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CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Nowadays technology advancement is very influential in communication. Now

we don’t need to write a long letter to communicate with our relatives that live far from

us. We can use the SMS facility to communicate in written language more easily and

quickly. According to Crumley (2009, p.1) the communication of text messages began

around 1985 using a communication protocol known as Short Message Service (SMS).

This service allowed short messaging between mobile telephone devices. SMS text

messaging is the most widely used data application, servicing some 2.4 billion active

users. 74% of all mobile phone subscribers send and receive text message on their

device. In this chapter, the writer would like to present some theories which are used in

supporting the research. The writer uses the theories of linguistics that are morphology,

sociolinguistics and semantics. The writer also gives relevant previous researches in this

chapter as the comparison and references in doing the research.

2.1 Linguistic

Linguistics may be somewhat blandly defined as the study of language. Such as

a characterization leaves out the all-important formulation of how such study is to be

conducted, and where exactly the boundaries of the term ‘language’ itself lie (Mesthrie

et al., 2009, p. 1).

According to Cook (2003, p. 129) linguistic is the academic discipline concerned

with the study of language in general.

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Kress (2000, p. 299) states that linguistic is the discipline that has been

developed in Western cultures to study language.

Linguistic as the scientific study of language carries with it the implicit claim

that a science of language is possible, and this alone takes many by surprise. For surely,

they say, language, like all human activity, is beyond the scope of true science.

Linguists believe that their field is a science because they share the goals of scientific

inquiry, which is objective (or more properly intersubjectively accessible) understanding

(Aronoff and Miller, 2003, p. xiv).

2.2 Morphology

The etymology of morphology is Greek: morph- means ‘shape, form’, and

morphology is the study of form or forms. In biology morphology refers to study of form

and structure of organisms, and in geology it refers to study of the configuration and

evolution of land forms (Aronoff and Fudeman, 2011, p. 1-2). In linguistics morphology

refers to the mental system involved in word formation or to the branch of linguistics

that deals with words, their internal structure, and how they are formed (Aronoff and

Fudeman, 2011, p. 2)

Lieber (2011, p. 2) argues that morphology is the study of word formation,

including the ways new words are coined in the languages of the world, and the way

forms of words are varied depending on how they’re used in sentences.

Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p. 87) defines morphology as the study of the

internal structure of words.

Kress (2000, p. 230) states morphology is the study of morphemes.

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2.2.1 Words

Words seem simple things to define, but they lead a tricky life. It is helpful to

think of words in three ways: as a unit of sound or graphic form; as a unit of meaning;

and as a unit with grammatical role. Words always have all three characteristics in the

same time. The word hunt has a sound – shape when spoken, and a graphic shape when

written; it ‘means’ something – the kind of definition we look for in a dictionary; and it

always has a grammatical role as a ‘part of speech’ – it will either be a verb, or it will be

a noun. Dictionaries then to treat hunt-as-verb as a distinct word, separate from hunt-as-

noun (Kress, 2000, p. 232).

Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p. 120) defines a word as a free morpheme or a

combination of morphemes that together form a basic segment of speech.

Lieber (2011, p. 3) defines a word as one or more morphemes that can stand

alone in a language.

2.2.2. Word Classes.

According to Katamba and Stonham (2006, p. 356) word-class refers to a set of

words that occur in the same syntactic environments, for example, determiners, nouns,

verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions.

Denham and Lobeck (2013, p. 146) divide word classes into two; content words

and function words. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are all content words, words

with meanings that we can look up in the dictionary. Content words are open class

words, meaning that they accept new members (Denham and Lobeck, 2009, p. 146).

While function words according to Denham and Lobeck (2013, p. 146) such as

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determiners and auxiliary verbs do not have “contentful” meanings; rather, they are

defined in terms of their use, or function. Denham and Lobeck (2013, p. 146) give the

example the meaning of the auxiliary verb is in Leo is running is difficult to define, but

we can say that the function of the auxiliary verb is in the case is to express present tense

( to see this, compare Leo was running). Function words are closed class words

( Denham and Lobeck, 2013, p. 146).

