 Fly ash

The type of fly ash used was class F fly ash which is light brown in color with the size of less

than 75µm. Fly ash was obtained from TNB power plant station in Manjung Setiawan, Perak,

Malaysia. The chemical substances in fly ash are silica, alumina, magnetite and Iron oxide

(Fe2O3). The spherical fly ash had a specific gravity of 2.5 and specific surface area of 200

m2/kg.

2.1.3 River sand

The sand aggregates were river sand which is white in colour. The river sand was transferred

into a tray and kept in an oven for 2 h at 150°C. River sand which had the size between 63

and 177 μm had specific gravity of 3.1, density of 2620 kg/m3 and water absorption of 0.81%.

River sand is composed of andalusite and tourmaline. The percentage of passing of fine

aggregates was the highest in the 3.35 mm sieve size which is the coarsest sieve used in the

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

8

analysis as per Table 2. The lowest amount of aggregates was found in the finest sieve size

of 0.15 mm as per Fig. 1.

2.1.4 Catalyst

Sulphuric acid was added in the WEV oil to speed up the rate of reaction for the tile formation

and act as catalyst. Esterification of free fatty acids could be carried out using sulphuric acid

as catalyst (Marchetti and Errazu, 2008). The sulphuric acid is usually colourless and

odourless. Sulphuric acid is to initiate the polymeric reaction or in other words the longer the

polymer chain oil has the least time would be required for curing. Since oven heat curing

method is used for curing these tiles, thus greater strength could be achieved during minimum

curing time thereby reducing the embodied energy requirement for the production of these

tiles.

2.2Manufacturing process of WEV Roofing tile

This section focused on addressing the Objectives 1 and 2 in this research study, in which the

feasibility of blended waste oil to be used as the alternative binder in the production of roofing

tiles were being investigated. The optimization process was carried out to optimize the

composition of tiles, as well as the manufacturing process of roofing tiles. The waste engine

oil and waste vegetable oil with a ratio of 1:4 were mixed with a rotary shaker at 250 rpm for

20 min. The ratio was selected due to strong presence of carbonyl group in waste vegetable

oil compared to waste engine oil as shown in FTIR analysis. The formulation and

composition of the different substances for experimental mixes of T1 to T6 are shown in

Table 3. The amount of 0.1 % of sulphuric acid was added in the WEV oil to form acidic

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

9

WEV oil. The materials such as WEV oil, fly ash and river sand were mixed by a mixer at

about 250 rpm at room temperature for 10 min. The mixture with a total weight of 400 g was

transferred into the mold and compacted with a compactor in the range of 5 to 20 of

compaction counts. The compacted mixture was transferred into an oven for heat curing at

the temperature in between 100 °C and 200 °C for 1 to 24 h. Each compaction count

represents 7.567 kN. The tile with a diameter of 100 mm was left to cool down. The initial

selected values of the parameters for the optimization process had been referred to the

previous studies (Humayun et al., 2017; Teoh et al., 2017) as per Table 4. Single factor

optimization approach was used to optimize each parameters accordingly. Optimized WEV

Roofing tile was produced after obtaining the suitable parameters to produce the tiles. The

experiment was repeated five times for accuracy and average data were recorded. The tiles

were tested for mechanical properties, durability and permeability.

2.3 Testing of the tile

Density and porosity are calculated by equation (i) and (ii) respectively.

Density (g/cm3) = Mass / Volume (i)

Porosity (%) = (W2-W4) / (W2-W3) × 100% (ii)

whereW2 = Weight in airW3 = Weight in waterW4 = Weight of dry specimen

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

10

Flexural strength of the tiles was calculated by equation (iii):

σ= MC/I (iii)

where,

M= bending moment in Newton

C=distance from the neutral axis in millimeters

I=moment of inertia in millimeters

Flexural stress was determined by means of standard method (ASTM C 67-13; ASTM C

1492-03). Flexural stress for optimized roofing tiles can be calculated by equation (iv):

σ= 3*P*L / 2*W*d2 (iv)

where,

σ= Flexural strength is MPa

P =Loading force in Newton

L = Span Length of the tile

W = Width of the tile

d = Thickness of the tile

The cold water absorption of the tiles was tested according to ASTM Standard method

(ASTM C1167-03). The dry tiles were weighed and submerged in water for 24 h and weighed

again to calculate the cold water absorption. The percentage of cold water absorption was

calculated using equation (v):

Absorption (C), % = 100(Ws-Wd) /Ws (v)

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

11

Boiling water absorption can be determined as equation (vi):

Boiling Absorption (B), % = 100(Wb-Wd)/Wb (vi)

where,

Wd = weight of dried specimen

Ws = weight of saturated specimen after immersed in cold water for 24 h

Wb = weight of saturated specimen after immersed in boiling water for 5 h The saturated

coefficient can be calculated as equation (vii):

Saturation Coefficient = C/B (vii)

The water permeability test of the tiles was carried out according to ASTM Standard method

(ASTM C1167-03).

2.4 Calculation of energy and carbon emission methods

To address the third objective of this research study, the embodied carbon and embodied

energy of the optimized roofing tile produced was studied. The embodied carbon and

embodied energy of the roofing tiles determine the energy characteristics of roofing tiles.

