Biodiversity Conservation and Site Plan Review...Biodiversity Conservation and Site Plan Review...
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August 1, 2009 Norrie Point Environmental Center Hudsonia Ltd. Biodiversity Conservation and Site Plan Review
Biodiversity Conservation and Site Plan Review...Biodiversity Conservation and Site Plan Review Large forested areas are of particular importance to certain area-sensitive wildlife
biodiversity: the variety of life and its processes
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Presentation Notes
Biological diversity, or “biodiversity” refers to all the variety of life at a given location, and the interactions between the biological and non-biological components of their environments. The term encompasses everything from genes to species to ecosystems, and includes plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and so on—the whole array of organisms and their genetic makeup. From a conservation standpoint, we are mainly concerned about native biodiversity, and that will be the focus of this workshop. By that we mean the organisms and systems that have been established in this part of the world without human agency. That is, the biota that have developed here over millennia, to the exclusion of those that have been brought here from other parts of the world over the last few hundred years. Native biodiversity is often considered a measure of ecosystem health, because an ecosystem with the full complement of species and processes that have developed over thousands and tens of thousands of years is likely to be more resilient to diseases, to weather extremes, to catastrophic events such as floods and fires, and to the day-to-day stresses of earthly existence. Simplified systems, on the other hand, such as a cornfield (as an extreme example), can be easily wiped out by a single pathogen.
Why do we care about biodiversity?
climate moderation
oxygen production
soil formation
nutrient transformation
production & decomposition of organic matter
pollination
water and air purification
Biodiversity is fundamental to the ecosystems that sustain life on earth, and are responsible for:
Why do we care about biodiversity?
food resources
other harvestable resources (wood, fiber, medicines)
other economic benefits
scenic values
human health
“quality of life”
Secondary ecosystem services:
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The loss of biodiversity can impair ecosystems in countless unpredictable ways, ranging from the minor to the catastrophic.
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There are many threats to biodiversity (global warming, invasive spp., overharvesting, etc.) but in this workshop we’ll be focusing mainly on threats related to human uses of the land that we can address right here in the Hudson Valley.
Threats to biodiversity
Loss of habitats
Degradation of habitats
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It is now generally acknowledged that habitat loss and degradation are the main threats to biodiversity worldwide. In the HV, we see habitat loss most dramatically in the intensively developed parts of the region… Habitat degradation is more ubiquitous but less visible, and more insidious, and it affects much more than the footprint of any particular development area. It takes many forms and happens by many different mechanisms, but a few of these are: fragmentation of the landscape, pollution of soil, air, and water; depletion and contamination of groundwater and surface water; offsite impacts of human activities: noise, lights, roaming pets, introduction of invasive spp., fire suppression, human-subsidized predators, and so on.
Effective Biodiversity Conservation
Maintain the full complement of organisms that have established over thousands of years,
AND
maintain their ability to interact fully with each other and with the nonbiological components of their environments.
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Effective biodiversity conservation comes down to one major principle:
How to accomplish biodiversity conservation?
Protect functional ecological landscapes
by maintaining the habitats, conditions, processes, and interactions
that sustain biological diversity and the larger ecosystems.
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How do we accomplish that? Easier said than done, but our actions should be aimed at protecting…. Most of this workshop will focus on ways to locate and design our land uses to help achieve these ends, and maybe even reverse some of the harms already perpetrated.
Avoid or minimize habitat fragmentation
Maintain and restore links between habitat patches
Establish and maintain broad buffer zones around sensitive areas
Maintain natural disturbance processes
Create no additional runoff of rainwater or snowmelt(and minimize impervious surfaces)
Five major rulesfor
locating and designing land development projects
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Presentation Notes
In the end though, in my view, it mostly comes down to five major rules that we will return to many times today as they relate to site plan design, site plan reviews, and conservation planning:
• Biodiversity conservation principles
• Threats to biodiversity
• Location of development
• Reviewing site plans
• Lunch
• Reviewing site plans (continued)
• LEED and biodiversity conservation
• Examples of effective programs
Biodiversity Conservation and Site Plan Review
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Presentation Notes
Large forested areas are of particular importance to certain area-sensitive wildlife species such as bear, bobcat, fisher, several of our raptors, and many of our neotropical migratory songbirds. The scarlet tanager, wood thrush, black-throated blue warbler, for example, are some of the interior-forest songbirds that do poorly in landscapes where large, unfragmented forests have disappeared. Similarly, black bear, bobcat, and fisher will use many nonforested parts of the landscape, but require large forests for nursery areas, travel, and cover.
