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Grammar Considerations in Scientific Writing

If any man wish to write in a clear style, let him first be clear in his thoughts

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe


Writing the First Draft

Reserve a block of time for writing (3-4 hours every day for 4-5 days).

Write when your energy is high, not when you are tired or distracted.

Surround yourself with everything you need to write effectively.

data, drafts of figures and tables, references, computer or paper, coffee…

Work in a quiet place where you will not be interrupted.

Organize and Plan the Content

Matters of Authorship

Follow Standard Structure

Build Momentum and Keep it

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Building and Keeping Momentum

In scientific writing, each sentence depends on those around it and on other sections of the paper. Therefore you need to sustain momentum when writing your first draft. If you don’t, you’ll lose your train of thought!

Set realistic goals. This may be 1 page or 5 pages, but you want to end each session with a sense of accomplishment.

End each writing session by writing into the next session. It will be easier to start writing at the next session. This will help you maintain some momentum and your train of thought.

Store your work from each session under a new file name.

Minimize distractions.

Don’t get stuck searching for the right word or phrase. If you can’t find what you are thinking of in a minute or two, write “???” and continue on. You can fill in the blanks later.

If you become bogged down and just can’t move forward with a particular section, start working on another section.



Write the easiest section first.

For many authors, this is the Methods section.

Results is often the next easiest section to write.

Lay your data and figures out in the order you want to discuss it. Then write the story of why you decided to do a particular experiment and what the results were.

Think of each section as a separate task. For example, once the Methods is written, one task is done.

The Approach to Writing


As soon as you finish writing the first draft, revise it.

Revision gives you the luxury of considering specific issues on each pass.

One revision might be to establish parallel heading structures, another might be for conciseness, while yet another might be for clarity of figures and tables.

In some paragraphs you may have written the supporting details first and the message last. This is a natural way to write because you are discovering what you think. However, this type of organization is difficult to read so, during the process of revision, move the message to the beginning of the paragraph (topic sentence) and put the supporting details after the topic sentence.

Revising the First Draft

During later stages of revision look for all possible ways to condense your paper. Omit unnecessary words, details and paragraphs.

To decide whether a word, detail or paragraph is necessary, think of yourself as the reader. Would I want to read this paragraph? Would I need to read this paragraph? Be honest. If the answer is no, omit the paragraph.

Most readers prefer short, meaty and clear papers. Have the courage to make your paper short, meaty and clear.



First Orders of Concern

Question: The question is your main point. It is what the paper is all about. You must make sure the question is present and clear. Is your question specific enough for the scope of your paper? Does your paper focus on answering your question or does it wander?

Introduction vs. Conclusion: Read your introduction and conclusion without looking at the rest of the paper. Do they match? Sometimes authors start with one question and end up with another. Be certain that ideas in your introduction and conclusion are consistent. Otherwise your paper’s argument will not be consistent and your readers will be confused.

Organization: Do you present ideas in a logical and clear manner? Are your main points connected and do they have a clear connection to your question? Check to see if ideas seem disconnected or if evidence falls under the wrong topic sentence. The better your organization, the easier it will be for your reader to understand the content of your paper.

Audience: Who is your audience? Is your manuscript appropriate for them? Your audience should determine the tone and purpose of your manuscript.



Second Orders of Concern

Topic Sentences: Does each paragraph have a topic sentence clearly stating that paragraph’s main idea? If paragraphs do not have a central point, or if the central point is not stated in a topic sentence, your audience will not understand the purpose of the information they are reading. If the topic sentences are present, is their relationship to your thesis clear?

Support/Evidence: Does each paragraph have evidence or proof supporting the topic sentence? If a paragraph has a focus but no evidence then the point is not supported—it’s just opinion. Be sure to support each idea in your essay with specific details.

Documentation: Is all your evidence documented? It is plagiarism if you use quotes, paraphrasing, or other evidence without citation. Make sure all of your evidence is correctly cited using a standard citation style.