Embodied energy of processing, transportation and raw materials involved in each case were

obtained either from literature or based on assumptions to obtain the total embodied energy

per tile as per Table 5. Carbon emissions were obtained for each case by the product of carbon

dioxide emissions factors and the material used for different phases of lifecycle for example

cradle to gate emission, production, distribution and final stage of life management. Then

emissions from all the phases were added to determine the carbon emissions in each case.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

12

3. Results and Discussions

3.1 WEV oil as a binding agent

The characterization of the WEV oil had been carried out via Fourier transform infrared

(FTIR) spectroscopy. The FTIR spectrum of WEV oil with the ratio 1:4 has functional groups

at bands 3474 cm-1, 3005 cm-1 and 2924 cm-1 (O-H stretch), 2681 cm-1 and 2854 cm-1(C-H

stretching), 1747 cm-1 (C=O stretch), 1400 and 1419 cm-1(O-H bend), 1237 cm-1(C-O stretch)

and 1163 cm-1(stretching vibration of the C-O ester group) as per Fig.2. The ratio was

selected due to the strong presence of carbonyl group in waste vegetable oil compared to

waste engine oil and also the accessibility of the oil as per Fig.2. A significant peak was

observed at 1747 cm-1 in the WEV oil as per Fig.2. The carbonyl functional group (C=O) is

the main component for polymerization process to occur by binding with other materials in

order to form roofing tile (Teoh et al., 2017). TGA analysis shows that the WEV oil has the

inflection point at 394.99°C as per Fig. 3. The inflection point is a point of a curve at which

a change in the direction of curvature occurs. As the degradation of the WEV oil starts to

occur at about 260°C, the preferred temperature to produce the tile should be below this

temperature. The WEV oil sample burned after heating and left a residue of 30.47%.

3.2 Amount of catalyzed WEV oil

The initial parameters that had been selected in the tile production were the curing

temperature of 190 °C, curing duration of 24 h, 20 compaction counts by a machine and

WEV oil with the ratio of 1:4. The vegetable roofing tile with 35 % and 50 % fly ash filler

were heat cured at 190 °C (Noor et al., 2015). The samples of 5 % of vegetable oil content

by mass of aggregates were cured for 24 h at compaction pressure of 1 MPa with temperatures

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

13

between 140 °C and 200 °C showed high compressive strength compared to 120 °C to

produce block (Forth and Zoorob, 2013). The tiles with 1 and 2 % amount of WEV oil in the

composition were broken easily when being compacted due to the insufficient amount of

WEV oil to bind the materials as per Fig.4. With good compaction and heat curing, the tiles

with 4 % of WEV oil showed the highest strength as per Fig.4. As the amount of WEV oil

increased to 5 or 6 %, the strength reduced significantly as per Fig.4. The sticky mixture as

a result of the excess amount of the oil showed poor compaction effect on the gaps or pores

in the tile resulted in low strength.

3.3 Ratio of WEV oil

The WEV oil with the ratio of 0.25, 0.33, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4 had been studied. The tiles were

produced at the curing temperature of 190 °C, curing duration of 24 h, 20 compaction counts

by a machine and amount of 4 % of WEV oil. The 0.25 ratio of WEV oil in the tile showed

the highest strength and the strength decreased gradually as the ratio of WEO oil increased

as per Fig. 5. The ratio of lesser than 0.25 of WEV oil is not selected although it can show

better strength because the waste engine oil needs to be used to a certain amount to reduce

waste disposal problems to the environment. The high amount of waste vegetable oil in the

mixture of waste engine oil and waste vegetable oil resulted in good strength of the tile. The

FTIR analysis shows that waste vegetable oil has strong carbonyl compound compared to

waste engine oil. The degradation reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation and polymerization

take place when vegetable oil was being heated continuously and both hydrolysis and

oxidation process lead to polymerization of the oil (Sanli et al., 2011).

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

14

3.4 Compaction

The compaction rates and compaction methods via manual and machine compaction had

been studied. The tiles were fabricated at the curing temperature of 190 °C, curing duration

of 24 h, WEV oil with the ratio of 1:4 and amount of 4 % of WEV oil. The machine

compaction gives better compaction compared to manual compaction in flexural strength,

water absorption and porosity. The tiles can be manufactured in manual compaction as there

was only a slight decrease in strength when compared to machine compaction as per Fig. 6.

As the compaction counts increases, the flexural strength also increases. The compaction

counts of 20 showed highest flexural strength in both manual and machine as per Fig. 6. The

compaction counts of above than 20 are not selected to produce the tiles to save the cost of

the production. The highest compaction counts resulted in low thickness of the tile as the

mixture in the tile binds well when compacted and reduce the gaps or pores in the tile. The

water absorption decreases as the compaction count increases as per Fig. 7. The tiles fulfilled

the requirement of maximum of 6 % of water absorption according to ASTM C1167-03. The

porosity decreases as the compaction count increases as per Fig. 8. The porosity-strength

relationships had been studied with Ryshkewithch, Schiller, Balshin and Hasselman model

and the results showed that the compressive or tensile strength ratio decreases with the

increase in porosity (Xudong et al., 2013). The tile with compaction counts of 5 failed the

water permeability test according to ASTM C1167-03 for both manual and machine

compaction as per Table 6. The low compaction counts resulted in high thickness of the tile

and the spaces in the tile cause the water to penetrate the tile.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

15

3.5 Curing temperature

The curing temperature in the range of 100 °C and 200 °C had been studied (Forth and

Zoorob, 2013). The parameters that have been selected in the tile production were having

curing duration of 24 h, 5 - 20 compaction counts by a machine, WEV oil with the ratio of

1:4 and amount of 4 % of WEV oil. The compaction counts of above than 20 are not selected

to produce the tiles to save the cost of the production. As the curing temperature increased,

the strength also increased, however a reduction of strength was noticed at the curing

temperature of 200 °C with compaction counts ranges from 5 to 20 as per Fig. 9. The

optimum curing temperature was 190 °C. The increase in temperature on roofing materials

resulted in the degradation of substances but the elasticity and flexibility were good in

polymeric products (Berdahl, et al., 2008).

