Contents

Preface ix

Foreword xiList of Contributors xiii

1. Current Bioenergy Researches: Strengthsand Future Challenges 1

NAVEEN KUMAR MEKALA, RAVICHANDRA POTUMARTHI,

RAMA RAJU BAADHE, VIJAI K. GUPTA

Introduction 1Biopellets 3Bioethanol 3Biodiesel 9Biogas 14Conclusion 17References 18

2. Bioenergy Research: An Overview onTechnological Developments and Bioresources 23

VIJAI K. GUPTA, RAVICHANDRA POTUMARTHI,

ANTHONIA O’DONOVAN, CHRISTIAN P. KUBICEK,

GAURI DUTT SHARMA, MARIA G. TUOHY

Introduction 23Current Bioenergy Practices 25Main Biofuel Technologies and Current Processes 26Technological Routes for Bioenergy Production 28Bioenergy Resources and Biofuels Development Program 33Sustainability 36Conclusions 41References 41

3. Use of Agroindustrial Residuesfor Bioethanol Production 49

LUIZ J. VISIOLI, FABIANE M. STRINGHINI, PAULO R.S. SALBEGO,

DANIEL P. CHIELLE, GABRIELLY V. RIBEIRO, JULIANA M. GASPAROTTO,

BRUNO C. AITA, RODRIGO KLAIC, JESSICA M. MOSCON,

MARCIO A. MAZUTTI

Introduction 49Raw Material 50Sugar Production and Fermentation 52Concluding Remarks 55References 55

4. Recent Advancements in PretreatmentTechnologies of Biomass to Produce Bioenergy 57

IRMENE ORTIZ, RODOLFO QUINTERO

Lignocelullosic Biomass 57Pretreatment of Lignocelullosic Biomassfor Biofuels Production 58Types of Pretreatments 58Trends in Pretreatments 62Pretreatment Modeling 65Environmental and Economical Aspects 65Concluding Remarks 66References 66

5. Biofuels and Bioproducts Produced throughMicrobial Conversion of Biomass 71

TRENT CHUNZHONG YANG, JYOTHI KUMARAN,

SAMUEL AMARTEY, MIRANDA MAKI, XIANGLING LI,

FAN LU, WENSHENG QIN

Lignocellulosic Biomass and its Pretreatment 72Commonly used Microorganisms for BiologicalPretreatment 73Strategies of Using Microbial Pretreatment to Enhance SugarRelease for Biofuel and Bioproduct Production 79References 87

6. Databases for Bioenergy-Related Enzymes 95YANBIN YIN

Plant Biomass 95Bioenergy-Related Enzymes and Regulation 96Databases and Web Servers 98Future Perspectives 103References 103

7. Isobutanol Production from Bioenergy Crops 109THADDEUS CHUKWUEMEKA EZEJI, NASIB QURESHI,

VICTOR UJOR

Background/Introduction 109Keto Acid Pathways for Higher Alcohol Production 110Biochemistry of Isobutanol Fermentation 112

v

Metabolic Engineering of Microorganisms for IsobutanolProduction 113Feasibility of Using Bioenergy Crops as SustainableFeedstocks for Isobutanol Production 114Technologies that Have Been Developed for SimultaneousButanol Fermentation and Recovery 115Conclusion and Future Perspective 116References 116

8. Lipase-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production:Technical Challenges 119

RAMA RAJU BAADHE, RAVICHANDRA POTUMARTHI,

VIJAI K. GUPTA

Introduction 119Chemistry of Biodiesel 120Transesterification 120Disadvantages of Chemical Transesterification 120Advantages of Using Lipases in Biodiesel Production 121Historical Background of Lipase 121Lipase-Catalyzed Transesterification Donein two Approaches 121Advantages of Immobilized Lipase 122Technical Challenges 123Feedstock 123Choice of Enzyme 124Molar Ratio (Alcohol/Oil) 124Temperature 124Water Content 126Acyl Acceptors 126Solvents 126Reactor System 126Conclusions 127References 127

9. Bioelectrochemistry of MicrobialFuel Cells and their Potential Applications

in Bioenergy 131MINGHUA ZHOU, JIE YANG, HONGYU WANG, TAO JIN,

DANIEL J. HASSETT, TINGYUE GU

Introduction 132Bioelectrochemistry of MFC 132Biofilm Electrochemistry for Enhanced MFC Performance:A Molecular Biology Perspective 139MFCs for Wastewater Treatment with ConcomitantElectricity Production 143Summary and Perspectives 147References 147

