Biology of FUNgicourses.k-state.edu/fall2003/BIOL/BIOL604/Lectures/PDFs/Lect17.pdfnatives were consuming “sacred” or “magical mushrooms” in spiritual gatherings. Is it a coincidence

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Biology of FUNgi

Lecture 17Tangled destinies

Fungi rule human evolution andmigration

Last time...

• Phlebia and Heterobasidion antagonisticassociations among fungi.

• The predators of amoeba.

• Trichoderma predator of fungi

• Mutualisms with bacteria: Chantarellus,Pseudomonas and the big trees.

• Fungal parasites of other fungi: Hypomyces.

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Genus Psilocybe is known commonly as the libertycaps or magic mushrooms.

They are characterized by black spores and blueingreaction of the stipe when handled.

Psilocybe cubensis withdistinctly umbonate capand a distinct annulus

Psilocybe cyanescens is anotherhallusinogenic psilocybe

Fungi of the day -Psilocybe spp.

Taxonomy: Phylum (subphylum) Basidiomycota Order - Agaricales Family - Strophariaceae

Boletus calopus and B. erythripusshow blue-stain reaction

Like many other Strophariaceae, species ofPsilocybe are common LBMs and are mainlysaprotrophic on various substrates.

P. cyanescens can often be found on decayingwood, P. cubensis is a common fungus on pasturesand seem to enjoy cow pies as main substrate.

Psilocybe cyanescens on woodchips and P. cubensis on dung


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How did we come to know about Psilocybes?

In the 1940’s and 1950’s a new branch of mycology- etnomycology - was founded (Gordon andWasson) as a group of anthropologists traveled insouthern Mexico and discovered that some of thenatives were consuming “sacred” or “magicalmushrooms” in spiritual gatherings.

Is it a coincidence that Alice inwonderland is displayed withmushrooms?

Chemicals in Psilocybes maycause you to se funny things


How did we come to know about Psilocybes?

The sacred fungi led to contact with either ancientspirits or gods themselves.

With the assistance of a clever mycologist (RogerHeim), Gordon and Wasson were able to concludethat the sacred mushrooms were several species inthe genus Psilocybe. The Psilocybes were mainlycharacterized by their inconspicuousness - theywere your garden variety of LBMs.

Psilocybe cubensis was among theinitial “sacred shrooms” inMexico. Another one would havebeen Psilocybe mexicana.


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Some, not all, Psilocybes are hallucinogenic, i.e.,make you see things, sometimes not-so-very-goodthings.

The hallucinogenic activity of the Psilocybes is dueto two related compounds psilocybin and psilocin.

Psilocin is very similar to the humanneurotransmitter molecule serotonin; a likelyexplanation for the hallucinogenic activity.

Psilocybe cyanescensFungi of the day -Psilocybe spp.

Serotonin and psilocin differ only by thelocation of hydroxy and addition of a shortethyl (CH3)2 group.

Of the two active incredients, psilocin was morepotent and structurally somewhat similar toserotonin and replaces serotonin in brain.

It appears that psilocybin is altered to psilocin inhuman body.

Psilocybin being a mind-altering drug, like LSD, aninterest for using psilocin as a therapeutic psychedrug emerged.

Claviceps alkaloids (recallLSD), psilocin and psilocybinaffect the nervous system


Serotonin and psilocin differ onlyby the location of hydroxy andaddition of a short ethyl (CH3)2

group.

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Timothy Leary, a newly appointed director of theCenter for Research in Personality, HarvardUniversity, got interested in psilocin.

Psilocin could be synthesized and the samecompany which supplied LSD (SandozPharmaceutical in Switzerland) was willing tosupply dedicated scientists with experimentalmaterial.Leary’s research with psilocin was expanded toinclude graduate students at Harvard. It pays to goto grad school! Unfortunately, Leary started toexperiment with LSD as well as psilocin; Harvardbecame infamous for its focus on hallucinogenicdrugs. Soon, restrictions on Leary’s research weretightened and his relationships with his colleaguesdeteriorated. He was eventually fired from Harvard.

Timothy Leary, a Harvardprofessor and a revolutionary ofhis time.


Despite the controversies, Leary continued his exploration (research?) on theconnections between the mind-altering drugs and consciousness.As a result of his interests he became a hero and somewhat an authority amongthose who see need to explore the depths of their minds.


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Not surprisingly, others picked on the importanceof the hallucinogenic mushrooms.

A remarkable example is Terence McKenna whohad a BA in shamanism and conservation of naturalresources from University of California inBerkeley.

McKenna argued that the relatively rapid social andintellectual evolution of human beings was poweredby conscious or accidental consumption of “mind-broadening” fungi.

Terence McKenna


McKenna built his argument around the fact that beingcollectors and foraging in the plains or woods, the earlyhumans inevitably came in contact with fungi that mighthave the compounds capable of altering minds.

His argument continues by pointing out that at low dosespsilocin may heighten senses - therefore you’d be abetter hunter under their influence.