The more examples of the two word classes based on Denham and Lobeck

(2013) can be seen in the table A and B below;

A. Content word Categories with Examples (table 5.1 of Denham and Lobeck,

2013, p. 146)

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

River, intelligence,

Washington,

scissors, furniture,

fax, blog

Discuss, remember,

annoy, feel, gallop,

seem, textmessage

Unhappy,

fortuitous,

beautiful,

mad, tiny, crunk,

bootylicious.

Hopefully,

maddeningly, fast,

still, now, often

B. Function Word Categories with Examples (table 5.2 of Denham and Lobeck

2013, p. 147)

Determiner The, a this, that, these, those, his, my

Preposition Without, in , on, over, behind, above, around

Numeral One, five, ten, second, eighth

Conjunction And, or, yet, for, but, so, nor

Quantifier All, each, every, both, some

Degree word Very, so, quite, rather, too

Pronoun They, he, she, her, theirs,mine, yours

Auxiliary Verb Have, be , do

Modal May, might, can, could, will, would, shall, should, must

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In some societies, the need for new nouns, adjectives, and verbs arises

frequently, and additions to these categories occur freely. For this reason that nouns,

adjectives, and verbs are called open classes. By contrast, prepositions, pronouns, and

determiners are closed classes, and new words in these categories are seldom added

(Finegan, 2012, p. 52)

Function words are like thumbtacks. We don’t notice thumbtack; we look at

what they are holding up. If we were to take the tacks away, the calendars and posters

would fall down. If we took the function words out of speech, it would be hard to figure

out what was going on. One generalization we can make is that while content words are

an open class and it is possible to coin new ones, function words are closed class

(Aronoff and Fudeman, 2011, p. 42)

We can see the table below about the word classes based on Aronoff and

Fudeman (2011, p. 43);

Content Words Function WordsNouns: baby, bargain, Josianne

Verbs: publicize, hurtle, and sleep

Adjective: peaceful, quick, bright

Adverb: readily, carefully

Pronouns: I, him, our

Verbs: am, was, should

Determiners: the, an, a

Demonstratives: this, those

Adverb: very, not

Preposition: in, by

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2.2.3 Word Formation Process

Katamba and Stonham (2006, p. 356) describe in their book that word-form is

the shape of a word, parallel to the use of morph for the shape of a morpheme.

There are some experts’ point of view of word formation processes and the

examples below;

2.2.3.1 Compounding

Based on Yule (2010, p. 55) compounding is a joining of two separate words to

produce a single form. The examples of English compounding based on Yule (2010) are

bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper, wastebasket and

waterbed. Yule (2010) states we can also create compound adjectives ( good – looking,

low – paid) and compounds of adjectives (fast) plus noun (food) as in a fast-food

restaurant or a full - time job.

Based on Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p. 128) compounding is simply the joining

of two or more words into a single word, as in hang glider, airstrip, cornflakes,

busybody, downpour, cutoff, skydive, alongside, breakfast, long-haired, devil-may-care,

high school.

Compounds based on Lieber (2011, p. 43) are words that are composed of two

(or more) bases, roots, or stems. Lieber(201, p. 431) give the examples of English

compounds below;

Compounds of two nouns: windmill, dog bed, book strore.

Compounds of two adjectives: icy cold, blue – green, red hot.

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Compounds of an adjectives and noun: greenhouse, blackboard, hard hat.

Compounds of a noun and an adjective: sky blue, cherry red, rock hard.

Beard(2004, p. 91) says compounding is about two words together as in ‘body-

low’, ‘jet-set’, with such compounds sometimes using a hypen to show that two words

have been put together.

2.2.3.2 Borrowing

Borrowing is the taking over of words from other languages. Yule (2010) says

other languages, of course, borrow terms from English, as in the Japanese use suupaa or

suupaamaaketto (‘’supermarket’’) and taipuraitaa (“typewriter”) (Yule, 2010, p. 54).