grassland breeding birds
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Many of our imperiled grassland breeding bird species such as grasshopper sparrow, vesper sparrow, and upland sandpiper require large meadows that are unfragmented by roads or hedgerows.
intermittent woodland pools
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Intermittent woodland pools are the critical breeding habitat for a special group of pool-breeding amphibians—Jeff. salamander, marbled salamander, spotted salamander, and wood frog--that use these pools for breeding and nursery areas in the spring, but then spend the rest of the year lives in the surrounding upland forests, often moving several hundred to a couple of thousand feet and more from their breeding pools to their terrestrial habitats. Both the pools and the large surrounding forests are essential parts of the habitat complexes required by these amphibians.
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Areas of exposed bedrock that we call crests and ledges can be real hot spots for rare species of plants and animals. Some of our rare and uncommon snakes such as timber rattlesnake, black racer, and black ratsnake use these areas for winter denning, for breeding and basking in the spring, and for basking in the fall. They also use large areas of the forests and meadows around these ledges for foraging during the warm months. These surrounding habitats can be just as important as the ledges themselves to the continuing survival of these snakes. Bobcat uses remote ledgy areas for cover and nursery areas. There are long lists of rare plants known from the inhospitable-looking habitats. And the talus fields that sometimes develop at the bases of steep ledges may be used by many small animals, including slimy salamander and eastern small-footed bat.
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Streams, including intermittent as well as perennial streams, are habitat for many resident invertebrate, amphibian, and fish species, and are also used by terrestrial animals throughout the larger landscape. The importance of intermittent streams is often disregarded, but they seem to be every bit as valuable from both biodiversity and water resource perspectives. They are the lifeblood of the larger streams as well as the wetlands, lakes, and ponds that they feed.
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The wood turtle (NYS Special Concern) uses perennial streams in the fall, winter, and spring, and intermittently through the summer, when it also uses a wide variety of other upland and wetland habitats for foraging, resting, and nesting, often moving several hundred feet and more from the core stream habitat. Perennial streams are the core habitat of the river otter, which also uses a variety of other wetlands and waterbodies. The Indiana bat (NYS Endangered) forages along perennial stream corridors, roosts in trees in upland settings, and overwinters in caves that may be as much as 30 miles from these summer habitats.
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Our uses of the land have lots of obvious and not-so-obvious effects on habitats and species. The problem of habitat loss is perhaps the easiest for all of us to grasp. If you pave over a turtle nesting area or clear a forest, those areas will no longer be available for the wildlife that used them prior to those disturbances. If there were rare turtles (such as a Blanding’s or wood turtle) or a rare songbird such as a Kentucky warbler nesting in those habitats, then the loss of habitat could extinguish the local or even regional populations of those species. It is often by the cumulative effects of such incremental losses that species become endangered in a region, a state, or throughout their range. The problems of habitat degradation are far less visible but can be equally harmful to sensitive plants, animals, and the processes essential to intact ecosystems. In many ways, habitat degradation is the greater problem, because it can go on for years without anyone taking particular notice, until one day it occurs to you …
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We’re all familiar with the concepts of air and water pollution, and the harm they can cause to habitats and to sensitive species, including humans. But we’re going to talk mainly about other sources of habitat degradation related to land use, and the design of development projects. Some of the very common kinds of habitat degradation happen right under our noses, but tend to go unnoticed.