Clarity: Will your essay be clear to your audience? Are all of your ideas and terms clear and well defined? Remember, writing is a form of communication limited to what is on the page. Your readers cannot ask questions if they do not understand. Take time to explain each point. Ensure that your reader can understand exactly what you mean.



Third Orders of Concern

Grammar, Punctuation, and Spelling: Although mechanics such as grammar, punctuation, and spelling are at the bottom of the list of concerns, they are very necessary. If a manuscript has great ideas but cannot be understood by readers because of grammar, punctuation, and spelling, then the paper has failed. Pay close attention to these details in the final drafts of your document.

Voice: How would you describe your narrative voice? How you phrase your writing influences how your audience will respond to what they read. Keep your readers’ attention by avoiding the passive voice, jargon, and extra wordiness.

When should you stop revising? When you are nitpicking over things such as a word here and a comma there.

Strive for perfection, but be content with success !



Readability - Sentence LengthThe optimal sentence length for most scientific documents is 15 – 20 words

Variation in sentence length and complexity helps to sustain reader interest

If the two parts of a long sentence contain loosely- or un-connected thoughts, they should be split into 2 separate sentences

Example: An overly long sentence with weak connections: Exposed mice developed enteric disease and exhibited 21% mortality during the first 3 weeks but controls had no enteric disease and exhibited no mortality; 20-day old exposed mice weighed 0.6 g less than controls and had a higher incidence of angular limb deformities and also had a greater incidence of rotated tibias and showed bowed tibias, while controls had a significantly higher measurement for tibial shear strength. (69 words in 1 sentence)

Separated at weak connections, then edited for wordiness: Exposed mice developed enteric disease with 21% mortality during the first 3 weeks. Controls exhibited neither enteric disease nor mortality. At 20 weeks, exposed mice weighed 0.6 g less, had more rotated and bowed tibias and angular limb deformities, and showed significantly less tibial shear strength than did controls. (44 words in 3 sentences; average 18 words per sentence)



Goals of a paragraph are to get a message across and to make the story behind the message clear.

These goals can be accomplished in various ways, but the general approach is to provide an overview first, and then give details; that is, create an expectation and then fulfill it.

Should be organized Should have continuity Should emphasize important information

Paragraphs

Organization

Give overview first, in a topic sentence. Introduce key term(s).

Give details, in logically organized supporting sentences

Do not omit any steps in the logic



Limit Average Paragraph Length

Paragraph length and complexity influence readability.

An average paragraph length of about 150 words has been judged optimal for most scientific articles.

Paragraphs consistently composed of 50 words or less create a text that is too choppy.

Paragraphs should generally contain at least 3 sentences; a topic sentence at the beginning, a concluding sentence at the end, and a content sentence in the middle.


Readability Statistics

Tools > Options > Spelling and Grammar > Show readability statistics

When the readability box is checked, these statistics will appear after you complete a spell check


Continuity and Clarity in Paragraphs

Repeat key termsRepeat exactlyRepeat early

Example: Digitalis increases the contractility of the mammalian heart. This change in inotropic state is a result of changes in calcium flux through the muscle cell membrane.

What is “inotropic state? How does it relate to the previous sentence? The answer is that “contractility and inotropic state mean the same thing. Why confuse the reader with different terms?

Revision: Digitalis increases the contractility of the mammalian heart. This increased contractility is a result of changes in calcium flux through the muscle cell membrane.



Revise for Clarity

Clarity can be thought of as “grace of expression”, it means going beyond technical correctness, in an effort to meet the needs and comfort of the reader.

Although content of the document is more likely to determine whether it is accepted for publication than its prose style, gracefully written text gives readers a sense that the author has mastered his or her subject.

Know the difference between generality (good) and vagueness (bad).

Vague – “These results have important implications for regulation of splicesosome assembly”

General – “Because it is involved early in the splicesosome assembly pathway and affects downstream processes, protein X is an important regulator of splicosome assembly”



Revise for Brevity

Have you ever received a comment like this from a journal editor or reviewer?