Borrowing is involves taking a word from one language and using it in another

language. Borrowings are also known as loan words. English is a frequent borrower

adverbs and pronouns the least. Often a word has an anglicized spelling based upon how

the word was heard. Beard (2004, p. 90). Beard (2004, p. 90) gives us the example, from

Arabic we have ‘alcohol’, ‘alcove’, ‘assasin’, from Hindi ‘bungalow’, ‘dungaree’,

‘shampoo’.

2.2.3.3 Blending

The combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also

present in the process called blending. However, blending is typically accomplished by

taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other. In some

parts of the USA, there’s a product that is used like gasoline, but is made from alcohol,

so the “blended” word for referring to this product is gasohol. To talk about the

combined effects of smoke and fog, we can use the word smog (Yule, 2010, p. 55-56).

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Beard (2004, p. 91) says blending adds elements of two words together as in

‘brunch’, ‘electrocute’.

Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p. 131) have the same example with Yule about

blending, they figure out that blending is the fusion of two words into one, usually the

first part of the word with the last part of another, as in gasohol, from gasoline and

alcohol.

2.2.3.4 Clipping

The element of reduction that noticeable in blending is even more apparent in the

process described as clipping. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable

(facsimile) is reduced to a shorter form (fax), usually beginning in casual speech. Other

common example examples are ad (advertisement), bra (brassiere), cab (cabriolet),

condo (condominium), fan (fanatic), flu (influenza), perm (permanent wave), phone,

plane, and pub (public house) ( Yule, 2010, p. 56).

Clipping means cutting off the beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a

part to stand for the whole. The jargon of the campus is filled with clipped words: lab,

dorm, prof, exam, gym, prom, math, psych, mike, and countless others (Stageberg and

Oaks, 2000, p. 129)

Beard (2004, p. 91) says that clipping is another form of abbreviation, examples

being ‘veg’, ‘fan’, ‘deli’.

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2.2.3.5 Backformation

Yule (2010, p. 56) says a very specialized type of reduction process is known as

backformation. Yule (2010, p. 57) declares a good example of backformation is the

process whereby the noun television first came into use and then verb televise was

created from it. Other examples of words created by this process are: donate (from

“denotation”), emote (from “emotion”), enthuse (from “enthusiasm”), liaise (from

“liaison”), and babysit (from “babysitter”)

Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p. 132) define backformation as the formation of a

word from one that looks like its derivative. Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p. 132) give an

example is hedgehop, from the noun hedgehopper.

Beard (2004, p. 90) declares that back-formation involves losing rather than

adding an element to a word, so the verb ‘to edit’ comes from ‘editor’ and ‘to

commentate’ from ‘commentator’.

2.2.3.6 Conversion

A change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be

used as a verb (without any reduction), is generally known as conversion. The

conversion can involve verbs becoming nouns, with guess, must, spy as the sources of a

guess, a must and a spy (Yulle, 2010, p. 57)

Lieber (2010, p. 50) states that some argues that conversion is just like

affixation, except that the affix is phonologically null – that is, it is pronounced.

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2.2.3.7 Acronyms

Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words.

These can be forms such as CD (“compact disc”) or VCR (“video cassette recorder”)

where the pronunciation consists of saying each separate letter (Yule, 2010, p. 58)

Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p. 130) state that acronymy is the process whereby a

word is formed from the initials or beginning segments of a succession of words.

Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p. 130) also give us the example of NATO (North Atlantic

Treaty Organization) is pronounced as /neto/ and radar (radio detecting and ranging)

as /redar/.

When the first letters of words that make up a name or phrase are used to create a

new word, the results are called acronyms or initialisms. In acronyms, the new word is

pronounced as a word, rather than as a series of letters. For example, Aquired Immune

Deficiency Syndrome gives us AIDS, pronounced [eɪdz]. Initialisms are similar to

acronyms in that they are composed from the first letters of a phrase, but unlike

acronyms, they are pronounced as a series of letters. So most people in the US refer to

the Federal Bureau of investigation as the FBI pronounced [ɛf bi ɑɪ] (Lieber, 2010, p.

53).

