Blaiech Gharbi e Amoua 2013

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INTERDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

COPY RIGHT 2013 Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research 1294

JANUARY 2013 VOL 4, NO 9

POSTMODERN MARKETING: TOWARDS A CONVERGENCE BETWEEN THE

INDIVIDUALISTIC

APPROACH AND THE TRIBAL APPROACH

Rabeb BLAIECH*

(Corresponding author)

Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management-Tunis-Tunisia

Abderrazak GHARBI*


Manel HAMOUDA*


(*Authors Names are sorted by alphabetical order)

Abstract

This research focuses on the approaches that structure the postmodern marketing framework: the individualistic

approach and the Latin approach. It is a synthesis work elaborated in order to show, firstly, the differences

between these two approaches on the theoretical, epistemological and methodological levels. Secondly, we tried

to overstep these differences by highlighting the common points. Our goal is to diffuse the understanding of

postmodernism and to reduce the postmodern theorization contention by advocating a moderate vision that

combines individualistic and Latin approach.

Key words: Postmodern Marketing, individualistic approach, tribal approach, epistemology, methodology,

convergence.

1. Introduction

Postmodernism was born due to the modernity myth saturation (Maffesoli, 1988 in Basilico, 2003;

Venkatesh, Sherry and Firat, 1993). The origin of this paradigm has its first signs in areas such as art and

architecture. It is that towards the 90s when Marketing and Management became aware of the postmodernism

revolution (Venkatesh, Sherry and Firat, 1993). The growing implications of postmodernism affect, closely,

various marketing subjects, as consumer behavior (Venkatesh, Sherry and Firat, 1993; Firat and Venkatesh,

1995; Joy and Venkatesh, 1994), consumption (Elliott, 1998; Cooper et al., 2005, Holt, 1997; Sandikci et al.,

2002. Sitz and Amine, 2004; Chantelat et al., 2002), communication (Firat and Christensen, 2005; Patterson,

1998; Noah and Venkatesh, 1999) and industrial marketing (Arias et al., 2001). However, studies which have

traced the panorama of the debates dealing with postmodern marketing highlight two main trends: the Latin

versus the Anglo-Saxon. Thus, two distinct contributions were identified. The Anglo-Saxon school of thought

sees that the fundamental change of postmodern marketing is the individualistic side of the consumer and the

consumption (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). Whereas, the Latin view believes that the tribalism of the consumer

and the consumption experiences (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova, 2004) is the major feature that characterizes

the postmodern marketing. Instead of trying to analyze these two trends and to studying their points of

divergence and eventual convergences, the lack of consensus between these two schools of thought, led that

contributions emerging from these debates were ignored (El Rigaux-Bricmont and Kamel, 2011) in consumer

and consumption researches. So, the main question of this study is: to what extent can we reconcile between the

individualistic approach and the tribal approach of the postmodern marketing?

This research aim is, therefore, the study of the convergence points between the two approaches in

order to propose a moderate view. This moderate view enables postmodern marketing to be an analytical

framework adapted to consumer research either alone or in group. So, a literature review was conducted and

which presents, firstly, the research framework through the postmodernism definition and the rise of postmodern

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marketing. Secondly, an analysis of the characteristics of each approach will be made by showing its

contributions on the theoretical, epistemological and methodological side. Thirdly and finally, a synthesis of the

two approaches over the discussed sides will be realized in order to identify the convergence points between the

individualistic and tribal approach.

2. Postmodernism and Postmodern Marketing

2.1. Postmodernism

Postmodernism can be defined in different ways, but what seems to gather all the authors who

addressing this subject; it is what Lyotard suggests that the societies do not meet the requirements defined by the

modern thought context. According to him, these societies are defined by a return to the irrational, the

subjectivity and the fragmentation. He proposes to use the term of "postmodern" to refer to the new cultural

system, in which predominates the disbelief towards "metanarratives" (Lyotard, 1979) legitimizing knowledge

and coexistence of multiple "language games" that takes body in the fragmentation of activities, particularly

scientific (Lyotard, 1979, 1988). To better understand postmodernism, three approaches have been identified

(Firat and Vankatech 1995): Critical postmodernism, Affirmative postmodernism and Liberatory

postmodernism.

