BODY SYSTEMS Introduction to Internal Systems

ORGANELLE i.e. mitochondria -> CELL -> TISSUE i.e. cardiac muscle cell (group of specialized cells) -> ORGAN i.e. heart (many groups of specialized cells) -> SYSTEM i.e. circulatory ORGANISM i.e. human

Respiratory System

What is respiration? a process of supplying oxygen to the body and getting rid of CO2

Respiration at different levels: o 1) Breathing: inspiration (taking in air) and expiration (releasing air)o 2) External Respiration: exchange of oxygen and CO2 in blood (at alveoli)o 3) Internal Respiration: Exchange of oxygen and CO2 at cells and tissueso 4) Cellular Respiration: Use of oxygen at the cellular level (recall mitochondria)

C6H12C6 + O2 -> ATP + CO2 + H2O adenoside triphosphate (energy molecules)

Diffusion: the process by which molecules spread from areas of high concentration, to areas of low concentration

SYSTEM o O2 entering = inhale mouth/nose → diffusion in lungs (alveoli) → diffusion in cells →

diffusion in mitochondria (makes O2 to CO2)o CO2 exiting = exit mitochondria by diffusion→ diffusion in cells → diffusion in lung (alveoli)

→ exhale through mouth/nose

1. nasopharynx = has cilia lining (filters), mucus and capillaries moisten and warm air , connects nasal passage to pharynx

2. nasal passage (nasal cavity) -

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Mechanics of Breathing also called ventilation – process of moving air in and out (o2 in Co2 OUT) TWO MUSCLES: INTERCOASTAL AND DIAPHRAM INHALE: IC contract and expand ribcage, diaphragm also contracts to increase volume of thoracic

cavity = to increase volume of lung, decrease pressure, high to low EXHALE: IC relax shrinks ribcage, diaphragm relax decrease volume of thoracic cavity = decrease

volume of lung, increase pressure, low to high

12.1 Structure and Function of the Respiratory System

all cells require oxygen to obtain energy from molecules of carbohydrates, fats and proti4ens during cellular respiration

cellular respiration – process that produces the energy needed to fuel all cell activities cells must have constant supply of oxygen to dispose of carbon dioxide

RESPIRATORY SURFACE IN ANIMALS in multi-cell organism gas exchange occurs along the respiratory surface the process of diffusion govern this function of their respiratory surfaces

o it is very thin and moist membrane that is permeable to the gases being diffused o SA of the membrane is large to max diffusiono a diffusion gradient must be maintained since diffusion moves gases from higher to lower

concentration = there must be a difference in the relative concentration of oxygen and CO2

some animals like earthworms use their whole bodies as a respiratory surfaceGAS EXCHANGE IN AQUATIC ANIMALS

live in water so their respiratory surface is always moist source of useful gas dissolved in water, an appropriate volume of water must come into close

contact with thin respiratory membranes and yet not damage membranes o most have GILLS = fold in the body surface that are specialized for gas exchange - enables

water to flow so that gases can diffuse from the water across the respiratory membranes - oxygen diffuse directly into the capillaries and CO2 diffuses out of the capillaries and into the environment

GAS EXCHANGE IN TERRESTRIAL ANIMALS advantage because there is more concentration of oxygen in air then in water, easier to move in

air = less energy for gas exchange disadvantage loss of moisture so they have internal respiratory systems: tracheal systems, or

lungso TRACHEAL SYSTEM

tracheal = system of tubes through their bodies air enter and leave the system through opening in body surface larger tubes = trachea, smaller = tracheoles; which to every part of the cell in the

insects body gas exchange occurs along the moist membrane and tips of tracheoles don’t need circulatory system; enough through diffusion large insects pump in more air through rhythmic body movements that compress

and expand

flight muscles also help pump air o LUNGS

internal respiration structure that are surrounded by fluid or by moist tissues and blood vessels

gas exchange occurs in lungs which are internal thin walled sac with s large SA inside lungs oxygen diffuses into blood vessels to the cells of the body

CO2 diffuses out of the blood enters lungs and moves out of the body by mechanical movements of breathing

REGULATION OF HUMAN BREATHING usually involuntary process temp. exert conscious control over breathing mostly controlled by the medulla oblongata – sends signals to diaphragm and ribs to contract and

relax level of CO2 most usually controls breathing rate

Factors affecting breathing Stretch of tissues

o receptors in visceral pleurs (membrane that surrounds lung – protect friction with ribcage), bronchioles and akevoli

o inhibits inspiration o prevents over inflation of lungs during forceful breathing

low blood oxygen o chemoreceptor in blood vesselso increase breathingo increase blood oxygen level

high blood carbon dioxideo chemosensitve areas of brain o increase breathing rateo decrease Co2 by inhaling oxygen

high blood hydrogen iono chemosensitve areas of brain o increase breathing rateo decrease hydrogen by inhaling more oxygen