3.6 Curing duration

The curing duration in the range of 1 to 24 h had been studied (Forth and Zoorob, 2013). The

parameters that had been selected in the tile production were curing temperature of 190 °C,

5 - 20 compaction counts by a machine, WEV oil with the ratio of 1:4 and amount of 4 % of

WEV oil. The compaction counts of above than 20 are not selected to produce the tiles to

save the cost of the production. The compaction counts of 20 showed highest flexural strength

of 8.65 MPa at curing duration of 24 h compared to compaction counts of 5, 10 and 15 as per

Fig. 10. The increase in curing duration resulted in high compressive strength for palm oil

fuel ash geopolymer pastes (Amer et al., 2015). The tile with the 20 compaction counts at

curing duration of 15 h showed flexural strength of 6.67 MPa which could fulfil the minimum

standard limit of 6 MPa (CROW; Ede, 2000) as per Fig. 10. By lowering the curing duration,

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

16

the cost of production can be reduced. The tile with the 20 compaction counts at curing

duration less than 5 h showed no readings in flexural strength because the tile was unstable

and need longer heat curing time to harden as per Fig. 10. The production of building blocks

is by blending vegetable oil with mineral aggregate followed by a process of compaction and

heat curing where the heat curing of vegetable oil in a complex auto-catalytic oxidation and

polymerization as the oil component has transformed into a hard binder (Zoorobet al. 2006).

3.7 Optimized WEV Roofing tile

The optimized roofing tile with the size of 390 mm × 240 mm × 10 mm had been produced

from the suitable parameters as per Fig. 11. The parameters that had been selected in the

optimized roofing tile production were having curing temperature of 190 °C, curing duration

of 15 h, 20 compaction counts by a manual compaction, WEV oil with the ratio of 1:4 and

amount of 4 % of WEV oil. Density was calculated and it was in the range between 1.92 to

1.99 g/cm3 as per Table 7. From Table 7, it is obvious that denser material had a lower

porosity and vice versa. Usually, if the porosity was high there will be more chances that the

material becomes permeable to water. Contrary, if the porosity was low the material has less

probability to leak.

The optimized roofing tile has a flexural strength of 6.38 ± 0.21 MPa which fulfills the

minimum standard limit of 6 MPa (CROW; Ede, 2000) as per Table 8. The roofing tile which

is only composed of waste vegetable oil shows flexural strength of 11.88 MPa (Humayun et

al., 2017). It is relatively higher compared to WEV Roofing tile. A complex oxy-

polymerization reaction occurred when the waste vegetable oil turns into rigid binder

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

17

(Humayum et al., 2017). The optimized roofing tile which was subjected to accelerated

weathering conditions for 900 days showed a flexural strength of 7.39 ± 0.13 MPa which

fulfills the minimum standard limit of 6 MPa (CROW; Ede, 2000) as per Table 9. The flexural

strength of the optimized roofing tile showed an increment of 15.8% after being exposed to

accelerated weathering conditions for 900 days. The free radicals created by the ultraviolet

radiation from the accelerated weathering conditions may react with the oxygen present to

form hydro-peroxides that can result in polymer chain breakage (Lee, 2015).

The cold water absorption of the optimized roofing tile was 5.2 ± 0.27%. It fulfilled the

requirement of maximum of 6 % according to ASTM C1167-03 as per Table 10. The

saturation coefficient of the optimized roofing tile was 0.70 ± 0.04 which fulfilled the

requirements of maximum of 0.74 according to ASTM C1167-03 as per Table 10. The

optimized roofing tile passed the water permeability test according to ASTM C1167-03. The

flexural strength, durability and permeability of the optimized product were influenced by

the parameters used in the optimized roofing tile production such as curing temperature of

190 °C, curing duration of 15 h, 20 compaction counts by a manual compaction, WEV oil

with the ratio of 1:4 and amount of 4 % of WEV oil.

The embodied energy for each WEV Roofing tile was 0.55 MJ as per Table 11. Sulphuric

acid, WEV oil, processing, sand and fly ash showed the embodied energy of 5, 2, 0.06, 0.2

and 0 respectively as per Table 11. The total carbon emissions in different phases of catalyzed

WEV Roofing tile is 0.30 kg CO2/equivalent as per Table 12. WEV Roofing tile shows the

lowest total embodied energy (MJ) and total carbon emissions in different phases compared

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

18

to roofing tiles produced from concrete, clay, ceramic or waste vegetable oil as per Table 13.

WEV oil binder can reduce the energy emissions in the environment.