- Critical postmodernism or skeptical postmodernism. Postmodernists, who adopt a critical perspective, consider

postmodern conditions as the result of an excess of modernism, or what Jameson (1984) calls a "late

capitalism". They stand for a radical break with the culture of late capitalism and a return to some of moral

utopianism (Jameson, 1984, Ziegler, 1991). Skeptical postmodernists have adopted positions addressed with

more inquisition than tolerance. By doing this, they forget even their basic precepts based on the multiplicity of

a text meanings (Cova and al., 2012). So, this postmodern approach is considered as the most extreme

postmodernism formulation. It tackles the basis of social science and questions it radically.

- Affirmative postmodernism also called celebratory postmodernism. This postmodern approach address a direct

criticism to modernism and calls for imminent dissolution of its metanarratives and great projects that seems to

be timeless and unshakable (Vattimo, 1988). It encourages redefinitions and more elaborating research

questions.

- Liberatory postmodernism: This postmodernism approach is advanced by Firat and Venkatesh (1995). They

are closer to "Celebratory postmodernism" in its modernism criticism and its belief in a liberating potential of

postmodern conditions and postmodern ideas towards discourse and epistemology. Liberatory postmodernists

partially agree with Jenks (1987) that postmodern conditions cannot be considered as an interruption and break

of modernism, but an extension and maturation of it.

2.2. Postmodern Marketing

Marketing field has not explicitly recognized postmodernism as a major descriptor of the current social

condition that from the 90s (Lo 'pez-bonilla and Lo' pez-bonilla 2009). Postmodernism was introduced, initially,

in marketing thanks to many authors such as Hirschman, Holbrook, Firat and Venkatesh, and it has resulted in

considerable contributions (Saren, 2011), including a reflection on the paradigms to understand the postmodern

consumption complexity (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1992) and the role of marketing in today's consumer

society (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993; Badot and Cova 1992a, 1992b). The most recent postmodernism definition

applied in marketing studies was proposed by Gerrit Van Raaij (1998) who defined it as: a cultural episode,

characterized by a pluralism of styles (of consumption) and ideologies, a need for hyperreality and self-

expression through consumption.

The lack of consensus on postmodernism definitions and approaches is also transposed to the marketing

discipline as researchers do not agree on marketing approaches applied in postmodernism context. Indeed, these

approaches are marked by the duality individualism / tribalism. This duality in the vision of the postmodern

marketing transformation is expressed even on a geographical way as individualistic approach is advocated by

the North American or Anglo-Saxon view, while the tribal approach is strongly supported by the Latin view.

Otherwise, the anglo saxon view or the individualistic approach applied to postmodern marketing fits rather in

the liberatory postmodernism thought (Firat and Vankatech, 1995) whereas the latin postmodern marketing

view would be integrated into the affirmative postmodernism approach (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova,

2004).Table1 summarizes the different approaches of postmodernism and postmodern marketing.

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3. Postmodern Marketing approaches: theoretical, epistemological and methodological contributions

The divergence of postmodernist approaches and visions applied to marketing is appeared in terms of

theoretical differences related to consumer and consumption nature. On the epistemological side this divergence

is seen by differences in the reality perception as well as in the research methods and evaluation criteria of

scientific production as a methodological differences. Hence, in this section, we will try to study the theoretical,

epistemological and methodological contributions of the individualistic approach and the tribal approach applied

to postmodern marketing research.

3.1. Individualistic approach

The individualistic approach is supported by the proponents of the North American view, Anglo-Saxon

or also called Nordic view. They advocate that the postmodern era is the era of the individualism, which is the

main feature of the postmodern consumption and postmodern consumer behavior.

3.1.1 Theoretical contributions

- Postmodern individualism: This approach initiated by Firat (1991), Van Raaij (1993), Firat and

Venkatesh (1993), is trying to adapt to the fragmentation and the postmodern individualism. It is looking to the

consumer proximity. This approach is also advocated by Lipovetsky (1990), who sees in the postmodern era, an

era of individualism resurgence marked by an authority crisis and a social vacuum. According to him,

postmodern society has no idol, no taboo, no more glorious image of itself, no more inspiring historical project

(Lipovetsky, 1983). The individual is free of all life ideals and societal obligations which he felt bounded in the

modern era, the individual is becoming left to himself. He is completely autonomous. This customization

process, called "trial personalization" by Lipovetsky (1983), begins to have its impact on social relationship as

far the individual triumph group.

