BIS4425_02_Tech-Gov-13-14.ppt

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Middlesex University, London

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BIS 4425

Regulation of Electronic Commerceand Information Technology

The Internet Technology and Governance

(Unit 2)

2013-14

Dr Carlisle GeorgePrincipal Lecturer & Barrister

Middlesex University, London (UK)[email protected]

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Learning Outcomes! Discuss the history of the Internet

!

Discuss how the modern Internet functions

! Briefly explain the basic concepts of Internet

technology and how it works

!

Describe the Domain Name System (DNS)

! Discuss the concept of net neutrality

!

Describe the concept of Internet Governance

! Describe the nature and functions of Internet

standards-setting bodies.

! Describe Internet registration bodies

The Internet

! Inter + net"

Inter(Latin for between) + Net (short for Network)

" A system that connects together many individualcomputer networks. Network of networks

"

Allows transfer of digital data or bits across networks

!

Original idea traced to MIT psychologists J.C.RLicklider. Developed with Wes Clark.

"

Licklider was interested in using wires to tie expensive

mainframe computers together

"

He published papers in 1960 and 1962 on his ideas.3

Brief history of the Internet- 1

! Oct 1957 Soviet Union launched first man-madeobject into space.

"

Caused shock/surprise to US military & scientific community

" US vowed never to be taken by surprise again

"

Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) created - tiedto Office of US President, funded by US Dept of Defense.

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One problem: How to share computer resources efficiently.

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Part of answer: have a network of machines.

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Oct 1962 - (ARPA) appointed Licklider Project Director of

ARPAs Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO)

"

Licklider with colleagues developed ARPANET (AdvancedResearch Agency Network) 4


!

ARPANET used packet switching technology instead ofcircuit switching technology to transmit messages.

!

Packet switching

"

Messages broken up into small packets before they are sent.

" Each packet is transmitted individually across the network

"

Packets may follow different routes to the destination

" At destination, packets reassembled into original message.

! Circuit switching

"

Dedicated channel established for duration of transmission5


!ARPANET employed an interface messageprocessor (IMP) to enable a host computer to talkto the ARPANET network

! 29thOct 1969 Successful login at StanfordResearch Institute from a host computer at

University of California Los Angeles (UCLA).

! Note ARPANET was a closed SINGLE network,

dissimilar to modern Internet (network of networks)6

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Brief history of the Internet- 4!After ARPANET another network (using wireless

technology) called ALOHANET was built at the Univ.of Hawaii.

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Range of ALOHANET limited, open to attack (if large

transmitters were built)

!An alternative to ALOHANET was to use satellites for

transmissions (especially intl transmissions)

" SATNET (satellite network) was later developed

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Brief history of the Internet- 5! With ARPANET, ALOHANET and SATNET interest

grew in how to link them. Network of networksneeded.

! International Working Group formed in 1972, withVince Cerf (Prof at Stanford University) as its chair.

! 1972 Bob Khan (who had worked on the ARPANETsIMPs) was invited to join ARPAs IPTO to work onthe Internetting Project.

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!

Problem: how to connect together all independentnetworks? Solution - Open Architecture Networking

! Open Architecture Networking"

Each individual network retains its unique networkarchitecture, while connections between networks take placeat a higher Internetworking Architecture Layer.

"

Individual networks can be separately designed/developed.

"

Any type of network included. Any geographic scope

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Internetwork Open Layer

ARPANET ALOHANET SATNET


! Problem How to enable each host on the network(of networks) to talk to each other.

"

Network Control Protocol (NCP)/rules developed - Bob Khan

" Protocol = an algorithm (set of rules) for recognising and

dealing with a piece of information.

"

Transmission Protocol (TCP) developed to box up

information and address it Vince Cerf & Bob Khan (1973)"

TCP slow rate of internet growth. TCP developed further.

! January 1978 TCP split up into a dual protocol

called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocolor TCP/IP 10

How the modern Internet

functions

!

Modern Internet uses (TCP/IP) protocol

! TCP: Controls exchange of packets between hosts" Breaks the data into packets ready for transmission and

recombines them on the receiving end." Mechanism for checking whether packet has arrived

" Checks packet has not been corrupted in transit" Checks for re-sending if transmission fails

! IP: Sets rules for determining what the receiving host shoulddo with the packet" Defines the addressing system, numbering of packets" Handles the addressing and routing of the data and makes sure it

gets sent to the proper destination11

How TCP/IP works

! Example: Carl & Jackie are on the Internet

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Each of their computers have a unique network address

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Carl sends a message to Jackie: Meet Me for Lunch.

! TCPsplits messages into packets and numbers them

" [Meet]1[Me]2[for]3[Lunch]4! Each package placed into a digital enveloped & passed to the IP

protocol.

! IPwould address the envelopes with Jackies address beforesending them out across the network.

! The network carries the envelopes to their destination

! On arrival TCPopens the envelopes, checks all packets have beendelivered safely, then reassembles message. 12

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IPv4!

Since 1981 TCP/IP was built on version 4 of the InternetProtocol (IPv4). It has limitations.