Threats to biodiversity
Degradation of habitats
‐‐habitat fragmentation‐‐depletion of water resources ‐‐offsite impacts of human activity
Habitat fragmentation, for example, occurs every time you build a road or driveway through a forest or meadow, and the effects extend far beyond the footprint of the roadway itself. Here’s a place where the total area of forest is not greatly reduced by this road and these residences that cut through the forest, but the fragmentation effects of the driveways, yards, and buildings on certain kinds of wildlife might be as great as if you’d built 100 houses in this area instead of 20. This kind of fragmentation can cause a whole host of problems for the wildlife of the forest that require large, undisturbed interior forest areas. When you walk into a forest in Rockland or Westchester counties, or even in the suburbanized parts of southern Dutchess you are now less likely to hear an ovenbird or a black-throated green warbler because the once-large forests are now broken up into small patches by roads, driveways, and houses.
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So do not assume that your 600-ft driveway through a farm field or a forest, or your 2500 ft2 yard will affect just the width of the road fill and the yard dimensions. I want to talk now a little about some of the effects of something as apparently trivial as a driveway, a house, and a yard.
What are “edge effects” ?
Edge effects are the negative influences of habitat edges on interior habitats and species.
HABITAT PATCH
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What we refer to as “edge effects” are the negative influences of habitat edges on interior habitats and species. These include effects caused by: Noise, artificial lights, changes in sunlight, humidity, human-subsidized predators (including pets), nest parasites, playing children, invasive plants, contaminated runoff, and a host of other factors.
What are “edge effects” ?
CORE
EDGE
HABITAT PATCH
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These influences have measurable and sometimes dramatic effects on nearby habitats, and can alter the plant community, soil life, breeding birds, and other wildlife use. Some of these can occur at any edge, even the edge between two different habitats such as a forest and a marsh. But many of them are specific to the edges between human activity areas and habitat areas. The effects are most harmful to what we call “interior species” of plants and animals that require the substantially undisturbed environments found in the interior “core” areas of habitat patches. “Core habitat” is the interior part of the habitat patch that is distant enough from the edges so that it is relatively unaffected by edge influences. Many species of conservation concern use these core habitats, such as many of our raptors and neotropical migratory songbirds. Even some uncommon and rare plant species seem to do best in these interior forest areas. Other animals that we call “edge species,” such as raccoon, blue jay, and American crow, use habitat edges. These are very common species whose populations have burgeoned in the open and fragmented landscapes around human-settled areas. The distanceS that the “edge effects” penetrate into the habitat patch differ according to the kind and intensity of use, the kind of habitat, and the characteristics of the vegetation. The impacts of the edge effects differ according to the sensitivities of the interior species. But the edge effects can substantially reduce the area of useful habitat for sensitive species, and are responsible for many of those species disappearing from our landscape. So in these places that have been degraded by edge effects, the habitat (such as a deciduous forest) has not disappeared, but it is has been so impaired by the edge effects that it is rendered unusable by the interior species that do not tolerate those kinds of changes.
How much useful habitat?
(Environmental Law Institute)
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The amount of useful habitat for interior species can also depend on the shape of the habitat patch. Assume that these three patches have the same area.
How much useful habitat?
(Environmental Law Institute)
70%
30%60%
40%
80%
20%
Edge
Core
> >
largest area of useful habitat
smallest area of useful habitat
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Even though these are all the same size, the irregular shaped patch in the middle has a higher edge to core ratio, and a smaller area of core habitat than the circular patch on the left. The long linear patch has highest edge to core ratio and the least area of core habitat of all. In many cases a habitat patch like this can be all edge habitat. This is one of the reasons why it is better to protect broad instead of narrow patches of habitat, wherever possible
Edge to Core Ratio
msnbc.com
RECREATION
• the 4th leading cause of the decline of threatened and endangered species
• alters the behavior of wildlife and the interactions between species
• stresses wildlife and depletes their energy resources needed for immediate and long term survival
Czech et al., 2000
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We tend to think of human recreational activities—especially passive recreation such as birdwatching, hiking, and photography—as having fairly benign impacts on the natural world. But even those activities, and certainly others such as walking your dog, mountain biking, snowmobiling, and so on, can significantly effect forest wildlife. In fact, human recreation is the 4th leading cause of the decline of federally threatened and endangered species. Although public access to open space is an important component of our “quality of life,” public recreation is not always compatible with biodiversity. Our recreational activities affect individual animals, populations, and communities by changing behavior and interactions between species, causing both immediate and long-long term effects on wildlife. In the presence of humans animals may immediately stop eating, flee, or alter their reproductive behavior. Repeated such disturbances can deplete the animal’s energy resources necessary for searching for food, escaping predators, growth, and reproduction, and the presence of humans causes animals to avoid otherwise suitable parts of their habitat, reducing the usable habitat area.