In today's societies, expertise and authority are as much more situated on the consumer side than the

supplier one (Keat et al, 1994). Indeed, it is a consumer with developed skills by the accumulation of daily

experiences with a product or service. A consumer with a set of theoretical knowledge acquired through the

information technology proliferation, especially Internet. Knowledge and skills that form the basis of the

consumers power against suppliers power what drive Hemetsberger (2003) to describe the postmodern

consumer as a "prosumer" because consumers are involved in the production process and even seem to be the

first producers of consumer experience. This power shift seems to be explained not only by a growing

institutional distrust and increasing consumers skills, but also by a change in society legitimation systems.

One of the most prominent evidence of this structural change is the heroes of popular culture (Eco,

1978 in Vankatech and Firat, 1993). Nowadays heroes appear more as more simple heroes, not as super heroes

with supernatural and incredible powers. On this regard Eco (1978 in Vankatech and Firat, 1993) states that it is

television which imposed the everyman against the superman, by offering of the everyday man model with his

weaknesses and imperfections: a model in which each one can find himself.

-Postmodern individualism reasons: The main purpose of the individualistic approach is to build,

develop and maintain a relationship with a clearly identified customer, rather than to fill a market composed of a

mass of unknown persons grouped into homogeneous segments (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). So, this approach

recommends the abandon of mass marketing to direct marketing based on a customers and well known

prospects database relayed by an industrial organization in order to realize a "mass customization".

The principle of marketing practice adapted to the postmodern individual age can then be considered as

follows: a highly personalized marketing form which enables to recognize, understand, appreciate and serve the

interests and needs of consumers whose personal identities and marketing profiles are known (Firat, 1991; Van

Raaij, 1993; Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). The argumentation of this approach is based on the following reasons:

- If we cannot divide the market into homogeneous and stable segments, so, it remains only to track

individually the consumer (as technology progress including computing permits it);

- If the consumer is fickle, in perpetual movement, it is necessary to try at least to predict its behavior

and to be able to react as quickly as possible to its new aspirations through a continuous contact;

- If the consumer is individualistic, then, he looks for all which allows him to maintain and develop its

freedom, as a trust relationship with a supplier who releases him from the material life aspects by the

offered service quality;

- If the consumer seeks to differentiate itself, he asks for individualized products and services that only a

constant, close and interactive contact, close and interactive enables to provide it.

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- Individualistic postmodern consumption: At the consumption level and in the context of the individualistic

approach, postmodern consumer behavior researchers, privileged an experiential vision which emphasize the

regret values as well as the individual subjectivity (Addis and Holbrook, 2001) rather than a functional and

progressive consumption vision. From a micro-economic and psychological origin, the functional and

progressive vision highlights the information search and influence multi-attribute mechanisms processing to

optimize a transaction made by a single individual. Whereas, in the experiential perspective of consumption, the

individual is considered as no more seeking to maximize a profit but as claiming a hedonistic gratification.

The market is, thus, characterized by a " re enchanted " offer and emotions produced by imaginary

projections which not only trying to meet needs, but it affecting the consumer's quest for identity (Bud-

Renault, 2007; Filser, 1996). Individualistic approach precursors speak of a "reenchantment of consumption"

(Firat and Vankatesh, 1995) to report the break with the modern disenchantment consumption which had

rationalized consumers lives and made everything measured in terms of utility. Hence, the simple act of

consumption is a means to enchant consumer daily life, indeed, Firat and Dholakia (1998. p96) argued that:

for the postmodern consumer, consumption is not a mere act of devouring, destroying, or using things. It is also

not the end of the (central) economic cycle, but an act of production of experiences and selves or self-images . . .

The way to enhance and enchant life is to allow multiple experiences, to be sensed emotionally as well as

through reason, utilizing all the aspects of being human . . . Life is to be produced and created, in effect,

constructed through the multiple experiences in which the consumer immerses.

3.1.2. Epistemological and methodological contributions

The epistemology is the study of science. It ensures to completely ignore things that are aimed by

science, but it considers the science itself as an object. It assigns as the exclusive domain of study what science

says, not what science carries about (Blanch, 1972). The use of a research method is based on the choice of a

mode among three investigation modes: a quantitative, qualitative and mixed mode (both quantitative and

qualitative). This choice is, often, the result of an epistemological choice (positivism / constructivism, ....).

The individualistic or Anglo-Saxon approach applied to postmodern marketing slots rather into the

liberatory postmodernism which considers that the postmodern conditions can not be in a complete break with

modernism, but an extension of it (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995).

