Bernard Comrie Aspect- An Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related Problems (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics)

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CAMBRIDE TXTBOOKS IN INUSTICS

v: COMRIE, C. J FL1MORE, R SS, J LYONS,

R B LE PAGE, H MTTHS, R PALMER R OSNR

S ROME, N V STH, J. L. M TRM ZWCY

SPET



th seies

P H MATTHEWS MopholoB COMRIE Aspect

M KEMSON Sant TheoryT BYNON Htoral Lt

J ALL WOOD, L -G ANDERSSON, DAL Log n LtsD FR he Physcs of Speech A HUDSON Soltc K CHAMBERS d P TRUDGILL atoloA JELLOT Child Lane

H MATHEWS SnA RADFORD Tafomaonal SyntaxL BUER Elh Word-formati

s c LEVINSON matsG BOWN d G. ULE Dse AnalysR HUDDLESON Intodtn o he Gammar o ElhR LASS Pnology

COMRE Tee

w KJE econ Languae quiition

A CRUTTEDEN InonatonA J WOODS, P FLETCHER d A HUGHES Staisc n Lae tudes

D A CRU Lexcal SemanticsF AMER ood and ModalA RADFOR rnfrmaoal Gamma



ASPECT

AN INTRODUCO HE SDY VEBAL APC

ND E OLEM

BNAD CO

DERMET O IISS

VRSI OF OHR LFORI

",:'.. CAMBRIDGEUVERS RSS



Published y the Pre Syndicate of e Unversty CamridgeTe Pi Bilng, rmpinto Street Camd CB2 1RP

40 West 20t Ste Nw York NY 14211, SA Stamor Road, Oakeh Melore 366, Asraia

© Cambrdg Uv rs Pess 976

Fis pulshd 976Repnd wth corrcons 1978,981ped 1985,987,1989,1991,1993,9951998

Pntd n th Und Kndom hUniv rsit rss, mrd

L of Cngr aloung n ubcaton Data

Comie erad 947-

Aspe

(mide textooks in li)Bloaphy: p.

Inudes idex. Gramma Comparave and eneral- Aspe.

I. itle.

P28 l .C6 4 5 7 5-577

ISB 521211 ardak

IN 2 29 7 paperak

aneed t digita eing 0nted in the Uited ate eia



ONTTS

Prefce v Abbre v tons ix

Itroduto0.1 Den tion of as pec0.2 Meanng and orm3 Te m nolo gy0.4 Strucure of the book5 Generl read

pge 1I

6113

14

Perfecve ad ierete 1.1 erect e 16

I . 1 Dnio of pefectty 62 Pfviy nd ohe aspectu value 2

2 Imerfectiv 24'1 Habu 6

121.1 btu nd he aspcl lue 30122 rogre ss v 3

2 Asec nd hen meg 41

21 untul an daive 412 n e 4 2.3 te nd d ynm c iuio 4

3 Perfc 52

3 es o peec 6

3•1 erfct o esut 5632 Experien perect 83.3 eect of prsisn siio 63.14 eect o eet ps 60

3 fect n ot sps 633 ospcv spc 6

4 Aspc d en 66

d 66



· Nraive esen page 74·4 ombined tene/pec oposins 845 spec and i ec enseles langue 2.6 Apec and voce 4

Foal expressin f pect pss 5.1 Morphol o pec

5· Pexing in Balto-Slavic, Gergan, and Haian

5·.2 Combined sepec mrphlogy 452 Syncic expes o asptual ostions 9

52. Locative expres o pectl opsions

5.2. rogresive d impeetive pec 52.2 otiet tate 105.2..3 Drectn d aspec 06

5.2.2 Perfec s resen plus pas 0652.2. Pec nd ertal 10

Makedess III kess and seaic I2 2 Mak ad morphlgy I etralat I6·4 Marke a fequy 66 akedss a ctex 6.6 Degee o makess 22

Appedix A Language gde 2. Genetic cascati01 f las cited 232 Aspectal te nl ue 2

.2. Els 2A.2.2 Savic (Rus ulgaria Old Chc 2

lonic)A.2 Ronce Frech Spnis 26.2 Greek (nct Greek Moern Grek) 2.25 Ciee (anda) 22 Oth lau (Tuh Ciem)

e B Re apahs pe 2BI cas tery 29B Feature y 0B Mel-thret es 2

Re 34Ide 39



PA

T ai o pesen s povi a nrocin o veraaspc an rae cnceps I es fro s ohe s aseci a i is n cncrn wi any one aa angage, nr wia opariso o arios ia angages, raer prsesaspc as a pa genea ngsi eo heeca poins a, ocs, isae hou wi ams f vas angaes Engish, as angag a raers f oo w av n coo ssian an er avc angages, i ve o h iranc oa ro se angages in evepn he f aspc, anaso as hes a h feign angags s fama he ah ; oanc angags in paar, enc an ash) as e as aary o o angags, anng f ree Chinee efeencesa a ogh o descpv in wi ariosangges e