!

It uses 32 bits for the IP address hence has small addressspace. Example IP Address: 158.94.0.11

!

Total number of unique addresses possible is 232=4294967296, i.e. approx 4.4 billion

!

Need for a larger address space to expand the internet hencedevelopment of version 6 of the Internet Protocol (IPv6) began.

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IPv6!

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) sometimes referred to asIP Next Generation orIpng will take over IPv4.

!

IPv6 uses 128 bits rather than 32 bits allowing 2128uniquehost interface addresses = 340 undecillion.

!

if the earth were made entirely out of 1 cubic millimetregrains of sand, then you could give a unique [IPv6] addressto each grain in 300 million planets the size of the earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address

!

In the future every device (your car, fridge, stove etc) canhave its own IP address and hence be joined to a network.

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IPv6 - some improvements

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Larger Address Space

! Better Management of Address Space - more capable way of

dividing the address space + using the bits in each address.

!

Easier TCP/IP Administration

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Modern Design For Routing - enables efficient routing.

!

Better Support For Multicasting

!

Better Support For Security

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Better Support For Mobility - builds on Mobile IP and provides

mobility support within IP itself.15 16

Internet characteristics

!

It is not an entity but a communications infrastructure

! It is a network of networks all internetworking with each other

by passing data packets

!

The internet expands and contracts as connections are made

and broken. No fixed infrastructure flexible

!

No central regulatory authority

!

Owned by no one

!

Services: WWW, FTP, email, Usenet

!

Transports digital information from one computer to another.

!

Meaning of information irrelevant to its transport

!

Meaning determined by software receiving information

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What is the Internet - 2?

HostHost

Host

Host HostUser

User

User

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What is the Internet - 3?

Connectivity

regional ISP

NAP NAP

NSP

NSP

regional ISP

local ISP

local ISPLarge Network Service Providers (NSPs)

Also called National/International

Backbone providers (NBPs)

(e.g. AT&T, IBM)

NSPsinterconnect privately

or at Network Access Points

(NAPs)

Local Internet Service

Providers (ISPs) connect

to regional ISPs

User

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- Large network called Network Service Providers or NSPs- Each NSP is required to connect to 3 Network Access Points or NAPs- NSPs also interconnect at Metropolitan Area Exchangesor MAEs.- MAEs serve the same purpose as the NAPs but are privately owned

Internet Infrastructure - 1

http://www.theshulers.com/whitepapers/internet_whitepaper/index.html

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Internet Infrastructure - 2


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Internet Communication

Client/server technology

! Communication is via client/server technology using

TCP/IP Protocols

! One communicating party runs clientsoftware, which

requests information, and the other runs serversoftware

which meets that request.

! E.g. Viewing a Web page. Enter URL of page in browser

(client software). Web server containing page responds

to request by sending packets to browser software, which

reassembles them and displays page 22

The Domain Name System - 1

! Server addresses are identified to humans by domainnames.

! Domain names - alphanumeric form (e.g. mdx.ac.uk)

! Computer known as a Domain Name Server (DNS)

matches the domain name (mdx.ac.uk) to thenumerical IP address (158.94.0.118)

! Not possible to allocate two servers the same IPaddress or two IP addresses the same domain name

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Some issues

! Scarcity of internet resource - only one - smith.co.uk

" technical, semantic, economic, origin uniqueness

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Legal mechanism for allocating resources and solving

disputes necessary

"

(Discussed in a later lecture)

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Some characteristics of Domain names

! Memorable, e.g. www.mdx.ac.uk instead of158.94.0.118

! Semantic association with operator of server, e.g. mdx

! May be similar to registered trade marks or unregisteredtrading names. E.g. cnn.com, bbc.co.uk

! May contain trade marks.

! These additional purposes give rise to legal disputes

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The Domain Name System - 4! Domain names sllocated by a process of simple

registration with the appropriate registrar (e.g. UK-

Nominet, USA- InterNic) & fee

!

www.nominet.org.uk

! First-come-first serve process held valid by courts

Pitman Training Ltd v Nominet UK[1997]

FSR 797

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!

Domain name system (DNS) serves the centralfunction of facilitating users ability to navigate theinternet

! The DNS is administered by IANA. Operates onhierarchy of names. Generic top level domains(gTLDs) and country code top-level domains(ccTLDs). Countries can have second level domains

(SLDs)

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The Domain Name System 6

(gTLDS)

1980s Several Generic Top Level Domains - (gTLDs)

! Some open (no restrictions) .com, .net & .org

! Some restricted.int - only for international organisations

.edu- only for 4 year, degree granting colleges/Uni.

.gov- only for government

.mil- only for military of the USA

! 2000: biz, .info, .name, .pro, .aero, .coop, and .museum

!

2011: further expansion of gTLDs Any domainname suggested by applicants including differentlanguages/characters, comprising numbers, brand names etc" Examples: .law, .money, .science, .university, .apple, .mit, .bbc 28


(ccTDLs)

! There are about 249+ country code top-level domainsccTDLs

! Each domain bears a two letter country code derivedfrom Standard 3166 of Intl Standardization

Organization (ISO 3166).