“Shorten this manuscript considerably before resubmitting it”?

Fortunately, this can be done without removing significant material from the text and in the process, the content often becomes clearer.

Example:Tamoxifen could conceivably slow the growth rate of the tumor. In doing this, a substantial protection of the tumors from the effects of cytotoxic chemotherapy might ensue.(27 words)

Revised:Tamoxifen could slow the growth rate of the tumor, thus making it less sensitive to cytotoxic chemotherapy.(17 words)

When you revise for brevity, clarity is often an added bonus.When clarity and brevity conflict, clarity is more important than brevity.



Passive voice implies that the subject of a sentence is being acted upon.Active voice shows the subject of the sentence directly doing the action.

Active: The receptor can still bind DNA, and constitutively activates estrogen-responsive genes.

(87 characters, 12 words)

Passive: The receptor is still able to bind DNA and is constitutive for activation of estrogen responsive genes.

(102 characters, 17 words)Passive voice can be weak and boring.

Most journals now prefer scientists to use active voice. After all, you did the work, and you are drawing inferences from it. It is important to be able to write in both active and passive voice. Passive voice is often used in the methods and results sections and active voice in the more interpretive introduction and conclusion sections. Varying voice throughout sections is seen commonly, and keeps the work faceless but attaches a personal voice to the ideas driving the work. Active voice usually requires fewer words and allows shorter sentences.

Active vs. Passive Voice


MDA-231 cells secrete a TGF-α-like activity. They contain no classical 6 kDa TGF-α. They synthesize a 30 kDa protein molecule which binds to the EGF receptor. The EGF receptor mediates TGF-α activity.

Connections


MDA-231 cells secrete a TGF-α-like activity, but they contain no classical 6 kDa TGF-α. They do, however, synthesize a 30 kDa protein that binds to the EGF receptor, the receptor that mediates TGF-α activity.

Shorter, but choppy and difficult for reader to see relationship between sentences:

Longer, but smooth and easy for reader to see relationship between sentences:


Hedging

“Hedging” is a way to protect your arguments or statements from unknown contingencies. It also provides a way to avoid commitment to your ideas. However, each use of a hedging qualifier drains force from your sentence. Sometimes the result is a sentence that says nothing at all.

Example: The cause of the degenerative changes is unknown but possibly one cause may be infection by a presumed parasite.

One way of saying “I’m not sure” is usually enough. Try to omit all but one hedging word from a sentence, unless they are needed for accuracy.

Improved: Parasitic infection may cause degenerative changes.



Parallelism

Parallel ideas are equal in logic and importance.

Examples of parallelism include ideas that are joined by "and," "or," or "but“, as well as ideas that are being compared.

Parallel ideas should be written in parallel form, either in pairs or in series.

Parallel form is the use of the same grammatical structure for two or more parallel ideas.

The value of writing parallel ideas in parallel form is that the form of the first idea prepares the reader for the form of the next idea. As a result, readers can concentrate all of their attention on the ideas, not on the form.

Example: Contrasting ideas Joined by “but"Cardiac output decreased by 40% butblood pressure decreased by only 10%. subject verb prepositional phrase

In this example, the group of words after "but" is in the same grammatical structure as the group of words before "but": (subject, verb, prepositional phrase).


Parallel ListsMore than two ideas can be presented in parallel form.

Example: We washed out the lungs five times with solution I, instilled 8-10 ml of the fluorocarbon-albumin emulsion into the trachea, and incubated the lungs in 154 mM NaCl at 37oC for 20 min.

Example: The best way to remove nonadherent cells was to tip the plate at a 45o angle, to flood the top edge of the plate with 3-4 ml of medium, to remove the medium, and to repeat this procedure until almost all the floating cells were removed.

An advantage of parallelism is that it allows you to avoid repetition

Example: Pulse rate decreased by 40 beats/min, systolic blood pressure declined by 50 mmHg, and cardiac output fell by 18%.