Therefore, according to this approach, marketing researchers do not reject epistemologies and

methodologies of previous research. Indeed, these epistemologies and methodologies remain valid in the context

of social science research in general and in marketing research in particular. Moreover, the marketing literature

review conducted to study the postmodern consumer as an individual (as advocated by the North American

individualistic approach) shows that research within this approach involve several types of study mainly

quantitative, qualitative, or both, consequently these research are positioning on more than an epistemology

(Firat and Shultz, 2001; Kniazeva and Venkatesh, 2007, Elliott, 1994; Mustonen and Honkanen, 2007).

Within the individualistic approach generated by the Anglo-Saxon school of thought, researchers do

not advocate the abandonment of the "scientific procedures which use for example cognitive psychology

methods, information processing and mathematical modeling in so far as liberatory postmodernism never

suggests a complete rupture in the scientific process (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995). Liberatory postmodernism

researchers, simply, argue that "scientific" knowledge is not the only source of knowledge and that science does

not have to aim at a universal knowledge. The scientific argument should combine with the narrative discourse

to produce a richer scientific texture that enables a better knowledge of the consumer as well as his consumption

process. Liberatory postmodernism researchers consider postmodernism as a post-universal science and not as a

post-science (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995).

Besides, this approach, suggests, the adoption of new epistemological positionings jointly with the

existing positionings and consequently the use of new mode of investigation such as the ethnographic

investigations (Belk et al., 1988; Kates 2000, 2002; Schouten and Alexander Mc 1995) performed especially

when it comes to study the individual behavior in a community or a specific subculture. Phenomenological

studies have been initiated by several researchers in studies on possessions and relationship between objects

(Belk, 1988; Sherry 1993, 1995) or within the critical hermeneutics context (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). The

individualistic approach proposes to extend these phenomenological studies in the postmodern framework.

Venkatech speaks even about the apparition of a new paradigm called the "ethno-consumerism," which refers to

other ways of reflection about consumption practices (Venkatesh, 1995).

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3.2. Tribal approach

The Latin marketing (meridian or south) is to integrate in the broader approach of affirmative

posmodernism (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova, 2004). This school tries to provide an alternative model to

what is called "the American way of life" by promoting a southern thought (Mediterranean) applied to

marketing that takes into account the specificities of this geographical area.

3.2.1. Theoretical contributions

- Postmodern tribalism: This approach is grounded on the Latin way of life, characterized by

consumers who like to live together in tribes, especially in a time marked by individualism. Similarly, their daily

practices are made of objects and symbols re appropriation from the market system rather than a simple

participation in it (Cova, 1999; 2004). Tribal marketing is more communal than individual and at its center we

found tribes or communities. Relations in these groups relies more on social ties than market relationship

(Remy, 2001; Badot and Cova, 1995). Tribes are considered as the unit of analysis of the Latin approach. They

are defined by Maffesoli (1988, in Roncaglio and Cova, 1999), the spiritual father of this concept, as

crystallized event, societal effervescence, more than socio-economic object clearly defined: its a temporary

and highly emotional grouping of dissimilar persons. It is not a closed object, it is an open system.

The use of tribal metaphor seems to be in perfect harmony with postmodern re rooting of individuals

and the resurgence of archaic values (local particularities, religiosity, group narcissism ). In fact, emotional

communities (Badot and Cova, 1995) or affectual (Maffesoli, 1996 in Cova and Cova, 2002) try to refresh the

ideal neighborhood community or village without necessarily being spatially defined. Some use all the resources

of new media (computers, tablets ...) to form virtual tribes, where face to face and physical co-presence are not

always required (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova and Cova, 2002).

- Postmodern consumption: The new vision advocated by the Latin school affects two important

aspects of marketing: consumption and value. In fact, this approach considers the consumption from a micro

social perspective. In other terms, it focuses on the interaction between persons. It is also called "societal level"

(Maffesoli, 1996 in Cova and Cova, 2002) or "primary level of sociality" (Godbout and Caille, 1992 in Cova

and Cova, 2002), done with daily interactions and emotions. The micro-social level of analysis would then

disclose elements imperceptible if we take them one by one, but discerned through collective experience (Cova

and Cova, 2002).