ALL FACTORS WORK TOGETHER TO MAIN BREATHINGo maintain internal balance = HOMEOTISTIS

Transport of Gases in Blood

O2 is transported by RBC – hemoglobin in RBC combines w/ O2 to form oxyhemoglobins Carbon Dioxide is transported via several methods

o a) CO2 in blood combines w/ H2O to produce carbonic acid CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

Enzymes in RBCs break H2CO3 into a bicarbonate ionH2CO3 ←→ H + HCO3 (enzyme)

70% of CO2 is transported this formo b) 20% is transported by hemoglobin (carbonoxyhemoglobin) o c ) 10% is carried by the plasma solution

Lung Volumes

BLAH BLAH

12.2 Promoting Healthy Respiratory, Circulatory and Digestive System structure and function of the respiratory system can be altered by disease or exposure to viruses

or environmental pollutants common cold is a group of symptoms = coughing, sneezing, and sore throat caused by SINUSITUS SIUNUSITIS = condition caused by viruses or bacteria in which the sinuses become swollen and

irritated (sinuses are moist air spaces around nose) influenza the flu is common viral infection of the upper respiratory system – spread by airborne

droplets and contact with contaminated objects – can cause serious respiratory illnesses – flu can turn to pneumonia – alveoli in lung fill with fluid which prevent oxygen from reaching blood

OTHER DISORDERS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ASTHMA

o chronic disorder in respiratory system – airways become narrowedo smooth muscles surround bronchi and bronchioles when they contract they make

airways narrow = breathing more difficulto causes are pollutants, cold air, cigarette smoke, drug and infections o no cure but puffer has drug called bronchodilator that causes narrowed airways to

expand BRONCHTIS

o when bronchioles or bronchi become infected they swell and produce excess mucus o access mucus causes frequent coughing and difficulty breathing and coughing o heart must work harder to transport oxygen

EMPHYSEMAo over-inflated lung – when cilia lining in airways in damaged = no filters bronchioles

become clogged and less air reaches alveoli o air pressure builds up causing lungs to appear inflated o pressure tears the walls of alveoli and some cells deprived of oxygen – causes breath rate

and heart rate to increase o causes smoking and exposure to chemicals

CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMOARY DISEASE (COPD)o serious condition that occurs when chronic bronchitis and emphysema are found

togethero ppl suffering from COPD need external source of oxygen o bronchodilator used to reduce inflammation and improve airflowo this can lead to respiratory failure

CYSTIC FIBROSISo genetic disease that cause thick mucus in airways o traps bacteria and infects lung issues o breathing is difficult and mucus is hard to dislodge

o also effects digestive system SEVERSE ACUTE RESPIRATORY SYSNDROME (SARS)

o pneumonia like respiratory disease caused by cornoaviruso spread through coughing or sneezing o unusual inflammation of lungs

LUNG CANCERo lung cells began to behave abnormally by growing too fast and group together in tumors o recurring lung infections o 80% are linked to smoking

Tech. To Diagnose and Treat Disorderso respirometer to check breathing movements and lung capacity o endoscope o scans reveal airways and possible tumorso lasers o fluorescent dyes to see cellso transplant

SMOKING toxic substances can irritate the lining of bronchi and destroy cilia w/o cilia cells lose ability to move particles out of the respiratory system smoker must cough frequently to try to clear harmful particle

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

11.1 Circulatory System

cells need constant supply of nutrients and oxygen - circulatory systemCIRCULATORY SYSTEM

all cells in an animal’s need to gain nutrients, exchange games and remove waste products some aquatic animals with bodies only a few cells thick transport materials across membranes to

and from their environment large animals use internal transport system to bring resources close enough to all the cells for

exchange most animals have circulatory system that transports oxygen and CO2, distributes nutrients and

removes cellular wastes 3 PARTS TO ALL CIRCULTORY SYSTEMS

1. Blood – type of connective tissue made up of cells and fluids – carries both nutrients and wastes

2. Heart – what blood is pumped through – a multi-charmbered muscular organ3. Blood Vessels – where blood flows – tubes that form pipline in body

OPEN CICULATORY SYSTEMSo here blood is not entirely contained by blood vessels ex: grasshoppero tubular heart pumps blood through vessels that open into spongy chambers called

sinuses – blood bathes the body tissues then collects in another set of sinuses and makes it back

CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMo earthworms, squids, octopuses and vertebrates

o blood remains contained entirely within blood vessels that extend in body – nutrients, oxygen, waste moth in and out through thin walls

o more efficient that open, because contained they can be pumped at higher pressure HUMAN CIRCULTORY SYSTEM

o closed in human and other vertabrates called cardiovascular systemo network of 100 000 km of blood vessels – around earth 2 ad half timeso supplies trillon cells in your body nutrients and oxygen and removes CO2 and other waste

productso under normal activity blood can complete circuit under one minute

BLOOD highly specialized connective tissue – part fluid part cellular body contains 4-6 L blood transports oxygen, water, nutrients, other chemicals, removes waste, regulate body temperature,

fight infection and heal wounds blood made out of plasma, RBC, WBC, platelets PLASMA

o 55% of blood straw colored solution called plasma – 90% water (control body temp.), 10% is proteins, dissolved nutrients and wastes

o plasma proteins transport fatty acids, vitamins, and fight bacterial and viral infections RBC

o 45% of blood – carry oxygen from lungs o each carry 250 mil. molecules of hemoglobin that binds oxygen and releases throughout

bodyo hemoglobin iron give crimson coloro RBC produces bone marrow at 2 mil per second o RBC ages lose nuclei and mito. – gives RBC shape which allows them to increase SA for

oxygen transfer, and flexibility o cannot replace proteins, grow, divide – lifespan 100-120 days, become fragile and break

down, iron is recycles in bone marrow when it becomes part of new RBC WBC

o cells that guard from infection, fight parasites and attack bacteriao do not have to stay within blood vessel o move through vessel walls and attack foreign organismso produced by bone marrowo keep nuclei and can live for years

PLATELETSo cells fragments that originate when the cytoplasm of certain bone marrow divided

fragments break off and enter bloodo blood clotting process – platelets stick to the site where blood vessel damaged , break

apart and release substances called clotting factors o reactions in clotting factors form protein strand called fibrin – network of threads forming

a patch that dries up into a scabo hemophilia – disease where they do not have necessary protein to from blood clots

BLOOD VESSELS blood flows through 3 types of blood vessels – arteries, capillaries, veins wall contain

o smooth muscle tissue – regulates diameter o connective tissue – allows expansion and contraction o epithelial tissue lines the walls of all blood vessels

ARTRIESo large blood vessels – carry blood to heart to tissueso under pressure due to heart’s pumping – one direction flow towards the tissueso arterioles flow into capillaries

CAPILLARIESo to distribute nutrients and oxygen efficiently must have close contact with cellso microscopic blood vessels w/ high SA – network of tiny tubes, so narrow few blood cells

travel at a time VEINS

o blood return from capillaries into veins o very little pressure in veinso main force is skeletal muscle – contracting muscles squeezes viens and forces blood

through them - most veins contain flaps of tissue called valves that allow blood to flow only toward the heart

o small veins merge to large

NUTRIENT EXCHANGE BETWEEN BLOOD AND CELLS process called diffusion diffusion gradient is the gradual change in the concentration of solute in a solution as a function

of the distance through the solution diffusion occurs in capillaries force that blood exerts on artery wall is called blood pressure – drives blood through arteries into

capillaries once in fluid molecules that are need by the cells move into cells by diffusion cellular wastes move out of the cell into the fluid entering the blood – carried away to places they

can be excretedLYMPHATIC SYSTEM

network of vessels, nodes *connecting points) and organs that collects the fluid that leaves capillaries – screens it for mirco organisms and returns it into the circulatory system

once inside fluid is called lymph – clear, watery made up of protein molecules, salt, glucose, and other substances

if lymph system did not drain lymph in tissues lymph would accumulate causing swelling called edema

valves control movement with contacting and relaxing muscles lymph drains into heart spleen helps remove old damaged blood cells, platelets, and control amount of blood and blood

cells some vessels run along intestine to pick up fats and fat soluble vitamin from digestive to

transport to bloodstream helps immunity

o filter out harmful microorganisms and abnormal cells

11.2 STURCTURE AND FUCTION OF HEARTANATOMY OF THE HEART

size of a clenched fist, hollow organ located between lungs, and made entirely of muscle structure of heart enables it to pump oxygen-poor blood to your lungs and oxygen rich blood to

your entire body as your heart contracts blood is pumped out, as it relaxes blood enters the heart pumping and filling takes 0.8secs protective sac called pericardium encloses the heart MORE ANTOMY PLUS PARTS