10. Second-Generation Biofuel from High-EfficiencyAlgal-Derived Biocrude 153

RHYKKA CONNELLY

Introduction 153Microalgal Biofuel History 154

Microalgae Biomass/Biofuel ProductiondCultivation 155Phototrophic Microalgae 155Heterotrophic Microalgae 155Nutrients 156Contamination 156Mixing 156Culture Techniques 156Open-Pond Culture 157Photobioreactors 157Processing Microalgal Biomassfor Biofuels 158Microalgal Biomass to Biofuels 158Biodiesel 158Production of Biodiesel from Microalgae 159Comparison of Biodiesel to Petrodiesel 160Bioethanol 161Bioethanol Production Process 161Biomethane 164Biohydrogen 165Biocrude 166Properties of Subcritical Water 166Hydrothermal Catalytic Liquefaction 167HTL Summary and Outlook 167Conclusions 167References 168

11. Microalgae: The Tiny Microbes witha Big Impact 171

SHOVON MANDAL, NIRUPAMA MALLICK

Renewable Energy 171Petroleum Fuel Scenario in India 172Biodiesel 172Microalgae: Viable Feedstocks for Biodiesel 173Selection of Potent Strains 173Genetic Engineering Approach 175Microalgal Biodiesel Production 177Fatty Acid Methyl Esters and FuelProperties 179Waste Utilization for Biodiesel Production:A Case Study with Scenedesmus Obliquusin a Recirculatory Aquaculture System 179Concluding Remarks 181References 181

12. Biobased Fats (Lipids) and Oils from Biomassas a Source of Bioenergy 185

CIARAN JOHN FORDE, MARIE MEANEY, JOHN BOSCO CARRIGAN,

CLIVE MILLS, SUSAN BOLAND, ALAN HERNON

Introduction 185Sources of Biolipids 186Supply and Projected/Purrent Volume 190Energy Balance 192Processing of Biolipids and Properties ofBiolipid-Derived Biofuels 193Properties of Pure Plant Oil 195

CONTENTSvi

Properties of Biodiesel 196Biomass to Liquid Fuels (Bio-oil) 197Conclusion 198References 198

13. Use of Volatile Solids from Biomassfor Energy Production 203

W.J. OOSTERKAMP

Introduction 204Biodegradability 204Addition of Macro- and Micronutrients 204Addition of Microbes 205Addition of Enzymes 206Pretreatments 207Longer Retention Times 207Energy Crops 207Food Processing Residues 207Crop Residues 209Spent Bedding 209Kitchen and Garden Waste 209Aquatic Weeds 209Digestion Systems 211Increase in Solids Content in Wet Digesters 212Loading and Unloading of Digesters 212Treatment of Digestate in WetDigesters 212Use of Methane 213Chemical Conversion of Volatile Solids 213Thermal Conversion of VolatileSolids 214Discussion 214Conclusions 214References 215

14. Biorefinery Systems: An Overview 219MARIA GAVRILESCU

IntroductiondBiorefinery, Conceptsand Emerging Opportunities for Sustainable Economy 219Short History of Biorefineries and Bio-Based Products 221Biomass Feedstock 221Structure of Biorefinery Concept 224Biorefinery Platforms 227Biorefinery Eco-Efficiency 231Concluding Remarks and Perspectives 236References 239

15. Catalytic Thermochemical Processes forBiomass Conversion to Biofuels

and Chemicals 243LIN MEI WU, CHUN HUI ZHOU, DONG SHEN TONG, WEI HUA YU

Introduction 243Pyrolysis of Biomass 244Gasification of Biomass 247

Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass 248Conclusion 251References 251

16. Applications of Heterogeneous Catalysts in theProduction of Biodiesel by Esterification and

Transesterification 255LUIZ P. RAMOS, CLAUDINEY S. CORDEIRO,

MARIA APARECIDA F. CESAR-OLIVEIRA, FERNANDO WYPYCH,

SHIRLEY NAKAGAKI

Introduction 255Heteropolyacids 257Zeolites 258Clay Minerals 260Layered Materials 265Polymeric Catalysts 269Concluding Remarks 272References 272