- The value of goods and points of sales: To characterize the postmodern social dynamics, Maffesoli

(1988 in Cova, 2004) focuses on the tribal atmosphere that grows increasingly. Whereas, Certau (1980 in Cova,

2004) considers that the ordinary man invents his daily through the art of turning away objects and codes in

order to reclaim at his manner the use and the space. Among the contributions of the Latin school that can be

highlighted due to their relevance to the whole theory and practice of marketing, is the concept of product and

services "link value" (Cova, 1997) and therefore "tribal marketing" (Cova and Cova, 2002b). The link value is a

concept borrowed from recent work in anthropology and sociology. It has been defined by Godbout and Caill

(1992, in Cova, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002 and 2003) as: "the value of a good or a service in the construction or

strengthening of links between persons, past or present, real or imagined." Thus, to satisfy their desire for

community, postmodern individuals are more looking for product and services for their linking value than for

their use value, whether functional or symbolic (Godbout and Caille, 1992 in Badot and Cova, 1995). Tribalism

seems to command a redefinition of products and services value. They play the role of cult product and place

supporting link and interdependence between persons.

The cult item is a product or a service that acts as a support for the strengthening of neo-tribal

relationships (Badot and Cova, 2003; Cova and Cova, 2001). It represents a vector of communion such as the

totem for primitive tribes. The cult item serves as a magnet for the postmodern tribes and as a support for their

rituals (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997). The valorization of social aspects is a relatively new phenomenon.

Hence, products that enable to connect and be close are rare. Consequently, postmodern individuals try to found

vectors of link out of the market or to turn away vectors in the market from their original purpose (Badot and

Cova, 1995). Similarly to the cult objects, places play the role of social ties support. These distribution sites

can be perceived and conceived as favorite territory for tribes to practice their rituals. They become both

servuction places and ritualization places (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997) or "living space" (Remy, 2001).

In cult places, consumers can develop social link with sellers or other clients (Badot and Cova, 2003). Thus, to

give to the modern places of distribution a hint of link value, some propose to put the emphasis on the funfair

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others propose a set of micro-community-based events. All those initiatives tend to promote intimate contact

between customers in a space designed to enable the conduct of ritual activities around an ethic theme (Badot

and Cova, 1995). To do this, the Latin school proposes to go beyond the proximity state advocated by the

Nordic School, to that of intimacy (Cova, 199; Rmy, 2002). In other words, not just to be close to customers

without sharing anything with them.

3.2.2. Epistemological and methodological contributions

Tribal marketing belongs to the affirmative postmodern paradigm and joins its epistemological

evolution with the shift from positivism to interpretativism. This is called by Sherry (1991, in Merle, 2003) the

"interpretativist turn in consumer behavior research." Tribal marketing fits in the interpretative thought (Cova

and Roncaglio, 1999) which focuses on the consumer experiences to observe and interpret them through many

views as offered by different theories and methods (Arnould and Price, 1993 and Roncaglio in Cova, 1999;

Arnould and Thompson, 2005). Thus, most of the research on communities and subcultures, when trying to

enroll in a postmodern epistemological position, use ethnographic investigations (Belk et al., 1988; Kates 2000,

2002; Schouten and Mc Alexander, 1995).

The researcher becomes at the same time an instrument of collection and of analysis as he has to immerse in the

studied phenomenon. Introspection is a methodological approach advocated by Latin postmodernist, as

deconstruction and interpretation (Rosenau, 1992).

To understand consumer, Cova opts for the ethnosociological view which mitigates the psychological

view adopted by the majority of marketing researchers (Cova and Roncaglio, 1999). Psychology focuses on the

influence of A on B (A being an individual or a group), the power of A over B, the contamination of B by A or

imitation of A by B. however, ethno sociology is interested in what makes the link between A and B or better to

the being together AB, to the emotion shared between A and B. (Cova and Roncaglio; Cova, 1999; Cova and

Cova, 2002). So, to be included within the Latin postmodern paradigm, researches on groups behavior should

focus on the how rather than the why. In other terms they should focus on the link rather than on its

psychological and social antecedents. Similarly, methods of analysis should focus and even be limited to what is

qualitative (Merle, 2003). Thus, some Nordic research like those of Bagozzi et al. (2002, 2006) although they

are interested in the study of consumers as members of virtual communities, are not considered by the Latin as

falling within the postmodern paradigm (Merle, 2003) insofar they tend to mathematically model the behavior

of a postmodern person defined as volatile and unpredictable.