Revisions: Pulse rate decreased by 40 beats/min, systolic blood pressure by 50 mmHg, and cardiac output by 18%.

Pulse rate, systolic blood pressure, and cardiac output decreased by 40 beats/min, 50 mmHg, and 18%, respectively. (not good: confusing)



ComparisonsOveruse of "compared to,"

In comparisons containing a comparative term, such as "higher," "greater," "lower," "less," the accompanying term should be "than," not "compared to.“

Example: We found a higher KD at 37oC compared to 25oC.

Revision: We found a higher KD at 37oC than at 25oC.

Example: Experimental tissues had a 28% decrease in phospholipid as compared to control tissues.

Revisions: Experimental tissues had a 28% greater decrease in phospholipid than did control tissues. (decrease in both groups)

Experimental tissues had a 28% decrease in alveolar phospholipid but control tissues had no decrease. (decrease only in experimental tissues)

Experimental tissues had 28% less phospholipid than did control tissues. (decrease in neither group)


Verb Tense

Section Purpose Tense

Abstract Primarily refers to the author’s unpublished results past

Introduction Emphasizes previously established knowledge present

Methods Describes what the author did and found past

Results Describe what the author did and found past

Discussion Discusses the relationship of the author’s work past and present to previously established knowledge

When scientific knowledge has been published in a primary journal it becomes standard knowledge and should be referred to in the present tense.

Examples:Serological tests commonly are used to diagnose HIV infections.Several recent reports describe similar findings.The investigations of Graff (2002) show that the structure is a true icosahedron.This phenomenon determines the absorption coefficient of the tissue.



Number Use

Use numerals to express numbers 10 and above.

Use words to express numbers below 10.

Use numerals when you have 3 or more numbers in a series, even if each of the numbers is below 10.

Use a combination of words and numerals in the following situations: large rounded numbers: a grant budget of $1.5 million, 4 thousand species units of measurement: two 13 ml aliquots confusing combinations: twenty 6-year-old patients more than two numbers in a string: six 3-5 day intervals

When numbers begin a sentence you must write them out in words.



Written language is much different than spoken language.

In spoken language, phrases and ideas are often repeated in order to give the listener additional clues to the message.

In written language, a reader can, if necessary, reread a passage. Inflection and timing clues are absent. Meaning depends entirely on word choice.

Word Choice

Qualitative words that describe magnitude are imprecise and therefore of little value when used alone.

Example: Heart rate increased markedly.

What does "markedly" mean? We need data to know how big the increase was. If you use a qualitative word such as "markedly," quantify it either by citing a figure or a table or by reporting the data in the text. The best policy is to avoid qualitative words completely in the Results section. Save qualitative words for the Discussion, for occasions when you need to emphasize the magnitude of a change or a difference.



Precise Word Choice

Actuality: There were no high-affinity, low-capacity IL-2 receptor binding sites.

"There were no" implies that no binding sites exist (so no method would be able to detect them).

Example: Ability versus Actuality

Ability: We could not demonstrate high-affinity, low-capacity IL-2 receptor binding sites.

"Could not demonstrate" implies that binding sites may have been present, but the technique was not sensitive enough to detect them.



Example: p53 phosphorylation did not increase.

"Did not" implies no expectation

p53 phosphorylation failed to increase.

"Failed to" implies an expectation that the value should have increased, but didn’t.

Unless you have a reason to expect a certain result, you should use the neutral description, "did not increase," when reporting results.

Precise Word Choice



Which and That

A phrase introduced by “that” is restrictive and cannot be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence.

Such essential material must not be set off by commas.

Example: Animals that were treated with antibiotics recovered.

A nonrestrictive phrase adds information, but does not limit what it modifies.

Because it can be omitted without changing the meaning, it is set of by commas.

“Which” should be used to introduce a nonrestrictive phrase.