When game was plentiful, being a more efficient hunterwould allow you to spare more time for intellectualgrowth. On the other hand, if the game was sparse, thesame group of early primates would have been the onesto survive.

You should be the judge of the credibility of McKenna’sarguments.

Terrence McKenna


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This time...

• There was an evolutionary argument howfungi made humans smart; pick your side.

• Reminder: penicillin

• We will now look more into factual affectof “fungi” on human migration.

Reminder: penicillin discoveryand its effect on human lives

Penicillium notatum colonized Fleming’sStaphylocuccus cultures in 1928.

After clinical tests and great deal of productdevelopment and engineering, enough could bemade available for the allied troops to savemany allied soldier’s lives.

This may have expedited the end of WWII inEurope like the nuke did in the Pacific. Recallthat death from infections accounted for 15%of total loss of troops in WWI, these werenearly absent towards the end of WWII.

Penicillium sp...

… and sir Alexander Fleming, whoseStaphylococcus plates were contaminated.

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Phytophthora infestans is the causal agentof potato blight.

P. infestans is also the cause of the greatIrish famine, which resulted in the greatIrish migration to North America.

Phytophthora infestans. -zoosporangia.

A zoospore with tinsel andwhiplash flagellum

Phytophthora infestans andthe potato famine

A reminder: Phytophthora is anoomycete.

Reproduction by biflagellated zoospores,which are borne in zoosporangia.


Phytophthora infestans. - zoosporangium.

A biflagellated zoospore withtinsel and whiplash flagellum

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Phytophthora infestans zoospores colonizepotato roots and tubers in soil.

The colonization decreases the overallgrowth of the potato plant, yield of potatoesand destroys the taters in storage.

Foliar necrosis resultingfrom potato blight

Taters infected withPhytophthora infestans (soft rot)


Uncontrolled, Phytophthora infestanszoospores can colonize and decimate theentire crop of potatoes.

This is what the whole Irish famine is allabout. Substantial loss of crops and itsdirect and indirect outcomes.

A potato field leveled byblight

Foliar necrosis of potatoes.


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Potatoes were the primary source ofnutrition for the poor in Ireland.

Weather in the summers 1845 and 1846was particularly favorable for Phytophthorainfestans. Lots of rain and fairly lowtemperatures.

Rain and abundant moisture facilitated therapid dispersal and great abundance ofPhytophthora infestans.

Taters were the primary foodsource for the Irish farmers


In 1846-1850, the subsistence level farmersfound that their tater supply was rotting inthe cellars.

Nobody’s tater crops were doing well andthe price of food sky-rocketed. Eatingbecame a luxury that everybody could notafford; famine is also known as the “greathunger.”

Taters were the primary foodsource for the Irish farmers


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As a result of the poor crops, the Britishand Protestant landlords evicted farmersfrom their land.

People were forced to move into over-populated workhouses.

With nothing else to eat, many chose to eatthe rotted taters. This and the livingarrangements resulted in increase in choleraand typhus. Entire villages were decimated.

With little choice, many aterotten potatoes and got sick.


Some landlords were more humane andpaid for emigration to English-speakingcountries.

The Irish peasants were loaded on shipscalled fondly as the coffin vessels.

As many as 30% of those who were onboard of the coffin vessels never came tothe port at the other end.

Evicted and homeless, manychose to emigrate if thefinances allowed.


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Combined with the emigration largelyspurred by the potato famine, the vastPhytophthora infection caused the Irishpopulation to fall to 5 from 8 million.

In addition to causing ca. 1 million deaths,the potato famine structured the Americanpopulation and shaped American history(20% claim Irish ancestry).

For example, orphan trains from NewOrleans and New York transported Irishorphans to be adopted by Kansas farmers.


New epidemics of Phytophthora infestanshit Ireland again in 1872 and 1879.

However, by then the Irish poor farmershad found additional food supplements(imported corn) and were not as dependenton potatoes.

By 1890, we also had learned thatPhytophthora infestans could be virtuallyeliminated with copper sulphate (Bordeauxmixture).

With little choice, many aterotten potatoes and got sick.


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In 1914, German Kaiser’s high commandordered all surplus food to be stored in thecities for safe keeping. Few bad potatoesruined massive amounts of stored food.Phytophthora infestans hit again in 1915and 1916 resulting ca 700,000 Germancasualties.

It has been argued that weakened homefront had taken a toll on Germans and theallied victory had been assured by 1917when British and Americans got involved.

Phytophthora infestans andWWI

How to manage for the Phytophthorainfestans?

Use more resistant varieties.

Use systemic fungicides (e.g. Metalaxyl orBordeaux mixture [copper sulfate andcalcium oxide]) to prevent infestation inadvance.


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Summary

• Mind-influencing fungi and their effect onthe human evolution.

• Phytophthora infestans - its influence onIrish and American history as well as onoutcomes of WW I.

Documents

Biology of FUNgicourses.k-state.edu/fall2003/BIOL/BIOL604/Lectures/PDFs/Lect17.pdfnatives were consuming “sacred” or “magical mushrooms” in spiritual gatherings. Is it a coincidence