4. Convergence between the individualistic and the tribal approach of postmodern marketing: Towards a

temperate (moderate) Vision

The characteristics of individualistic and tribal approaches can raise many points of divergence, which

supports the lack of consensus between advocates of the two schools.

First of all Nordic and Latin school disagree about the unit of analysis. Indeed, while the first focuses on the

study of individuals, even if they may be considered in the context of their community membership, the second

focuses on the group dimension as an object of study. At this level, it is important to note that the

conceptualization of communities or tribes as called by southern school is different from their Anglo-Saxon

counterparts. This difference is more salient in the context of virtual communities. In fact, Bernard (2004) was

inspired by Rheingolds definition (1995) to elicit two conditions necessary in order to qualify a group of

virtual community. These conditions are: members number and interactions continuity in time. However,

Latin researchers are prudent in their use of virtual community nomination and consider that these two criteria

are necessary but not sufficient. So, they add the conditions put forward by Muniz and O'Guinn (2001), namely

consciousness of communities members to form a group, the existence of rituals and traditions and a sense of

moral responsibility.

Secondly, Nordic and Latin school differ according to consumption. Whereas the first one focuses on

individuals, the second one is based on the study of postmodern consumers grouped around a common passion

or ethos. This new sight opens the door to the so called community approaches of consumption (Badot and

Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997; Cova and Pace, 2005). On the other hand, the Latin approach is thus distinguished by

its holistic vision of consumption (Cova and Cova, 2002). It is interested in the person as a member of a tribe,

and not as an independent being trying to gather as much experience as possible. This side is relatively

neglected by Nordic approaches (Ostergaard and Jantzen, 2000, in Cova and Cova, 2002). We spend so "the

study of consumer behavior" to that of "the study of consumption behavior" (Ostergaard and Jantzen, 2000, in

Cova and Cova, 2002). In this context, the meanings and symbols associated to products and services are built

within the tribal culture.

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Thus, we observe a significant divergence between the two schools in the overall vision of marketing.

The Anglo-Saxons (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993) perceive marketing as a system reducing the lack of community.

So, they set in the society representations and meanings to compensate for the individuals isolation. Whereas,

southern researchers consider marketing as community link vector by setting in the society objects and places

designed to support multiple tribal affiliations. However, despite the differences between the two schools, many

common points could be identified advocating a moderate approach. These points of convergence are analyzed

according to three aspects: theoretical, epistemological and methodological.

4.1. The theoretical convergence

Anglo-Saxon approach differs from its Latin counterpart by its emphasis on functionality of the offer

and customer service. It also focuses on the establishment of a personal relation between the company and its

customers. Latin researchers go beside those aspects by according importance to the sharing link and the

reinforcement of relations between the customers themselves (Badot and Cova, 1995). But despite differences

between the two approaches, they have on the theoretical level one thing in common: they closely study

consumers (Brown, 1993, 1994) that are either alone or in groups. A better understanding of the consumer is, in

fact, the ultimate goal of both approaches.

According to the unit of analysis (individual versus group), we can also shed the light on a second point

of convergence between the two approaches. Indeed, Anglo-Saxons are more flexible and their research on

virtual communities include chat rooms, bulletin boards, discussion groups (Dholakia et al., 2004; From Valck

et al., 2009; Pentina, 2008) and online forums in general. This perspective opens the opportunity to study a

larger number of groups influencing online consumer behavior. It may, however, overestimate their potential by

the excessive use under the label "virtual communities". While Latin are very restrictive in their use of the term

virtual communities as a unit of analysis and its application is only plausible under certain brand communities

called "cult" (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997). Thus, researches remain limited in this regard to some brand

communities as "Harley Davidson" and "Apple". In this research we can bring closer the two perspectives in

favor of a moderate position. It considers that a group is described as a community only if: (1) it contains a

sufficient number of people (2) interacting for a sufficient and enough time (3) for human relationships to be

forged.