TWO CIRCUITS OF BLOOD FLOW heart functions as two pumps one pumps pushes blood into the lungs and one out - pulmonary circuit and systematic circuit PULOMNARY CIRCUIT – heart to lungs and back

o blood travels from the right side of your heart though the pulmonary arteries to your lungs

o in your lungs blood picks up oxygen and release carbon dioxide o pulmonary veins return the oxygen rich blood to the left side of the hearto pulmonary arteries carry oxygen low blood to lungs, and veins carry oxygen rich back

SYSTEMTIC CIRCUIT – heart to body o blood from heart travels through arteries through out bodyo diffuse and become poor oxygen return back through veins into vena cava o BLOOD SUPPLY FOR THE HEART

heart receives very little oxygen from its chambers instead gets it from coronary arteries

branch from aorta cover the surface of the heart like a crown to supply the heart with necessary nutrients

11.3 Promoting a Healthy Circulatory System

PLAQUE plaque can be a patchwork of

cholesterol, calcium and fat deposits sticking to interior walls

plaque buildup through a person’s life DANGERS OF PLAQUE BUILDUP

o atherosclerosis narrowing of the arteries resulting from plaque buildup inside artery walls

as pathways narrow blood pressure increases

narrowing completely blocks the flow of

blood

if it happens in a coronary arteries the heart will be deprived of oxygen causing chest pains celled angina pectoris

blood clot could close up artery leading to a heart attacko Heart attack occurs when the blood supply to the heart tissue is slowed or stopped

due to the narrowing of coronary arteries due to atherosclerosis the heart usually does not stop beating, symptoms include pain in the chest with

shortness of breath and nausea if treatment is not stared quickly heat muscles will die and be replaced by scar

tissue rare in teenagers

o arteriosclerosis is advanced plaque buildup which occurs when the deposits in arteries harder

once flexible the arteries lose ability to stretch disease increases blood pressure and the chance for blood clots to form in blood

vessels treatment may include bypass

o SUDDEN Cardiac Arrest – heart suddenly stops function as from drowning, electrocution, trauma or choking

o most common is due to coronary heart diseaseo can cause the heart to beat irregularly so that blood is not efficiently pumped

CARDIOVASCULAR DIORDERS ARRHYTHMIA

o condition where heart beats irregularly - too quickly or too slowly o most problems with the electric activity of the hearto symptoms dizziness, chest pains, shortness of breath o treatment = pacemaker or defibrillator

HYPERTENSTIONo high blood pressure is a condition where a person’s BP is higher than 140/90 for an

extended period of time o damages heart and blood vessels, heart must work harder to pump blood throughout

body = heart muscles expand = become weakened can no longer push blood o greater than normal pressure on blood vessel walls = small tears = can speed up

atherosclerosis HEART FAILURE

o heart cannot pump blood efficiently because it cannot fill with enough blood or cannot sent the blood to the rest of the body with enough force

o happens in all people – may need to be treated with a heart transplant ANEURYSM

o bulge in the wall of an artery o aneurysm can be cause by injuries, genetic conditions, or disease o blood rushed through the artery it weakens the bulging wall and may burst though o often occurs in branches of aorta o detected by MRI

STORKEo stroke occurs if a blood clot forms in an artery going to the brain o tissues downstream from the blockage can die of lack of oxygen

o effects = partial paralysis, loss of speech, memory loss + death

CHOICES THAT PROMOTE CARDIOVASCULAR HEALTH Eat Healthy – get high fiber, low in salt & cholesterol (used to synthesize hormones, bile and vD) –

bad cholesterol can lead to plaque build up Maintain Healthy Weight Exercise Regularly – reduces chances of developing diseases Avoid Smoking and Second Hand Smoke – chemicals can damage heart and blood vessels

o nicotine narrows blood vessels – and increase heart rate and blood pressure – co replaces oxygen = less oxygen in body

Get Regular Heart Checkups – checks BP and heart sound, pulse and weight which can be indicators

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

10.1 Nutrition and Digestion Why do we need to eat?

Nutrients are chemicals required to grow, build & repair tissues as well as producing energyo Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fats), water, vitamins & mineralso CARBOHYDRATES

made of carbon hydrogen and oxygen atoms use as energy source ex: sugars from fruit, honey, milk –esp. glucose cells break down glucose molecules and extract their stored energy also use to manufacture other kinds of molecules Complex carbs. like starch, bread, rice are broken down and absorbed into the

blood and carried to cells of the body excess converted to glycogen – chain of many glucose molecules glycogen is stored in liver/fat cells

o PROTIENS protein – complex molecule that is constructed from 20 kinds of smaller

molecules called amino acid proteins used daily – form hair and muscle, provide long term nutrient storage,

some defend body from harmful micro-organisms, convey msgs, proteins also works with ENZYMES to control chemical reactions in a cell

enzymes – are proteins that speed up specific chemical reactions with being consumed in the reaction