The feasibility of the product depends on the cost of the product. The cost of power and water

consumption for industrial sector in Malaysia was RM 0.38/KWh and RM 2.07/m3. The

materials used in the production of WEV Roofing tile were fly ash, river sand, waste

vegetable oil, waste engine oil and sulphuric acid. The cost approximation for the production

of WEV Roofing tile was RM 0.86 as per Table 14. The cost calculated for WEV Roofing

tile was found to be less in contrast to clay roofing tile. For clay roofing tile, the cost was

determined by using the clay roofing tile produced from local factory. The materials used in

the production of clay roofing tile were clay, sand and glass powder. The cost approximation

for the production of clay roofing tile was RM 1.39 as per Table 14. Rate per tile was

determined by multiplying the material used in producing one tile with the rate of that

particular material.

4. Practical Implications of This Study

The main challenge of this research study is to determine the suitability of the WEV oil to be

used as binder in the production of roofing tiles. The relationship between both types of waste

oils need to be study, to determine their contribution towards the binding effects within the

building materials. Although the WEV-Roofing tiles produced are able to achieve the

minimum requirements of the ASTM standards, there is always more rooms for

improvements. Further investigations are required for the possible leachates are released

from the roofing tiles when it is exposed to water. It is important to determine the composition

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

19

that are contained within the leachate so that it can be fully ensured that the roofing tiles are

safe and would not bring harm to both the environment and the humans. In addition, the

practice of using WEV oil as alternative binder applied for other applications, such as in the

production of building blocks, floor tiles or other building materials.

5. Conclusions

This study investigates the feasibility of utilizing alternative blended binder, which is a

combination of waste engine oil and waste vegetable oil as in the production of roofing tiles.

The WEV-Roofing tiles produced from this research study possessed of flexural strength up

to 6.38 MPa, low water absorption percentage of 5.2 %, and impermeable to water molecules,

fulfilled the basic requirements of roofing tiles as per ASTM standards. By utilizing waste

materials, such as WVO and WEO in the production of roofing tiles, the problem of excessive

waste disposal can be reduced, whilst decrease the usage of virgin resources. Moreover,

WEV-Roofing tiles possessed of relatively lower embodied carbon and energy, which are

0.30kg CO2/equivalent and 0.55 MJ/kg respectively. The production of WEV-Roofing tiles

which is greener and cleaner compared to the traditional roofing tiles is the prominent

outcomes of this research study.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

20

Acknowledgments

We would like to extend our gratitude to Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia for the

FRGS fund with project No. FRGS/1/2015/TK06/UTAR/02/1 and Universiti Tunku Abdul

Rahman for UTAR RESEARCH FUND with project No. IPSR/RMC/UTARRF/2015-

C1/N02.

References

Alavez-ramirez et al. (2014). Thermal lag and decrement factor of a coconut-ferrocement

roofing system, Constr. Build. Mater., 55, 246–256.

Al-ghouti, M.A., and Al-atoum, L., 2009. Virgin and recycled engine oil differentiation: A

spectroscopic study, Jour. Environ. Manage. 90(1), 187–195.

Alistair, G.,1996. Infrared Analysis as a Tool for Assessing Degradation in Used Engine

Lubricants. Wearcheck Africa, WZA-002.

Amer et al.,2015. Effect of different curing temperatures on alkali activated palm oil fuel ash

paste, Constr. Build. Mater. 94, 116–125.

ASTM C1492-03, 2009. Standard Specification for Concrete Roof Tiles. ASTM

International, West Conshohocken, PA.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

21

ASTM C1167-03, 2003. Standard Specification for Clay Roof Tiles. ASTM International,

West Conshohocken, PA.

ASTM C67-16, 2016. Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural

Clay Tile. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.

Banerjee, N., Ramakrishnan, R., and Jash, T., 2014. Biodiesel production from used

vegetable oil collected from shops selling fritters in Kolkata, Ener Procedia. 54, 161–165.

Beddu et al., 2015. The performance of concrete containing used cooking oil. In Proc of the

Thrd Intl. Conf. on Adv in Civ and Struc Eng-CSE. 66–70.

Berdahl et al., 2008. Weathering of roofing materials – An overview, Constr. Build. Mater.

22, 423–433.

Bilal, S. H., Ahmad, A. R., and Mutassem, E., 2003. Effect of used engine oil on properties

of fresh and hardened concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 17, 311-318.

Chani, P. S., Najamuddin., and Kaushik, S., 2003. Comparative analysis of embodied energy

rates for walling elements in India, J. Inst. Eng. India. 84, 47-50.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

22

Chin et al., 2012. The effects of used engine oil in reinforced concrete beams: The structural

behavior, Wrld. Acad. Sci. Eng .Tech. 6, 815-821.

CROW; Ede, 2000. Specification for Road Construction 2000 (‘Standard RAW Bepalingen

2000’).

Ecoinvent Version 3.3., 2016. Available at ecoinvent.org/database/ecoinvent-33/ecoinvent-

33.html (accessed 20/2/2018).

Eric, D., Robert, U., and Miriam, H., 2002. Energy and Chemical Use in the Production Chain

of Microchips. Conference Record 2002 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and

the Environment. 184-189.

Fadel, M., and Khoury, R., 2003. Strategies for vehicle waste-oil management: a case study.

Resources, conservation and recycling. 33(2), 75-91.

Forth, J. P., and Zoorob., 2013. Vegetable oil based construction materials. United States

Patent 0160677.

Francois, A., 2001. Guide for Computing CO2 Emissions Associated with Energy Use.