On the other hand, whether Latin or Nordic, both schools agree on what they call the "re-enchantment

of consumption" (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995), indicating the liberation from rationalist (meeting consumer

needs) and assert a sensualist claim (Badot and Cova, 2003). Distribution and consumption while leaving their

economic function and status would go to replace the religions (Patterson, 1998; Badot and Cova, 2003). In

addition, the redefinition of postmodern consumption by the two approaches as "re enchanted" or "experiential"

emphasizes the importance of taking into account the affective dimension. A long neglected aspect by

modernism in favor of the rational individual acting to maximize his profit. At the end of this observation, the

Nordic propose to be close to new experiences essentially created by postmodern people. While Latin try to

overstep this state of proximity to that of intimacy through placing in the market products and spaces that

support the link between group members. That helps living extraordinary experiences in the terms of Arnould

and Price (1993). Therefore, whatever it is proximity value or link value, the two definitions tend in the new

conceptualization of consumption to focus on the hedonistic dimension with varied degrees of interventions

from companies.

4.2. The epistemological and methodological convergence

In theory, postmodern epistemology applied to social sciences is post-positivist and anti-positivist

(Rosenau 1992). Linked to the refusal of "metanarratives" (Lyotard 1979), epistemology shows the need for

contextualized theories until there is no objective reality, but realities corresponding to the meanings attributed

by those who perceive them (Rosenau 1992). On the other hand, the historical reality was that postmodernism

had several aspects. One aspect of postmodernism is that it is a state of knowledge and expression of theoretical

thought. The thinker who reasons about this aspect of postmodernity will therefore focus on expression of

theoretical thought. In other words, they are discourse (theoretical) which constitute the object of his analysis.

He expressed them in a metalanguage, that is to say, a language of second degree referred to an object (Bauman,

1992).

According to the individualistic approach, although it uses interpretativism and existing epistemologies

in order to have a richer scientific production on consumer and consumption. In one hand, it tends to favor

positivism in the majority of its work. On the other hand, it uses within a given research either interpretativism

and narrative discourse or statistical tools, but not a combination of both.

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Depending on to the tribal approach of postmodern marketing, changes in the nature of knowledge

sought for, is naturally accompanied by upheavals in research methodologies: with the passage from social

psychology, which focuses on the individual in society, to more ethnographic methods, focusing on groups as

the unit of analysis (Cova and Cova, 2001).

Various studies under the postmodern marketing clearly show that both individualistic and tribal

approaches have used multiple epistemologies (positivism, constructivism and interpretativism). At this level of

analysis, we consider that in order to understand the persons behavior in all its complexity, it is useful to use

multiple methods and modes of investigation: qualitative, quantitative, but also mixed without departing from

the scope of postmodern analysis. This research tries to advocate a moderate vision between the Latin school

and the Nordic School of postmodernism. It opens the way for the study of individuals with the ethnology tools.

It also allows the study of postmodern groups by tools of social psychology. Not to mention the possibility of

combining two different analytical methods within the same search. Indeed, in the postmodern perspective,

marketing researcher can handle anything that arouses their interest and they can implement with their acquired

knowledge. The researcher can deepen areas already studied before. When he adopts a different perspective or if

he manages to expose different conclusions or even more detailed than the previous results, it then produces

new scientific knowledge. It is a revolutionary interpretation: modernism invited researchers to investigate only

what we already knew, while postmodernism does not pay attention to the research field, but only to the theory

generated. This implication relative to the field of inquiry is closely related to postmodernism effects on possible

methods of investigation adopted. It is not the adoption of a particular method which makes scientific a

discipline, but the theory generated. Then, the researcher has the right to use any method. Of course, the

quantitative methods are valid, but qualitative methods can be used in conjunction therewith, from ethnography

to the narrative and discourse analysis (Addis and Podesta, 2005). Thus we can conclude that, as a methodology

of social sciences in general and marketing in particular, the postmodern is not a set of operating rules, but

rather a set of innovations whose content remains to be explained (Bourdieu, 1993). The postmodern

epistemology seems rather bring the researcher to what Bourdieu (1993) calls a combination of various

fragments of epistemology. At this level we agree with Cova (2004) to say there are as many forms of

postmodernism as there are postmodernists provided that the various attempts bring more into the explanation

of the person in all its complexity.

5. Conclusion

The table 2 summarizes the different elements that we have just discussed by drawing the points of

divergence between the Latin and the Nordic schools of thought. It highlights the convergence which can

combine the two individualistic and tribal approaches in a moderate vision.