Forest
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Here is patch of forest with a 1500-ft diameter(about 40 ac) in the middle of a cul-de-sac surrounded by a development. The road up against the forest creates forest edge.
Influence on abiotic factors26 ft
Forest
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One study has found that the edge effects of non-biological factors such as sunlight, wind and humidity alter the forest environment up to 26-ft into the forest. (This is very conservative, and in many situations these influences would extend much father into the the forest.) The edge of a forest is more exposed to wind and the sun which creates a warmer and drier microclimate compared to the darker, humid interior of the forest. The red rim represents the 26-ft edge effect of these non-biological influences.
Bird flushingdistance52 ft
26 ft, Abiotic factor influence
Forest
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Another study found that forest birds were disturbed by pedestrians and dogs 52 ft away from the edge. Many birds are less likely to set up territories or nest if they are constantly disturbed, and will avoid this edge. The orange plus the red zones represent this 52-ft distance.
26 ft, Abiotic factor influence
52 ft, Bird flushing distance
Influence on smallmammals147 ft
Forest
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Small mammal populations have been shown to be influenced 150 ft from the edge.
Nest predation & parasitism163 ft
26 ft, Abiotic factor influence
52 ft, Bird flushing distance
147 ft, Influence on small mammals
Forest
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Edges of forests are more easily accessible to predators—such as skunks, raccoons, foxes, cats, certain snake species, blue jays, and crows--that will use roads, trails and open areas as travel corridors. These predators will prey on bird eggs or nestlings near edges. Through our manipulations of the landscape we have artificially increased the numbers of these kinds of species, to the detriment of the more specialized forest-interior species. Nest parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird is one factor leading to the decline of many forest-interior birds. Cowbird is an edge species, which lays its eggs in other birds’ nests and sometimes destroys the host bird’s eggs. Cowbird nestlings grow faster and larger than the host bird’s nestlings and out compete them, often resulting in the weakening and death of the host birds own young. The effects of nest predation and nest parasitism may extend 163 ft into the forest.
26 ft, Abiotic factor influence
52 ft, Bird flushing distance
147, Influence on small mammals
163 ft, Nestpredation& parasitism
Influence on plants213 ft
Forest
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One study found that trillium, a forest wildflower, within 213 ft of the forest edge against a clearcut did not recruit new plants after the clearcutting was done, due to decreased seed survivorship. It is likely that this also happens to other understory plants that can serve as shelter and a food source to other animals.
CORE
26 ft, Abiotic factor influence
52 ft, Bird flushing distance
147 ft, Influence on small mammals
163 ft, Nestpredation& parasitism
213 ft, Influence on plants
Influence on bird densities590 ft
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Bird densities were found to be altered 590 ft away from forest perimeters. In fact, many of these numbers are conservative, and some of these kinds of influences can extend much farther into the forest. But the point of these diagrams is to illustrate the very significant effects caused by edges, and the implications for conservation.
Forest
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So, for example, if you were trying to protect habitat for an interior forest bird that needs a forest of 40 ac or larger, you wouldn’t want to put your road right at the edge of the 40 acres, but would want to buffer this 40-acre core…
Forest
Buffer 590 ft
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…by a 590-ft buffer zone OUTSIDE OF the core area.