CANMET Energy Diversification Research Laboratory Natural Resources Canada.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

23

Hamad, B. S., Rteil, A. A., and El-fadel, M., 2003. Effect of used engine oil on properties of

fresh and hardened concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 17, 311–318.

Hammond, G., and Jones, C., 2011. Inventory of carbon and energy-ICE version 2.0.

University of Bath, UK.

Hanisah, K., Kumar, S., and Ay, T., 2013. The Management of Waste Cooking Oil : A

Preliminary Survey, Health. Environ. Jour. 4(1), 76–81.

HeshamDiab., 2011. Effect of mineral oil on reinforced concrete structures, Jour. Eng. Sci..

6, 1321-1333.

Humayun, N., Noor, Z. H., Ng, C. A., Salah, E. Z., Zahiraniza, M., Swee, Y. C., and

Muhammad, Y. (2017). Utilization of catalyzed waste vegetable oil as a binder for the

production of environmental friendly roofing tiles, J. Clean Produc.. 145, 250-261.

International Energy Agency., 2009. Cement Technology Roadmap - Carbon emissions

reductionsup to 2050. Available at www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/

publication/Cement_Roadmap.pdf (accessed 20/1/2017).

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

24

Johnson, A., Jumaat, M. Z., and Mahmud, H., 2008. Influence of sand content and silica fume

on mechanical properties of palm kernel shell concrete. Materials Science. 23, 251-262.

Kulkarni, M. G., and Dalai, A. K., 2006. Waste Cooking Oil s An Economical Source for

Biodiesel: A Review, Indus. English. Chem. Resour. 45, 2901–2913.

Kunhanandan, N. E. K., and Ramamurthy, K. (2005). Influence of filler type on the properties

of foam concrete, Cem.Conc. Compo. 28, 475-480.

Lam, S. S., Liew, R. K., Cheng, C. K., & Chase, H. A. (2015). Catalytic microwave pyrolysis

of waste engine oil using metallic pyrolysis char. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 176-

177, 601–617. doi:10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.04.014

Lam, S. S., Wan Mahari, W. A., Ok, Y. S., Peng, W., Chong, C. T., Ma, N. L., Tsang, D. C.

W., 2019. Microwave vacuum pyrolysis of waste plastic and used cooking oil for

simultaneous waste reduction and sustainable energy conversion: Recovery of cleaner liquid

fuel and techno-economic analysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 115,

109359. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109359

Lee, F. C., 2015. Thermal breakage of a semi flexible polymer: breakage profile and rate,

Jour. Phys. Conden. Matter. 27(27), 275101.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

25

Marchetti, J. M., and Errazu, A. F. (2008). Esterification of free fatty acids using sulfuric

acid as catalyst in the presence of triglycerides, Biomass. Bioenergy. 32 (9), 892–895.

Marmesat, S., Rodriguez, E., Velasco, J., and Dorbangarnes, M. C., 2007. Used frying fats

and oils: comparison of rapid tests based on chemical and physical oil properties, Inter. Jour.

Food. Sci. Techno. 42, 601-608.

Mohammad, N. A., Jan, N. A., and Omar, H. A. (2004). Experimental study of fly ash based

roof tiles with polythene fiber under stress-strain characteristics, Inter. Jour. Civil. Environ.

Eng. 36 (1), 1208-1215.

Mojtaba et al., 2013. Assessment of the roles of various cement replacements in achieving

the sustainable and high performance concrete, Inter. Jour. Adv. Eng. Techno. 6(1), 68-77.

Nasir, S., Muhd, F. N., and Salmia, B., 2011. Properties of concrete containing used engine

oil, Inter. Jour. Sus. Constr. Eng. Techno. 2(1), 72-82.

Noor et al., 2015. Environmentally friendly vege-roofing tile: an investigation study. In: Proc

of the Frst Inter Conf on Bio-Based Build Mater. PRO 99. RILEM Publications.

Olalekan et al., 2014. Influence of curing methods and concentration of NaOH on strength

of the synthesized alkaline activated ground slag-ultrafine palm oil fuel ash mortar / concrete,

Constr. Build. Mater. 66, 541–548.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

26

Raheem, M. O., Otuoze, H. S., and Abdulhafiz, U., 2013. Properties of Rice Husk Ash

Stabilized Laterite Roof Tiles, Leo Elec Jour of Prac and Tech. 23, 41-50.

Reijnders, L., and Hujibregts, M., 2008. Palm oil and the emission of carbon –based

greenhouse gases, Jour Clean Prod., 16, 477-482.

Sahar, Sadaf, S., Iqbal, J., Ullah, I., Bhatti, H. N., Nouren, S. Iqbal., 2018. Biodiesel

production from waste cooking oil: An efficient technique to convert waste into biodiesel.

Sustainable Cities and Society. 41, 220–226. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2018.05.037

Sam, S. S., Ng, C. A., Chee, S. Y., Habib, N. Z., Nadeem, H., and Teoh, W. P., 2017.

Utilization of ethyl cellulose polymer and waste materials for roofing tile production. IOP

Conf Ser: Earth and Env Sci, 67. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/67/1/012005.

Sanli, H., Canakci, M., and Alptekin, E., 2011. Characterization of waste frying oils obtained

from different facilities. In: Bioenergy Tech, Wrld Renew Ener Congr 2011. Sweden, 8-13

May 2011. Sweden: Bioenergy Technology.