17. Lignocellulose-Based Chemical Products 277ED DE JONG, RICHARD J.A. GOSSELINK

Introduction 278Occurrence and Composition of LignocellulosicBiomass 278Cellulose 280Hemicelluloses 280Lignin 283Pretreatment Technologies 286Pretreatment Technologies Still at aLaboratory/Conceptual Stage 290Lignocellulosic BiorefineriesdClassification 292C6 and C6/C5 Sugar Platform 295Lignin Platform 296Importance of Furans and Aromatics as Building Blocks forChemicals and Fuels 297Carbohydrate Dehydration 298Conversion of Technical Lignins intoMonoaromatic Chemicals 305Conclusions and Further Perspectives 309References 309

18. Industrial Lignins: Analysis, Properties, andApplications 315

ALEX BERLIN, MIKHAIL BALAKSHIN

The Potential of Technical Lignins as a RenewableRaw Material Feedstock 315Technical Lignins: Production, Properties, and Analysis 318Technical Lignins: Traditional and Emerging Applications 332Conclusions 333References 333

CONTENTS vii

19. Amino-Based Products from Biomass andMicrobial Amino Acid Production 337

K. MADHAVAN NAMPOOTHIRI, VIPIN GOPINATH, M. ANUSREE,

NISHANT GOPALAN, KIRAN S. DHAR

Amino Acids 337Aspartame 341Poly(Amino Acid)s 341Polyamines 345Conclusion and Perspectives 349References 349

20. Production of Phytochemicals, Dyes and Pigmentsas Coproducts in Bioenergy Processes 353

HANSHU DING, FENG XU

Industrial Phytochemicals 353Production of Industrial Phytochemicals 358Coproduction of Phytochemicals in Bioenergy Processes 361References 363

21. Recent Developments on Cyanobacteriaand Green Algae for Biohydrogen

Photoproduction and Its Importance in CO2

Reduction 367Y. ALLAHVERDIYEVA, E.M. ARO, S.N. KOSOUROV

Introduction 367Mechanisms of Hydrogen Photoproduction 368Hydrogen Photoproduction by Cyanobacteria 372Hydrogen Photoproduction by Green Algae 375References 382

22. Engineered Cyanobacteria: Researchand Application in Bioenergy 389

GUSTAVO B. LEITE, PATRICK C. HALLENBECK

Introduction 389Engineering Cyanobacteria 392Cyanobacteria as a Production System for Biofuels: CurrentStatus 393Conclusion and Outlook 403References 403

23. Sustainable Farming of Bioenergy Crops 407ADRIAN MULLER

Introduction 407Criteria for Sustainable Farming and Sustainable FoodSystems 409What is Sustainable Bioenergy Production? 410How Much Bioenergy may be Produced Sustainably? 412

Conclusions 415References 415

24. Bioenergy Technology and Food Industry WasteValorization for Integrated Production of

Polyhydroxyalkanoates 419VASILIKI KACHRIMANIDOU, NIKOLAOS KOPSAHELIS, COLIN WEBB,

APOSTOLIS A. KOUTINAS

Introduction 419PHA Structure and Properties 420PHA Production Integrated in Biorefinery Concepts 421Conclusions and Future Perspectives 430References 430

25. Advances and Innovations in Biochar Productionand Utilization for Improving Environmental

Quality 435CHARLES HYLAND, AJIT K. SARMAH

Introduction 435Properties of Biochar 436Utilization of Biochar for Environmental Quality 438Postpyrolysis Indirect Application of Biochar 440Conclusions, Knowledge Gaps, and Research Needs 443References 444

26. Biochar Processing for Sustainable Development inCurrent and Future Bioenergy Research 447

MARK P. MCHENRY

Introduction 447Theoretical Income Streams 448Agricultural Benefits 450Economic Analysis 451Conclusion 454Disclaimers 455References 455

27. Development of Thermochemical and BiochemicalTechnologies for Biorefineries 457

MICHAEL P. GARVER, SHIJIE LIU

Introduction 457Characteristics of Lignocellulosic Biomass 458An Overview on Biomass Conversion 461PretreatmentdBiomass Size Reduction by Physical orMechanical Methods 462Hydrolysis 476BioconversiondConverting Sugars to Products 477Thermochemical Conversion 478Conclusion 482References 482

Index 489

CONTENTSviii