Example: The committee’s decision, which did not come easily, was final.



i.e., id est, means “that is to say,” and references words synonymous with the preceding statement. Its use implies that the explanation you are making is the only possible explanation.

Example:He did not respond (i.e., he declined).

e.g., exemplia gratia , means “for example,”. Its use implies that the explanation you are making is one of many possible explanations.

Example:You should get her a small gift (e.g. a flower or plant).

Uses of i.e. and e.g.


CommasUse commas:

To prevent false joining:

Example: Although monensin was discontinued after 9 days the fermentors resumed gas production.

This sentence can be interpreted at least two ways: Although monensin was discontinued, after 9 days the tumors regressed. Although monensin was discontinued after 9 days, the tumors regressed.

For clarity and emphasis:Use commas to set off a clause that is not required in the sentence.

Example: The cells, which came from six different labs, did not express BRCA1.

To punctuate elements in a series: Place a comma before the and or the or, as well as between the items.

Example: Following centrifugation, pellets were washed, resuspended in 5 ml of buffer D, and disrupted by homogenization.


Left justify all paragraphs unless specifically instructed otherwise.

Bold all subheadings.

Double-space between all sentences.

Put a space between paragraphs.

Insert a page break between major sections.

Spell check and grammar check.

Use a serif font (i.e. Times New Roman, Garamond) for printed text.


Make your Document LOOK Good



Get at least one colleague to read your paper and make suggestions.

Pick someone who will be honest and who will provide constructive feedback.

Be prepared to accept the criticism.

It is most beneficial to find someone who will give you lots of comments and constructive criticism.

If your colleague returns the paper to you with only a few minor comments, find someone else.

Carefully consider all comments and criticism, but don’t feel obligated to incorporate all suggestions into your paper.

Get Feedback


1. Is the title clear and precise? __ Yes __ No2. Is the Abstract descriptive of contents? __ Yes __ No3. Are enough details presented in the Methods section? __ Yes __ No4. Are adequate statistical evaluations of data provided? __ Yes __ No5. Are the Figures and Tables of suitable clarity and quality? __ Yes __ No6. Is the Discussion section pertinent to the main theme of the article? __ Yes __ No7. Are conclusions justified by the data? __ Yes __ No8. Are adequate and correct references provided? __ Yes __ No9. Could the article be improved by shortening? __ Yes __ No10. Are organization, style and grammar satisfactory? __ Yes __ No

Reviewer Evaluation Form – J Biomedical Science


Additional Appendix Material

Journal Impact factors for 2005

http://gezhi.org/wp-content/uploads/2006/06/2005%20SCI.zip

Tools > Options > Spelling and Grammar > Show readability statistics

When the readability box is checked, these statistics will appear after you complete a spell check


Revising Structure

Is the title accurate, succinct, and effective?

Does the abstract represent all of the content within the allowed length?

Does the introductory material set the stage adequately but concisely?

Is the rest of the text in the right sequence?

Is all of the text really needed?

Is any needed content missing?

Do data in the text agree with data in the figures and tables?

Are correct references included?

Should any of the figures or tables be omitted? Restructured? Combined?



Vague Passive Phrasing Active, Precise Wording

It is recommended by the authors of the We recommend .. . present study that ...

The animal was observed to be situated in Lying on its back, the animal could dorsal recumbence, which had the effect not use its legs. of rendering its legs useless.

The data, which were obtained by Hwang, Hwang's data probably indicate .. . were probably indicative of. . .

The following results were obtained ... We obtained these results .. .

It was discovered that a sustained We need a sustained coordinated effort. coordinated effort will be required ...

X may be done X will be done

Active vs. Passive Voice



Verb Tense

Verb Tense Statement Example

Present Question "whether X increases Y"Known "X is a component of Y"

Present perfect Transition clause "It has long been known that”introducing something known

Present or Unknown "X is unknown"present perfect "X has not been determined"

Past or present Signal of the question "We hypothesized that..." "The purpose of this study was...” "We asked whether...”

but "This report describes”

Simple past Experimental approach, and anything "we assessed" else done by you or others in the past

Hypothetical Suggestions, possibilities "X may have an effect on..." "X might reduce..."