Saurabh, K., 2005. Additives depletion and engine oil condition – a case study, Indus. Lubri.

Tribology. 57(2), 69–72.

Srikonda, R., 2012. Appraisal of Vernacular Building Materials and Alternative Technoligies

for Roofing and Terracing Options of Embodied Energy in Buildings, Energy Procedia. 14,

1843-1848.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

27

Swaroopa, R. M., and Tejaanvesh, M., 2015. Performance of high-strength concrete using

palm oil fuel ash as partial cement replacement, Inter. Jour. Eng. Research. App. 5 (4), 8-12.

Teoh, W. P., Noor, Z. H., Ng, C. A., and Chee, S. Y., 2017. Catalyzed Waste Engine Oil as

Alternative Binder – Chemical Analysis and Optimization of Parameters, Jour Clean Prod.,

174, 988-999.

Tomasevic, A. V., and Siler, S. S., 2003. Methanolysis of used frying oil, Fuel Process

Techno. 81, 1-6.

Tonoli et al., 2010. Effect of accelerated carbonation on cementitious roofing tiles reinforced

with lignocellulosic fibre, Constr. Build. Mater. 24(2), 193–201.

Ullah, Z., Bustam, M. A., and Man, Z., 2014. Characterization of waste palm cooking oil for

biodiesel production, Inter. Jour. Chem. Eng. App. 5(2), 134-137.

Wan Mahari, W. A., Zainuddin, N. F., Chong, C. T., Lee, C. L., Lam, W. H., Poh, S. C., &

Lam, S. S., 2017. Conversion of waste shipping oil into diesel-like oil via microwave-assisted

pyrolysis. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 5(6), 5836–5842.

doi:10.1016/j.jece.2017.11.005

Xudong, C., Shengxing, W., and Jikai, Z., 2013. Influence of porosity on compressive and

tensile strength of cement mortar, Constr. Build. Mater. 40, 869-874.

Journal Pre-proof

Wordcount : 7693

28

Zivica., and Krizma., 2011. Dependence of efficiency of pressure compaction on the cement

type used, Constr. Build. Mater. 25, 3073–3077.

Zoorob, S. E., Forth, J. P., and Bailey, H. K., 2006. Vegeblock: Masonry Units from Recycled

Waste and Vegetable oil. 21st Inter Conf Solid Waste Tech and Manage. 511-520.

Journal Pre-proof

AUTHOR STATEMENT

We confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by all of us.

We confirm that we have given due consideration to the protection of intellectual property associated with this work and that there are no impediments to publication, including the timing of publication, with respect to intellectual property. In so doing we confirm that we have followed the regulations of our institutions concerning intellectual property.

We understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for the Editorial process (including Editorial Manager and direct communications with the office). He/she is responsible for communicating with the other authors about progress, submissions of revisions and final approval of proofs. We confirm that we have provided a current, correct email address which is accessible by the Corresponding Author.

Signed by all authors as follows: [LIST AUTHORS AND DATED SIGNATURES ALONGSIDE]

Name Signature DateSuubitaa A/P Spencer Sam Suubi 20/2/2020

Dr. Noor Zainab Habib Noor 20/2/2020

Dr. Ng Choon Aun Ng 20/2/2020

Dr. Chee Swee Yong Chee 20/2/2020

Dr. Mohammed J. K. Bashir Bashir 20/2/2020

Teoh Wei Ping Teoh 20/2/2020

Journal Pre-proof

DECLARATION OF INTEREST STATEMENT

To: The Editor,

Journal of Cleaner Production

We hereby declare that:

We confirm that the manuscript has been read and approved by all named authors and that there are no other persons who satisfied the criteria for authorship but are not listed. We further confirm that the order of authors listed in the manuscript has been approved by all of us.

We confirm that we have given due consideration to the protection of intellectual property associated with this work and that there are no impediments to publication, including the timing of publication, with respect to intellectual property. In so doing we confirm that we have followed the regulations of our institutions concerning intellectual property.

We understand that the Corresponding Author is the sole contact for the Editorial process (including Editorial Manager and direct communications with the office). He/she is responsible for communicating with the other authors about progress, submissions of revisions and final approval of proofs. We confirm that we have provided a current, correct email address which is accessible by the Corresponding Author.

Signed by all authors as follows: [LIST AUTHORS AND DATED SIGNATURES ALONGSIDE]

Name Signature DateSuubitaa A/P Spencer Sam Suubi 20/2/2020

Dr. Noor Zainab Habib Noor 20/2/2020

Dr. Ng Choon Aun Ng 20/2/2020

Dr. Chee Swee Yong Chee 20/2/2020

Dr. Mohammed J. K. Bashir Bashir 20/2/2020

Teoh Wei Ping Teoh 20/2/2020

Journal Pre-proof

Fig.1 Particle size distribution curve of river sand

Fig. 2 FTIR spectra of waste engine oil, WEV oil and waste vegetable oil in descending order

0102030405060708090

100110

0.1110

Particle size, D, mm

Perc

ent F

iner

, S, %

Wave number (cm-1)

Tran

smis

sion

(%)

4000 3000 2000 1500 1000 500

Journal Pre-proof

Fig. 3 TGA analysis of WEV oil

Fig. 4 Flexural strength of tile with different amounts of catalyzed waste engine-vegetable oil