The purpose of this research was to reduce the debate on the differences between the individualistic

approach and the tribal approach which tends to prevail the most appropriate approach to better conduct studies

and research undertaken within the postmodern marketing framework. Following a study of the contributions of

each approach, several points of differences were highlighted. While individualistic approach views

postmodernism as an era of individualism resurgence and therefore consider the postmodern consumer as

individualistic and suggests to combine several methodologies in order to study him; The tribal approach judges

the postmodern marketing as a " community link vector" and consequently sees the postmodern consumer not

asking for products and services to be more free (as recommended in the North American vision) but he is

looking for objects and services places to connect with others. And this approach recommends the adoption of

an interpretivist turn in the research related to this postmodern consumer.

However, a synthesis of the contributions of both approaches in the postmodern marketing research has

shown that in spite of the differences between the two visions, they have many points in common. On the

theoretical level, on one hand, both approaches are looking for better understanding the consumer, on other

hand, they agree on the new role of consumption which is facing the postmodern individual (either alone or in a

group), a consumption described as "re enchanted." On the epistemological and methodological level, we found,

firstly, that in the postmodern perspective, the marketing researcher can get into all subject that attract his

interest and, secondly, we noted that in the social sciences methodology in general and marketing methodology

in particular, the postmodern researcher is not tied to a set of fixed rules, but rather a set of epistemologies and

methodologies which may be used separately or simultaneously. It is in this sense that Goulding (2003 In El

Kamel and Rigaux-Bricmont, 2011) argues that postmodernism is "amorphous" as far as the pluralism

represents its central feature.

So, the reconciliation between both approaches seems imminent because their ultimate goal is to get

closer to the consumer. Thus, the postmodern marketing researcher is no longer obliged to have a positioning

regarding the approach that he will adopt in his research because, at the end, both approaches converge and may

form a single temperate, moderate or even mixed approach.

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Annexure

Tables

Table 1: Postmodernism and Postmodern Marketing approaches

(Source : Authors Compilation)

Authors Postmodernism

Approach

Position towards

Modernism

Postmodern

Marketing

Approach

Baudrillard (1983)

Jameson (1984)

Ziegler (1991)

Critical

postmodernism /

Skeptical postmodernism

Break

Vattimo (1988)

(Cova and Badot, 1994)

Affirmative postmodernism

/Celebratory postmodernism Redefinition Latin

Firat andVenkatesh

(1995)

Liberatory postmodernism

Extension Anglo-Saxon/Nordic

Table 2: Towards the convergence of the tribal and the individualistic approach of Postmodern

Marketing (Source: Authors Compilation)

Individualistic approach / Anglo

saxon(Nordic) school of thought

Tribal approach /

Latin school of thought

Analysis object

Analysis unit - Individuals

- Individuals as a community

members

-Affectual tribes

Postmodern groups

Terminology

Are considered only as postmodern

groups and called tribes, the

groups which meet the criteria

advanced by Muniz and O'Guinn

(2001)

Are considered as postmodern group and

interchangeably called tribes or community,

any group of persons overstepping the

modern links to a common passions.

Convergence It is important to exceed the individual analysis framework to a wider framework

taking into account postmodern groups

Consumption Nature

Consumption analysis

unit

- Purchase Act (selection and

decision criteria)

- Consumption Act

(experiences)

- Consumption Act (experiences)

Consumption analysis

level

- Individual Level

- Studying consumer behavior

whether alone or as a part of a

community belonging

- Micro social level (holistic level)

- Studying consumption behavior within

groups

Products and places

value notion

Customer proximity notion: a

system which enables to fulfill the

lack of community

Intimacy notion or "link value" : a system

which enables to provide the market with

goods and/or places to support community

links (cult objects, cult places and passions

sellers)

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Convergence Need to adapt the consumption conceptualization in order to reflect its re

enchanted, more hedonic and more experiential character, which is unanimously

accepted by the two schools of thought.

Epistemology and methodology

Epistemological

fundaments

Post-positivist (extension of

modern positivist methods by

using interpretivist methods)

Anti-positivist (interpretivist turn )

Adopted Disciplines Social psychology

Or

Ethnography,

Anthropology,Sociology

Ethnography, Anthropology, Sociology

Research method statistical tools

Or

Field studies, photography, video,

introspection

Field studies, photography, video,

introspection

Convergence Need to resort to several epistemologies to be able to understand the postmodern

consumer, the postmodern consumption, the influence mechanisms as well as the

links mechanisms. In conclusion, using all available disciplines in order to capture

the multiple facets of the postmodern person and to lead him to his experiential

quest.

Documents

Blaiech Gharbi e Amoua 2013