Situations in which Numbers Should be Given as Numerals General Guideline Examples

All numbers 10 and above Trial 14; 35 animals; 16 genera of legumes

All numbers that immediately precede a unit of A wing 10 cm long; 5 mg of drug; 21days measurement

Numbers with decimals; fractions that include 7.38 mm; 41/2 hours whole numbers

Numbers that represent statistical or mathematical Multiply by 5; fewer than 6%; 3.75 times functions or results, percentages, ratios as many; the 2nd quartile

Numbers that represent exact times or About 3 weeks ago, at 1:00 a.m. on January 25, dates; ages; size of samples, subsamples or 2000, the 25-year-old patients with IQ scores populations; specific numbers of subjects in an above 125 all awoke simultaneously in the experiment; scores and points on a scale; exact nursing home at 125 Oak Street. They were sums of money; and numerals as numerals paid $25 apiece to go back to sleep

Numbers below 10 that are grouped for comparison 4 of 16 analyses, the 1st and 15th of the 25 with numbers 10 and above in the same paragraph responses; lines 2 and 21

Numbers that denote a specific place in a numbered Trial 6; Grade 9 (but the ninth grade); the groups series, parts of books and tables, and each consisted of 5, 9, 1, and 4 animals respectively number in a list of four or more numbers



A one-line computer code; zero-based budgeting; one animal gave birth (but only 1 in 18 gave birth)

The numbers zero and one when words would be easier to comprehend than figures, or the words do not appear in context with numbers 10 and above

One quarter; reduced by half; a three- quarters majority

Common fractions (those without whole numbers)

Fifteen patients improved, and five did not. Sixty-nine percent of the sample was contaminated

Any number that begins a sentence, title, or heading (but reword to avoid this whenever possible)

The second of four stimuli; five of eight living animals; in six cases, the disease lasted five times as long as in the other four

Numbers below 10 that are grouped for comparison with numbers below 10

Five conditions; trials were repeated four times; a one-tailed t test; a three-way interaction; about thirty years old

Numbers below 10 that do not represent precise measurements; numbers used in an indefinite, approximate, or general manner

Examples General guideline

Situations in which Numbers Should be Written as Words



Suggestions to Replace Common Overused Words and Phrases

Instead of Use

at this point in time nowdorsal or lateral recumbency on its back or sidedue to the fact that becauseemploy, utilize usehigh degree of accuracy accurateimplement doin the event that ifmethod wayneonate newbornoftentimes oftenplethora excesspostoperatively after surgeryprior to beforeretard slowsubsequent to afterutilize use


Nouns Adverbs Verbs

supposition presumably appear

idea probably postulate

speculation possibly suggest

conjecture apparently seem

possibility not unlikely may be

inference seemingly speculate

Hedging Words Commonly used by Biologists and Medical Researchers



Phrase with Empty Fillers Shorter Equivalent

It would thus appear that Apparently

It is considered that We think

It is this that This

It is possible that the cause is The cause may be

In light of the fact that Because

It is often the case that Often

It is interesting to note that omit

It is not impossible that omit

A not unlikely cause could be that omit

It seems that there can be little doubt that omit

In order to To

Examples of "it ... that" Phrases that can be Removed or Replaced



continue on 1 a.m. in the morning positive benefitsrefer back at this point in time true factscheck up on collaborate together large in sizeall of circulate around many in numbertrue facts end result red in colorenter into mandatory requirement repeat againface up to new beginning past historycount up optional choice complete stopfive in number prioritize in order of importance in order to

Examples of Redundant Words; Omit the red Italicized Words

Needless repetition of an idea in a different word, phrase, or sentence should be eliminated. Remove words that do not change the meaning of a sentence.

Brevity


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