h b es no pspse any prvious noweg o aspec,ag i es asse ha e eae as r ag a epce of soene h has fw in os ea ingisics o s wng sc a se, an s ppar oons oh ebos a eenc s ue s oera ereca ns es no aep o coss an onparica crren apac e e o sc, ag i sa a inena conssen es i provid a sca s o

h arios ahes a av en os. os o isssois as n h genea es aiona gar, ang aicaraen o h seans sec In ain, aenn is ai os of he aeemes of he scas apac o aspc(espiy e 6 o maedness n of e sphicaappoc (especiay chae 2 on aspc an inen eanin)A ppn (appen ines recen proacs o



Peface

ysis o sc o ive de oe d o crre o hised

sha cosde he ros o s oo o e ed ves s

adrs eer res o e ob o se d ovey ohem he er cocs oee eve oe so hey he o o y s koede i er or o he aes prayis he.

I m r o e oo ho eher provdd e i biohic rfs voered oaio o he sc ysems ios aaes srd y o sec esis or discssd

d s roe o sec i e: G M. AeryW S. A . W. Bro . H M. v d J. Mier. y re o J Lyo o e ee dr o oo de deid om o . esoibiiy or ce orrejeci e eo o ore y o

r o e ero o oo ed o e Reser Feo K' oe ride

u 75 Berd re

A O T SOND PRNTIN

ddion o reov w sris I h coeed eo h dscssio 1 0 d a o-sqtr i he d scsso s d Scos el 104, ot b o y eo by

. W o d hve eded e exmes o p 93a th seso of P Se

Jauary 1978 rd ore

RFCE TO THE HID NTING

Amdm b c rs i

s s 23 34, 35 d 105, o 39 og my ao by ogbs cxs 798 d te dscsso 00 ah sggso o D lky).

ne 8 a Come



ABBREVIATONS

In exple sentence nd gl ose, the a bbreviations fv., fomerectie n Pv., f eectve, are se thruhu.

A arisk bore a entece or othe fm ndcae ungramma-tcaity ; a questo-mrk dctes dubs rammacaly



Introduction

O. I Dno of apSne e em ' aspe ens o be es faia o sude

of ngscs an ae es o oe veal eoes suh asense o moo s as wel, bfo gvng eno o aspec, toconse some exape o peca sncons n anguage liey obe aa o eae ode o povde so aual aeal agantwc w be possbe o e oe eoeca t o e ds-CUOn.

Sens o usan an oe Saon languags ae faa whe sncon ee eece and peecve aspec as n on

c al (Pv.) a n cta l(Ipfv. bo ansaabe no Engs as ead', aoug soe a o eence ca be ge y transaingthe Ieeve as as a, he ued to ad ; s only aapoxma aaea , ad a moe deaied dsusso wl befound n e boy o e bo. n at e stto wee h rad

he wa e d n g ad he ud to e Esh equally a asetualsco o ase s a eo even n a amlar a language aEs. Say e oane aggs the erene etwe,o nsance Fenc ll ad ll, pansh 6 an (l ea ala nd eggeva is one o aspe despte e adiiona teology,w speas o e mpere (sait ea eggeva a a tn an equllyo Spe Pas (ut ly ese) aso caed e at Den, Hto,

o Reoe as a se.Pauay n o s enoogca and onpual, confso

o ense an aspec s worth nsg now tat the meag of teoe aa e ene s uesood beoe embakng on dsus-son o e lss faa m C aspe . Tense rlate te te of te

1 An explnation fr th trdionl conusn ben apc n nse nekng f e Romance as ns oms s uggee n cto S.1.2



no

stt fd so othr i uy o he oe os h cs ss oud s oh o s ss s h tss o idd dsuish e

st s ft

sto descibed i he rse is ct to s tus wit th e o sek s dscbd e s ctd ior o het f s John s John w ngng); o descbd ft s ctd sst t th of sk . Jh Jo w gg).2 c ts cts t f sittio t stt o ttc w y dscbe e scc

h ss fered to s td h ti o he iosc the st . ch ess e rfered to bsoss thr ssb fo of e refee i ie refeeh std o th te of to bi cd rie o hes t i is ted tie of se othe tiot tc csco i s r isce vovet h sut t th sc w walgwn h o of m H d b wh n alg he oa, Ion H the st cie walkg i boh se de stt octd sts ith he t of he i vb epee o t ts o veb. I he sce he osc by wlk s h set e h ese ese ee,h i th sc i hed i te s i he s e et

h fct i e coice o he rse cie s hu revt rfc t bste i reece iy he oedfct tcie i such ote i oscio idtie e refec e. ha et ay eale, o eeo see h n rsus hang et H ea I ' t ee t ee an ycy i eb or he boe s d b he ret ve s eco 44 h ee

ritt b d Mdr hie e re erb o

ss ti rh t bsoe se hoh he be oy secctio o iepo riv o hich he e reer d hs teoi is k o b the se oe.