0123456789

10

1 2 3 4 5 6

Catalyzed waste engine-vegetable oil (%)

Flex

ural

stre

ngth

(MPa

)

Weight, mg

Temperature, 0C 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440 480

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

Journal Pre-proof

Fig. 5 Flexural strength of tile with different ratios of waste engine-vegetable oil

Fig. 6 Flexural strength of tile with different compaction counts

0123456789

10

0.25 0.33 0.55 1 2 3 4

Ratio of waste engine-vegetable oil

Flex

ural

stre

ngth

(MPa

)

0.001.002.003.004.005.006.007.008.009.00

10.00

5 10 15 20

Manual compaction

Machine compaction

Compaction counts

Flex

ural

stre

ngth

(M

Pa)

Journal Pre-proof

Fig. 7 Water absorption of tile with different compaction counts

Fig. 8 Porosity of tile with different compaction counts

0.001.002.003.004.005.006.007.008.009.00

10.00

5 10 15 20

Manual compaction

Machine compaction

Compaction counts

Wat

er a

bsor

ptio

n (%

)

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

5 10 15 20

Manual compaction

Machine compaction

Compaction counts

Poro

sity

(%)

Journal Pre-proof

Fig. 9 Flexural strength of tile with different curing temperatures

Fig. 10 Flexural strength of tile with different curing durations

0123456789

10

100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200

5 compaction counts

10 compaction counts

15 compaction counts

20 compaction counts

Curing temperature (°C)

Flex

ural

stre

ngth

(MPa

)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

5 compaction counts

10 compaction counts

15 compaction counts

20 compaction counts

Curing duration (h)

Flex

ural

stre

ngth

(MPa

)

Journal Pre-proof

Fig. 11 WEV Roofing tile

Journal Pre-proof

Highlight for Review

The mixed waste engine and vegetable oil was used as a tile binder.

Tile’s strength is affected by curing temperature, duration and compaction.

The tiles produced from mixed waste oil meet all the requirements.

Journal Pre-proof

1

Table 1 Comparison of literature reviews and the present work.

Materials Literature review Current research studyWaste vegetable oil (WVO)

- Can be converted into biodiesel using mineral acid pre-treatment, followed by alkali trans-esterification process. The conversion efficiency is up to 88% (Sahar et al., 2018).

- Used as the binder in the production of Vegeblocks, possessed of compressive strength up to 25 Mpa (Zoorob et al., 2006).

- Can be used as sole binder in the production of roofing tiles. The flexural strength achieved by the roofing tiles produced can up to 12 Mpa (Humayun et al., 2017).

Waste engine oil (WEO)

- Can be used as additive to enhance the durability of concrete produced (Chin, 2012)

- In the present of metallic-char as catalyst, WEO can be converted into pyrolysis-oil and pyrolysis-gases via microwave pyrolysis process (Lam et al., 2015).

- Used as sole binder in the production of EnO-Roofing tiles, which produced from almost 100% of waste materials (Teoh et al., 2018).

- In this study, both types of waste oils were mixed thoroughly at different ratio to form a blended binder, namely WEV oil.

- The binder will be used as sole binder to replace cement and clay in the production of roofing tiles.

Journal Pre-proof

2

Sieve Size (mm)

Wt. Retained

(g)

Wt. Retained

(%)

Cumulative Retained (%)

Total Passing (%)

3.35 7 0.7 0.7 99.32.36 20 2 2.7 97.31.18 321 32.1 34.8 65.20.425 345 34.5 69.3 30.70.212 195.8 19.58 88.88 11.120.15 21 2.1 90.98 9.02

Composition (wt. %)Raw materials T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

Sand aggregates

81 81 81 81 81 81

Fly ash 18 17 16 15 14 13Catalyzed

waste engine-

vegetable(WEV) oil

1 2 3 4 5 6

Table 4 Initial selected values of parameters for the optimization process

Optimization sequence Parameters Selected range1 Amount of WEV oil 1-6 %2 Ratio of WEV oil 0.25, 0.33, 0.5, 1, 2, 3,

and 43 Compaction method Manual or machine

compaction4a Curing temperature 100°C-200 °C5a Curing duration 1-24 h

aForth and Zoorob (2013)

Table 3 Formulation of experimental mixes.

Table 2 Size gradation of river sand (ASTM C 136)

Journal Pre-proof

3

Table 5 Assumptions in calculating the energy emissions

Steps Assumption

Vehicle

Waste engine oil and used vegetable oil were obtained from car station and restaurant respectively at about 80 km by a car.

Production

Oven with a capacity of 15 KWh was utilized for the manufacturing of tiles. About 800 tiles were produced in an oven at one time. Tiles were sent to local vendors at about 150 km.

Final stage of life management

Waste roofing tiles were discarded in a landfills at about 30 km.