While Beard (2004, p. 91) argues that acronyms are ‘words’ made out of the

initial letters of a phrase, such as ‘SATS’. Sometimes the name of the originations is

deliberately arranged so that it can have a creative acronym, as in ‘ASH’, which stands

for Action on Smoking and Health.

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2.2.3.8. Derivation

Based on Stageberg and Oaks (2000, p.128) derivation is the forming of new

words by combining derivational affixes or bound bases with existing words, as in

disadvise, emplane, deplane, teleplay, ecosystem, coachdom, counsellorship, re-ask.

Lieber (2010, p. 58) gives some familiar examples of derivation, they are the

elements un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -ism, and –ness which appear in words like

unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish, terrorism, sadness.

2.2.3.9 Multiple Processes

Although we have concentrated on each of these word-formation processes in

isolation, it is possible to trace the operation of more than one process at work in the

creation of particular word For example, the term deli seems to have become a common

American English expression via process of first borrowing delicatessen (from German)

and then clipping that borrowed (Yule, 2010, p. 60).

2.2.4 Spelling

Beard (2004, p. 92) argues that although spelling is as arbitrary as any other

aspect of language, any attempt to change spelling meet fierce opposition. Beard (2004,

p. 92) also says that there are many more aspects to writing than spelling ‘correctly’, yet

for many people ‘being able to spell’ is the most important sign of whether someone is

literate. Meanwhile commercial organizations in particular ‘play’ with spelling to create

various effects: listings in the Tyneside telephone directory include: ‘Xpress Ironing’,

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‘Xpertise Training’, ‘Xsite Architecture’, ‘Xtreme Talent’ and ‘Xyst Marketing Agency’

(Beard, 2004, p. 92).

Kress (2000, p. 231) states that spelling refers as much – or more – explicitly or

implicitly to the relation between speech – sounds and their graphic representation by

letters.

2.2.4.1 Accurate Spelling

Kress (2000, p. 8) defines that just about all children spell accurately: that is,

they represent via letters what it is they have heard, or what it is they want to indicate as

the sound to be made, or as the meaning they wish to convey in sounds.

We can see figure 1 below how a child writes a sentence “Sitting by the fire place cold

and shivering reading a book (I) look around there’s a cup of tea for the example of

accurate spelling based on Kress (2000, p. 22);

Figure 1. “ Accurate Spelling”

2.2.4.2 Correct Spelling

Correct spelling is the spelling on which a community’s conventions insist

(Kress, 2000, p. 8). This bring leaves the pedagogical problem of how to bring the two

into harmony without merely imposing the correct form.

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2.2.4.3 Spelling Sound and Rhythm

Kress (2000, p. 145) gives us an example of spelling sound and rhythm in the

figure 2 below from a song that is composed by a child.

Figure 2 “Spelling Sound and Rhythm”

In figure 2 above she uses letters to spell words; to spell sounds, indicating the

length of vowels by the reduplication of the letters o (to produce the long vowel u: ) and

the duplication of the letter l to indicate emphasis. Rhythmic features are also spelled by

means of letters, namely through spelling the short syllables bo, ho; and these short

syllables form a short, rhythmic interlude. What is clear is that vowel quality, vowel

length, intensity of pronunciation of consonant, rhythmic features, and perhaps melodic

line are ‘spelled’ (Kress, 2000, p. 145).

2.2.4.4 Numbers and Symbols

:-O HBTU O-:

The example above can stand to represent “singing Happy Birthday to you”

(Beard, 2004, p.49). Beard (2004, p. 49) also argues that in the message above there are:

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a. Emoticons, which are, at the stretch of the imagination, iconic representations of

an action or emotion:

b. Initials in collocation standing for the first letters of a well-known phrase (happy

birthday to you);

c. A letter homophone ‘u’ standing for ‘you’

DON’T BE L8 or LUV J

Beard (2004, p. 49) states that the examples above have further conventions such

as:

a. A number homophone ‘8’ for ‘l-ate’;

b. A ‘phonetic’ spelling of the word ‘luv’

2.3. Sociolinguistic

Based on Cook (2003, p. 131) sociolinguistic is the study of the relation between

language and society; how social factors influence the structure and use of language.