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT
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Some of the most significant effects of human land uses on biodiversity stem from our alterations of water movement over the land and through the soils. In the past, stormwater management practices sought to remove surface runoff from developed areas as quickly and efficiently as possible. This has had multiple and terrible effects on our streams, ponds, and wetlands, and on our groundwater. Recognition of these effects and their causes has led the EPA, many states, and many municipalities to reform their own practices and their requirements for new developments. Old systems, old infrastructure, however, will guarantee that our streams will suffer from past land development for decades to come. We at least have the opportunity now to ensure that new development doesn’t repeat these past crimes. Here’s the basic scenario: (etc.)
Source of graphic: Huron River Watershed Council, MI: Impacts of Land Use on Impervious Surfaces (http://www.hrwc.org/text/wqimpervious.htm)
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In an undeveloped watershed, most rain and snow falling on the watershed either infiltrates into the ground or is taken up by vegetation. Much of the water that infiltrates into the ground eventually makes it into streams or lakes through groundwater seeps, or springs. Water taken up by vegetation cycles back into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration.
Source of graphic: Huron River Watershed Council, MI: Impacts of Land Use on Impervious Surfaces (http://www.hrwc.org/text/wqimpervious.htm)
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Water runs directly off the impervious surfaces and into streams and lakes. So the stream receives a large volume of runoff water just after rainfalls or large snowmelts, but is deprived of water during dry times. Both the high flows and the low flows are problematic for the stream. The high flows can damage aquatic habitats and scour the banks, and the low flows deprive aquatic wildlife of water and oxygen. Runoff water is also much warmer than groundwater, and is often contaminated with fertilizer, pesticides, oils, and other pollutants from developed landscapes.
Detention Basins
Rain Gardens
Pitfall Hazards
Photos from Menunketuck: Newsletter of MenunkatuckAudubon Society, May 2007
Silt fences are extremely ineffective at preventing siltation, rarely maintained properly, and rarely, if ever, cleaned out before removing. The net effect is often massive siltation of nearby wetlands and streams during and after construction. Siltation can destroy or damage the benthic habitat of streams, and cause smothering and drift of aquatic invertebrates. High turbidity due to suspended sediments can limit in-stream photosynthesis, further reduce the aquatic food supply, and impede the foraging of sight-feeding fish and predatory aquatic invertebrates. Similarly, road runoff containing sand used to treat winter roads causes severe problems to streams habitats, especially those streams with invertebrates and fishes that require rock or cobble bottoms.
Threats to biodiversity
Degradation of habitats
‐‐habitat fragmentation‐‐pollution of soil, air, water ‐‐depletion of water resources ‐‐invasive species‐‐fire suppression‐‐human‐subsidized predators‐‐multiple edge effects
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So, getting back to the larger picture, how do we locate and design our new developments so that they minimize these kinds of harms? From a biodiversity standpoint, the first and perhaps most important decision is choosing the site for new development. So we’ll talk a little about the kinds of factors that can contribute to better or worse choices in this regard.
• Biodiversity conservation principles
• Threats to biodiversity
• Location of development
• Reviewing site plans
• Lunch
• Reviewing site plans (continued)
• LEED and biodiversity conservation
• Examples of effective programs
Biodiversity Conservation and Site Plan Review
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Hudsonia is often in the position of reviewing development proposals for municipalities or for other entities, and we often find that, the biggest problem with the proposal is not the size or nature of the development, but the choice of the site in the first place. We understand that landowners are often just stuck with the land they have, but development firms actually have choices about which lands they purchase for development, and they should be encouraged to do some homework before deciding where to locate their new project. Also, we would strongly encourage towns to go through at least a cursory GEIS process, where you look at your comprehensive plan, and also analyze the landscape from a biodiversity standpoint, and come up with some ideas of the better and worse places for new residential or commercial development. This can provide developers with some preliminary guidance, and may be more effective than your zoning ordinance alone in guiding new development to the best places. We’ll say a little more about a townwide GEIS in a few minutes.
