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Minimal and Maximal
Incipient bilingualism – minimal competence in a second language (e.g. tourists phrases and words)
“Native-like control” of two or more languages (Blomfield, 1933)
Balanced Bilingualism
Monolingual/Fractional view: “two monolinguals” in one person.
Holistic view: the bilingual has a unique linguistic profile; not the sum of two complete/incomplete monolinguals.
Balance Theory
Separate Underlying Proficiency: Two languages operating separately
Common Underlying Proficiency: Language attributes cross both languages like an exchange between the two.
Common Underlying Proficiency Model
Two languages are visibly different, but underneath both languages operate through the same central processing system (may be summarized in 6 parts).
Semilingualism/Double Semilingualism
Bilingual ability described in terms of deficiencies when compared with monolinguals
Term used pejoratively
Early Bilingualism
Newborns prefer mother’s voice
“Babbling Stage” (10-12m.)
- Babbles in stronger language
- Demonstrates language-specific babbling features.
Child’s Language Choice
Parent’s attitudes to language choice and code-switching
Language competencies and metalinguistic abilities
Personality
Peer interaction
Storing Two Languages (cont.)
The two languages develop both autonomously and inter-dependently, and this is partly a function of transfer between types of language combination (e.g. French-English compared with Mandarin-English) – Genesee (2001)
The Thresholds Theory
There is a relationship between cognition and degree of bilingualism, and that the further a child moves towards balanced bilingualism, the greater the likelihood of cognitive advantages (e.g. Toukomaa & Skutnabb-Kangas, 1977; Cummins, 1976).
Reasons for Second Language Learning
Societal
- Assimilationist and subtractive (language minority students learning English in the U.S.)
- Preservationist (e.g. Maori in NZ, Irish/Gaelic in England, Basque in Spain)
- Increase harmony between language groups (e.g. Canada)
Reasons (cont.)
Encourages economic and trade reasons (e.g. Singapore, China, Scandinavia)
Interactions across continents (e.g. European countries, Central & South American)
Promotes intercultural understanding and peace (September 11, 2001)
Reasons (cont.)
Individual
- Promotes cultural awareness
- Promotes cognitive development
- Promotes affective attributes (moral development, self-awareness, self-confidence, and social and ethical values)
- Promotes facility toward career and employment
The Age Factor
Younger second language learners are neither more globally aware nor less efficient and successful than older learners in second language acquisition
Children who learn a second language in childhood do tend to achieve higher levels of proficiency than those who begin after childhood.
In a formal classroom situation, older learners tend to learn quicker than younger learners. However the length of exposure (# of years of L2) is an important factor in language success.
Three Perspectives on Language
Language as a problem:
- Causes deficiency in learning
- Personality and social problems
- Causes disunity in the political arena (language is rarely the cause of conflict/strife)
Perspectives (cont.)
Language is a basic human right
Language rights concern protection from discrimination (e.g. Native Americans, Maori)
Language rights are derived from personal, human, legal, and constitutional right.