Swan et al (2004) argue that Sociolinguistic is an orientation to the study of

language that stresses the inter-relationship between language and social life, rather than

focusing narrowly on language structure. Sociolinguistics stresses the variation inherent

in a language, as speakers of different backgrounds use language not just for the

communication of information but to express (and also to create) an individual and

or/group identity. (p. 287)

Holmes (2008, p. 1) says that sociolinguistics is concerned with the relationship

between language and the context in which it is used.

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2.3.1 Social Factor

Based on Holmes (2008, p. 9) there are certain components or factors that are used in

social factors. They are:

1. The participants:

a. Who is speaking and

b. Who are they speaking to?

2. The setting or social context of the interaction: where are they speaking?

3. The topic: what is being talked about?

4. The function: why are they speaking?

2.3.2 Social Dimensions

Based on Holmes (2008, p. 10) there are some aspects that in social dimensions

that affect the way people communicate;

1. The solidarity – social distance scale

Intimate Distant

High Solidarity Low solidarity

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According to Holmes (2008, p. 10) a social distance scale is useful in

emphasizing that how well we know someone is a relevant factor in linguistic choice.

2. The status scale

Superior High Status

Subordinate Low status

Holmes (2008, p. 10) says that the status scale points to the relevance of relative

status in some linguistic choices. We can see the example below for further example of

this scale;

Ray: Good afternoon, sir.

Principal: What are you doing here at this time?

Ray: Mr. Sutton kept us in, sir.

Example 1. The example of status scale (Holmes, 2008, p. 1)

According to Holmes (2008, p.10) the choice of sir by Ray in the first example,

for instance, signaled that school principal was of higher status entitled to a respect term.

3. The formality scale

Formal High formality

Informal Low formality

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The formality scale is useful in assessing the influence of the social setting or

type of interaction on language choice. In a formal transaction such as one with the bank

manager in his office, or at a ritual service in church, the language used will be

influenced by the formality of the setting (Holmes, 2008, p.11).

4. The referential and affective function scales

High Low

Information information

content content

In general the more oriented and interaction is, the less it tends to express the

feelings of the speaker. Radio broadcast of the weather forecast tend to put the

emphasis on information or referential function, for instance. By contrast, interactions

which are more concerned with expressing feelings often have little in the way of new

information to communicate (Holmes, 2008, p. 11)

2.3.3 Age-Graded Features of Speech

There are other features of people’s speech which vary at different age groups.

Not only pitch, but vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar can differentiate age

groups. Slang is another area of vocabulary which reflects a person’s. Current slang is

the linguistic prerogative of young people and generally sounds odd in the mouth of an

older person. For example, In New Zealand young people currently use the terms

wicked, choice and cool to describe something they approve of. (Holmes, 2008, p. 174)

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2.3.4 Variation and Change

Holmes (2008) states that all the possibility of a linguistic change exists as soon

as a new form develops and begins to be used alongside an existing form (p. 205).

Holmes (2008, p. 206) also argues that if the new form spreads, the change is in

progress. One area of vocabulary where this is very easy to see is in the slang words

used by young people to mean “really good”. There is a consonant turnover of such

words in any speech community: super, spiffing, bonzer groovy, cool, neat, fantastic,

magic, excellent, wicked, hot, rad (Holmes, 2008, p. 206).

2.3.5 Addressee as an Influence on Style.

(a) Excuse me. Could I have a look at your photos too, Mrs Hall?

(b) C’mon Tony, gizzalook, gizzalook

Example 2. The example of addressee as an influence on style (Holmes, 2008, p. 236)

In the example above, Holmes (2008, p. 236) explains that the first utterance was

addressed by a teenage boy to his friend’s mother when she was showing the photos of

their skiing holiday to an adult friend while the second utterance was addressed to his

friend when he brought round his own photos of the holiday. Holmes (2008) also states

that the better you know someone, the more casual and relaxed the speech style you will

use to them (p. 236). People use considerably more standard forms to those they don’t

know well, and more vernacular forms to their friends. And how well you know

someone or how close you feel to them- relative social distance/solidarity-is one

important dimension of social relationships. Many factor can contribute in determining

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the degree of social distance or solidarity between people – relative age, gender, social

roles, whether people work together or are part of the same family, and so on (Holmes,

2008, p. 236).