8 amino acids that your cells cannot make can get them from meat, milk, eggs, chesse – veg. combos are corn, beans, rice,

lentils, and hummus o LIPIDS (FAT)

molecules formed from fatty acids and glycerol - fats store energy in you body and help your body absorb fat-soluble vitamins

fatty tissues cushion your organs and provide your body with insulation SATURATED FATS -

o WATERo VITAMINS & MINERALS

We need to eat for: growth, maintenance & energy Energy amounts vary based on:

o endothermic or exothermic animalo size

Energy is required to perform many different chemical reactions (METABOLISM)o Catabolic reactions BREAK DOWN materials (i.e. chemical reactions that break down

nutrients during digestion)o Anabolic reactions BUILD LARGER, MORE COMPLEX molecules from smaller ones (i.e.

materials required for growth & repair)o Metabolic Rate: the rate at which the body converts stored energy into working energy

(this is different for everyone) Generally: Body size Physical activity (muscle burns more than fat) Sex (males tend to have greater proportion of muscle mass than females of same

age, size and fitness level) Age (due to muscle loss & decreased physical activity) Hereditary factors

Some people have difficulty balancing their diets (too much or too little nutrients)o Overeating (overweight & obesity)o Anorexia Nervosao Bulimia

IngestionThe act of taking food into the body through the mouth

DigestionThe act of breaking down food either MECHANICALLY (physical) which is done by teeth, tongue and stomach or CHEMICALLY (breaking bonds) by enzymes.

Chemical Digestion

In the mouth:

Saliva contains ENZYMES (chemicals that increase the rate of reaction without getting used up); you produce 0.75L-1.5L per day (mostly water)

o Amylase: breaks down STARCH into smaller carbohydrates (disaccharides)

In the stomach

Only PARTIAL digestion of PROTEINS; NOT lipids and carbohydrates Because of the acid in the stomach, the inner layers of the stomach replaces the entire

lining every 3 days Nerves in inner layers detect when food is present & initiates the release of the

hormone GASTRIN which is released into the blood and transported to the stomach. This hormone initiates the release of GASTRIC JUICES (mucus & digestive enzymes)

The acid in the stomach has a pH between 2 and 3 kills many harmful microorganisms AND provides the pH necessary for PEPSIN to become active

o Pepsin breaks down proteins into amino acids

In the small intestines

Lipids, carbohydrates & remaining proteins are digested here The villi are small, finger-like projections that increase surface area; there are microvilli

(smaller villi) that surrounds the outside of the villi increases surface area by a factor of 500; capillaries are found within the villi; there are also lacteal vessels that transport digested fats (they don’t enter bloodstream directly)

ENZYMES from the PANCREAS, LIVER and GALL BLADDER are added to the DUODENUMo Cholecytokinin (CCK): hormone secreted by cells in duodenum once fat enters

Signals PANCREAS to release substances that control pH and release enzymes that digest lipids, carbohydrates & proteins

Signals STOMACH to slow down speed of digestion so it can digest the fats already in the sm.int

o Small intestines release of hormone SECRETIN that stimulates: LIVER to make MORE BILE PANCREAS to secrete LIPID & PROTEIN enzymes as well as BICARBONATE

(this NEUTRALIZES the acidity in the duodenumo Pancreas releases hormone TRYPSINOGEN which is activated by the enzyme

ENTEROKINASE (in the duodenum) to make TRYPSIN an enzyme that breaks down PROTEINS

o Pancreas releases lipases (enzymes that digest fats) only helps breakdown fats, LIVER MUST also aid in digestion

o LIVER produces & secretes BILE which emulsifies (breaking down into tiny droplets) FATS sends to GALL BLADDER as well

o GALL BLADDER stores BILE produced in liver once fats enter duodenum signals GALL BLADDER to release bile into the duodenum

Absorption

RECALL: Absorption is the act of moving nutrients into the blood

Small Intestines

o Actively and passively transports nutrients through the capillary network in the small intestines (villi & microvilli as well as the lacteal vessels)

Large intestines

o Undigested materials like cellulose (which we cannot digest) & waste is passed through the colon & water is absorbed

o The water that is absorbed is from diet, mucus, gastric juices and other digestive juiceso Vitamins B and K, Na and Chloride ions

o E.coli here produce vitamin K and some B vitaminso Gas (a byproduct) is absorbed BUT some is released

o Takes 4-72 hours to pass through

Egestion

The removal of waste food materials from the body

o Feces is the name of undigested material that is eliminated as waste