Table 6 Water permeability of tile with different compaction counts

Water permeabilityCompaction countsManual compaction

Machine compaction

5 Failed Failed10 Passed Passed15 Passed Passed20 Passed Passed

Journal Pre-proof

4

Tile No. Mass (g) Fly Ash (%)

Sand (%)

Catalyzed waste

engine-vegetable

oil (%)

Density (g/cm3)

Porosity

1 1951 15 81 4 1.92 4.92 1962 15 81 4 1.96 4.33 1957 15 81 4 1.94 4.64 1965 15 81 4 1.97 4.15 1971 15 81 4 1.99 3.7

Tile No. Loading force, P

(N)

Span Length, L

(mm)

Width, W (mm)

Depth, d (mm)

Flexural Stress =3*P*L / 2*W*d2

(MPa)1 376.62 260 240 10 6.122 390.15 260 240 10 6.343 400.62 260 240 10 6.514 385.23 260 240 10 6.265 409.85 260 240 10 6.66

Average 6.38 ± 0.21

Table 9 Accelerated weathering test (900 days) of WEV Roofing tile

Tile No. Loading force, P

(N)

Span Length, L

(mm)

Width, W (mm)

Depth, d (mm)

Flexural Stress =3*P*L / 2*W*d2

(MPa)1 443.69 260 240 10 7.212 456.62 260 240 10 7.423 449.85 260 240 10 7.314 464.62 260 240 10 7.555 458.46 260 240 10 7.45

Average 7.39 ± 0.13

Table 7 Density and porosity of the WEV Roofing tiles

Table 8 Flexural stress of the WEV Roofing tile

Journal Pre-proof

5

Table 10 Saturation coefficient and percentage of cold and boiling water absorbed by WEV

Roofing tiles

Tile No 1 2 3 4 5 AverageDry mass of the tile, Wd

1955 1964 1967 1958 1963 1961.4 ± 4.83

Saturated mass of the

tile, Ws

2058.6 2060.2 2069.3 2067.6 2061.2 2063.4 ± 4.76

Absorption of Cold Water, C

(%)

5.3 4.9 5.2 5.6 5.0 5.2 ± 0.27

Saturated mass of the tile after 5 hours in

boiling water, WB

2112.0 2099.5 2117.4 2104.1 2099.4 2106.5 ± 7.97

Absorption of Boiling Water,

B (%)

8.0 6.9 7.6 7.5 6.9 7.38 ± 0.48

Saturation Coefficient

(C/B)

0.66 0.71 0.68 0.75 0.72 0.70 ± 0.04

Material Embodied Energy* (MJ/kg)

Material Required per tile

(kg,L)

Total Embodied Energy per tile

(MJ/kg)

Sulphuric Acid 5a 0.002 0.01

WEV oil 2b 0.078 0.156

Processing 0.06c - 0.06

Sand 0.20 1.620 0.324

Fly Ash 0d 0.3 0

Total 0.55 *a, (Eric et al., 2002); b, (Reijnders and Huijbregts, 2008); c, (Francois, 2001); d, (Chani et al., 2003)

Table 11 Embodied energy per WEV Roofing tile

Journal Pre-proof

6

*Emission factor were obtained from (Humayun et. al 2017) and (Teoh et. al 2018)

Cradle to Gate Emissions

Material Quantity (kg)Emission

factor* (kg CO2/equiv.)

Total Emission

WEV Oil 0.078 1.00 0.078

Sulphuric Acid 0.002 0.17 0.00034

Fly Ash 0.3 0.004 0.0012

Sand 1.620 0 0Manufacturing

OperationElectricity

Usage (KWh)

Emission Factori(kg CO2

per equiv.)

Total Phase Emission

Heat Curing 0.3 (15h) 0.63 0.189

Distribution

Material Transport (Km)

Transport Emissionsh

(per kg, Km)

Total Phase Emission

Extraction of materialsWEV Oil 80 0.0001 0.008

Sulphuric Acid 20 0.0001 0.002

Fly Ash 35 0.0001 0.0035

Sand 20 0.0001 0.002Product

distributionRoofing Tile 150 0.0001 0.015

End of Life

Material Transport (Km)Transport Emissions

(per kg, Km)

Total Phase Emission

Roofing Tile 30 0.00001 0.003Total 0.30

Table 12 Total carbon emissions in different phases of WEV Roofing tile

Journal Pre-proof

7

Table 13 Comparative analysis of embodied energy

No Tile (390mm×240mm×10mm)

Total embodied energy (MJ/kg)

Total embodied carbon (kg CO2 /kg)

1 Concrete 2.7a 0.65b

2 Clay 6.0a 0.45b

3 Ceramic 12.0a 0.74b

4 Catalyzed Vege 0.64a 0.327a

5 WEV Roofing tile 0.55 0.30aHumayun et al. (2017).bHammond and Jones (2011).

Journal Pre-proof

8

Clay Roofing tile WEV Roofing tile

No. Description Rate(RM)

Rate per tile

(RM)

No. Description Rate(RM)

Rate per Tile

(RM)

1 Clay 59322.00/metric ton 0.024 1 Fly ash 80/metri

c ton 0.024

2 Sand 80/metric ton

0.0001 2 Sand 80/metri

c ton 0.001

3 Glass powder

1384180.00/metric

ton0.55 3

Waste vegetable

oil

800/metric ton 0.04992

4 Waste engine oil

888/metric ton 0.01385

5 Sulphuric acid

35.60/liter 0.001

1 Oven 0.38/KWh 0.76 1 Oven 0.38/KWh 0.76

2 Mixer 0.38/KWh 0.001 2 Mixer 0.38/KWh 0.001

3 Water 2.07/cubic meter

Approx 0.05

TOTAL 1.39 TOTAL 0.86

TE Table 14 Economic comparison of clay and WEV Roofing tiles

Journal Pre-proof