2.3.6 Context

Context is conventionally seen as linguistic and non-linguistic phenomena that

surround a particular linguistic feature or utterance. Context in this sense has been of

interest to sociolinguists because of its potential effects on the forms of language

produced by speakers, or writers; the intended meanings of utterances; and how these

are interpreted by listeners or readers (Swann et all, 2004 p. 49).

Cook (2003) states that context is the factors outside a stretch of language under

consideration but relevant to its interpretation, e.g. the situation, paralinguistic

communication, cultural knowledge, other texts, or other parts of the same text (p. 126)

2.3.7 Style

In the context of sociolinguistic study, style refers to variations within registers

that can represent individual choices along social dimensions. Most styles are best

thought of as scales or clines, for example from very formal to very casual, with many

relative gradations in between. People are very adept at matching their style as

appropriate to the social setting (Stockwell, 2007, p. 10).

Based on Coupland (2007, p. 1) style refers to a way of doing something. Part of

our social competence is being able to understand these indexical links – how a style

marks out or indexes a social difference and to read their meanings (Coupland, 2007, p.

1).

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2.4 Semantics

According to Aitchison (2010, p. 104) the study of meaning is normally referred

to as semantics, from the Greek noun sema, ‘sign, signal’, and the verb semaino,

‘signal, mean’.

Beard (2004, p. 113) describe semantics as the study of meaning

Kearns (2011, p. 1) states that semantics deals with the literal meaning of form

the core of meaning, or the starting point from which the whole meaning of a particular

utterance is constructed.

2.4.1 Denotation

Beard (2004, p. 111) states that denotation is the literal dictionary definition of a

word.

Evans and Green (2006) argue that denotation is the set of entities in the world

that a word can refer to (p. 210). Evans and Green (2006) also state that the denotation

of the word bachelor is the set of all unmarried adult males (p. 210).

Jakson and Amvela (2000, p. 57) explain that denotative meaning refers to the

relationship between a linguistic sign and its denotatum or referent.

2.4.2 Connotation

The connotations of a word are the associations it creates. These associations are

often cultural (Beard, 2004, p.111)

According on Evans and Green (2006, p.210) connotation is the associations

evoked by the word. Evans and Green (2006) give us an example the connotation of the

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word bachelor that relate to the cultural stereotypes concerning sexual and domestic

habits and so on (p. 210).

Jakson and Amvela (2000, p. 57) argue that connotations constitute additional

properties of lexemes, e.g poetic, slang, literary, rhetorical.

2.5 Previous Research

The writer has reviewed a research by Ely Ernawati (2010), a Bina Nusantara

University graduated student entitled “Abbreviations in SMS Used by English

Department Students at BINUS University”. This thesis is about the abbreviations type

in Bina Nusantara University students’ SMS and is intended as to find out the

differences between male and female abbreviation. The problem formulations are; how

Binus University students abbreviate their words in SMS, what type of abbreviation

style is the most frequently used, various language mixing abbreviations that are used

by the respondents, and specific characteristics that equate or differentiate between

females and males in abbreviating the message. The writer uses Field research in

collecting the data. The respondents of the research are second, fourth, and sixth

English Department’s students of Binus University. The questionnaires are used as the

tool of collecting the data. She analyzed the data using Yule’s theory about word-

formation processes. The research shows that most abbreviations both male and female

are formed through the process of clipping. The only difference is that females are more

likely to omit the middle part of the word while males are more likely to omit the

vowels. The writer also finds some language mixing abbreviations and borrowing that

are used by both genders. The languages mixing that are used; Chinese and English and

there are 12 borrowing expressions found in the research.