Avoid or minimize habitat fragmentation
Maintain and restore links between habitat patches
Establish and maintain broad buffer zones around sensitive areas
Maintain natural disturbance processes
Create no additional runoff of rainwater or snowmelt
(and minimize impervious surfaces)
Five major rulesfor
locating and designing land development projects
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So we’ve mentioned the five basic rules for biodiversity conservation The first four of these are applicable to finding a good site for new development; and all five are applicable to designing and reviewing a development project with biodiversity conservation in mind. Andrew will explain how these can be applied to locating and designing new development.
Location of Development
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Infill is often the best choice for local biodiversity . Allows protection of outlying areas. Upzoning is not the answer. In the Hudson Valley, suburban development is increasing more than 3 times faster than population growth. Conventional development has larger lots, and larger houses Procedures document:
Pine Plains
4.5 miles
•648 homes•2.3 cars per house (Experian Automotive Study, 2008)
•12000 miles per year (EPA, 2009)
Carbon Footprint
Location of Development
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Emissions associated with a large development from vehicular traffic But there’s also a direct carbon impact from development.
*Just aboveground biomass
Carbon in Biomass
1.5 Mg C yr‐1
Barford, C.C., Wofsy, S.C., Goulden, M.L., Munger, J.W., Pyle, E.H., Urbanski, S.P., Hutyra, L., Saleska, S.R., Fitzjerrald, D., and Moore, K. 2001. Factors controlling long‐ and short‐term sequerstration of atmospheric CO2 in a mid‐latitude forest. Science 23(294): 1688‐1691.
Dayton, B.R. 1975. Early stages of vascular plant succession in a central New York old field. Am. Mid. Nat. 94(1): 62‐71.Hooker, T.D. and Compton, J.E. 2003. Forest ecosystem carbon and nitrogen accumulation during the first century after agricultural abandonment. Ecol. Appl. 13(2): 299‐313.
Carbon Footprint
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Carbon in biomass. Just above ground biomass. One hectare of 60-80 year old mixed forest. One hectare = 2.47 acres, so 40 Mg C per acre
Carbon Sequestration
?
Carbon Footprint
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Also have to factor in the sequestration of the vegetation.
Carbon Footprint
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This is a town-wide habitat map, the different colors represent different habitats. White is developed areas.
Proposed18 lots each with 0.3 ha footprint
Total = 6.8 ha
Carbon Footprint
Alternative18 lots each with 0.2 ha footprint
No new road
Total = 3.6 ha
Carbon Footprint
How do the C footprints compare?
Forest
Meadow
1st year
Carbon Footprint
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1st year, loss of carbon sink, one year loss of sequestration For meadow, loss of aboveground biomass Forest only represents the loss of the sequestration, if the biomass is burned, or chipped and biodegrades on site, then add ~600 Mg of C to the graph.
Forest
How do the C footprints compare?
2nd year
Carbon Footprint
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2nd year and beyond, but only including forests
Forest
How do the C footprints compare?
=
1 2005. Emission Facts: Greenhouse gas emissions from a typical passenger vehicle. U.S. EPA Office of Transportation and Air Quality. EPA420‐F‐05‐004. 6 p.
1
2nd year
Carbon Footprint
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Caveats: all new development not on previously developed land will release carbon, and prevent sequestration. other reasons for meadow preservation.
Isolated meadow
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Other principles to use while reviewing: This is a habitat map… Species that use this meadow now need to cross compromised areas to reach other necessary habitats. Think of edge effects.
Road fragmentation
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Roads fragment landscapes, so do the development that roads often invite in. Roads are seldom removed, in long-term view they will provide access to areas for new development
Linear habitat
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What’s wrong here? These areas have riparian buffer qualities: But very limited value to biodiversity, don’t function as connections between habitats Good place for habitat restoration projects
Not a viable corridor
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Example of poor planning; it shouldn’t have gotten to this point. For most species, this is not a viable connection between these two large habitats.
Disrupting and developing farmland
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List of Prime Farmland Soil and Farmland Soils of Statewide Significance Local farms will only become more important as time goes on.