! E.g. .uk(United Kingdom), .ca(Canada),

.jp (Japan), .af(Afghanistan)

.eu(Europe)

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(SLDs)

! The UK TLD is separated into sub categoriescalled second level Domains (SLDs)

! examples

.co.uk - commercial purposes

.org.uk- non commercial organisations

.plc.uk- companies

.me.uk - personal for anyone

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Domain Name Service Hierarchy


- The Domain Name Service is structured as a hierarchy.- The computer requesting a name resolution will be re-directed 'up' thehierarchy until a DNS server is found that can resolve the domain requested

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Net Neutrality!The principle that data packets on the internet should

move impartially without regard to content,destination or source. (Murray, 2010)

! Issue How much should ISPs be allowed to activelymanage the bandwidth of certain websites based on typeof content provided?

! Any controls will create a tiered system and affect abilityof users to access and download data from a particular

website.31

Advocates of Net NeutralityIncludes: Consumer groups, content providers, Internet founders

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The internet should be a free an open technology.

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Internet plurality everyone has the right to free, open access

!

Preserves fundamental internet standards

!

Preserves end to end pr inciple of the Internet

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A tiered system will favour large, well-established contentproviders who can afford to pay a premium.

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Tiered system will lead to Premium service vs degraded service

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Preferential treatment of certain internet traffic will affectcompetition and innovation (esp. new entrants).

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Discrimination against certain applications or data types.32

Opponents of Net Neutrality

Includes: Many ISPs, Telecoms companies, network operators

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Rise of Internet traffic puts burden on infrastructure hence best

to control data rates for different types of content

! Allow allocation of bandwidth for more urgent applications

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Have a tiered system that would prioritise certain types of

traffic for those able to pay.!

Revenue gained by premium payers can be used to invest in

better networks and improve bandwidth

!

Make more efficient use of the network (a limited resource)

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Net Neutrality National Laws

! In June 2010 Chile was the 1st country to enshrinethe net neutrality concept into national law.

! In June 2011 the Netherlands was the 2nd country.

"

The Dutch Parliament passed a law stopping mobile

operators from blocking or charging extra for voice callingdone via the net

!

Many other countries are debating laws to preservenet neutrality.

! No national legislation in the UK.

! Japan Net neturality in common carrier.

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Net Neutrality EU position

! In April 2011 the European commission decidedagainst introducing legislation to protect net neutrality.

! The Commission noted that media scrutiny and giving

consumers enough information about their internetservice provider will be sufficient to protect an "open

and neutral" internet.

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Net Neutrality - USA

! Dec 21, 2010, USA Federal CommunicationsCommission (FCC) approved new rules

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cable television and telephone service providers bannedfrom preventing access to competitors or certain web sitessuch as Netflix.

! Sept 2011 new USA Federal Communications

Commission rules - Preserving a Free and OpenInternet.

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ISPs must have transparency of network managementpractices, not block lawful content, nor unreasonablydiscriminate in transmitting lawful network traffic 36

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Internet Governance

(Definition, WGIG, 2005)

! ..the development and application byGovernments, the private sector and civil society, intheir respective roles, of shared principles, norms,rules, decision-making procedures, andprogrammes that shape the evolution and use of

the Internet.

!

Report of the Working Group on I nternet Governance, Chteau de Bossey June2005 (page 4). http://www.wgig.org/docs/WGIGREPORT.pdf

! (WGIG, 05)

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Public policy areas that are relevant

to nternet governance

(WGIG, 05, page 5)Issues relating to four key public policy areas:

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(1) Infrastructure & management of critical Internet resourcese.g. Admin of domain name server & IP addresses.

! (2) The use of the Internet e.g. spam, network security,

cybercrime.

!

(3) Relates to use of Internet but have an impact much widerthan the Internet, e.g. intellectual property rights or intl trade.

!

(4) The developmental aspects of Internet governance, e.g.capacity-building in developing countries. 38

Governance issues of

highest priority - (WGIG, 05)

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Administration of the root zone files & system

!

Interconnection costs

!

Internet stability, security and cybercrime, spam

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Meaningful participation in global policy development

!

Capacity-building

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Allocation of domain names

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IP addressing!

Intellectual Property Rights

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Freedom of expression

! Data protection and privacy rights

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Consumer rights

! Multilingualism 39 40

Internet standards-setting

organisations/bodies

! Protocols, and the parameters required to usenetworks, are essential in order to operate on theInternet

!A number of bodies have become responsible forthose protocol standards and parameters.

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Internet Society (ISOC)" Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

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The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

" Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG)

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Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)

" Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG)

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Some Standards Bodies - 1

Internet Society (ISOC)

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Facilitates open development of standards, protocols,administration and the technical infrastructure of theInternet

Internet Architecture Board (IAB)

! ISOCmandates the IABto oversee the architecture of the

Internet, including its protocols and other standards.

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BIS4425_02_Tech-Gov-13-14.ppt