For futhe sso s o nnc n (6 0-6 so t tns of n nu dl wl as ene

value; hi k 'r ueogh it hold b bo n nd th this s ten c d n. 6 -



o. I Denitio f aspec

Aspc s qe deen o s Te deence in French bewee l at an l lu, or in ns beween he was readg he ra, sot one of tse, snce both ae we ae bolue at tese. It s i

this sns a we spek o et bein dsnct rm tene, insi o uc oosion as that between efectiv an erfetiein teaed as aetua eve where te ramacal termioogy ofdividal anguae ha tadiion of rferi to te te

s the geeral denito of aset may te the formulato taaspecs are drent way of viewn e teral teol ostituyof situaio. We ay isra thi enio rey eturi to

oe daied exempcaon e body of he ook, b onsidernoe of the derences bewe te aspecual form ve abo asexaples of aspecal dincions i vrious languges, a illustte ih following transaio equivaes:

Enish: Jo wa eaig we I entredRssan: va ita kogda j voe!Fenc: Jen lsat and j'entr

Spanish: Ja la ado en.tia: Gn legev ando eta.

I each of es tee th rst veb reet e go tosome vet, i tht vet itse itrodue y t o r2h econ veb reset th totaiy of the ituto referre to (erem entry) wou referee to s ier eora otiuey thewhoe of te sao eete a le ab o wthbeginnin, mdle an nd role ino one; o attet ad todivie ti ao o te vrou inividu e tha m ute acion of ny Verba fo wth th e a to aeerecve eann, an where t language uesto alverba os to indca ts, e hal y tt it ha erfete st.3

1 This s based on t dnon gvn by Ho (1943 6): ' manrs

diss d concv lcoumn d poc m . drn wasof concvng te o of procss sf d a bn

gnalsd sm so a t do o f o o rs, alo for nstanc o stts; s fr a z.

2 s s a stabsd dagoca cq o nun

cncp of aspc n tecng ndvda lanag w pss knd S fo nstc Klein 7 8-00.

3 Of th anas ced r a u Engs av rv asp n

s sns In Engs rlatn bn Progssv g. was

adig and no-os ( nterQ s a r comx b



Inttion

T oe om .e ose efeng o he suaon o Johs eadgo o pesen h uo n h wa bu he ma epl h nea empoa onsuey o he suao In

xales aa efen s ad o a nnal poon oJons eadng hle he s o ep e h oo o h eag hs i h he enes a npe anng a m ey s a ee a oe ung h peod Joh wa eadng Johns adng bo peedd and folowed th ay xai th c tn etive admeetive a s t say ta the tve lks e stati

fo tsid, itht cssay stiishi ay th italstct th stati, has th fci lks the statim sde, d as sch is ciay cc th e ita stct th sitati sc it ca bt lk backads tads th stat th sitatin a s t th t stati, ad ds ay aat i h sati th asts th al ttht ay bi a tht a e

In disussig asp i s pa o ap h e deebwee pefey ad mpefy s no neessal a oedee bwee suaon no s neessay a een ha spesed y h speae as ben obev I que possbl o sam pa o efe o he sme suao on wh a pefv he wh an mpefee whou ny wa beng elfonado be llsttd b as stcs lik John bookesty ; wil ws ing i, postman , its qits e Jn lut c i pn qie i, l c vin) Rssia (vn pou knigu v o v, kg l,pel poon) it s th v o d e th sa stti ai. th st cas hvr h'sdig is std as a te vt, itht th sbdiisto sccssi tal hss; th sc as this t isoed that th sak is i th dl o the stati

os ei, says that as th il f this sitatw e d sly d t s th ith ctia that th vt th stas aial tk ac.

rvided e resri uselv to nottve erb nd elud hbitulenn, n e dieren ewn th two form e o ierfeity vrsu erfecivi, in te ee o. urer iussie eci n e ressve



I D i sect

ro t isio o t prvio paras, it ill vitat as ot o , a t radr a troor tr t o ot itiat sitio sist o aov

aspt a ts. ovr ato o ap a ts aor t t, t ar or it t i irtas A ot ao ts i ii aory, at itaio ti, sa rr to t prs ot, to also irr to otr itatis At i o or rlati tti o t itato to ay otr tipoi ratr t tra tpoal osity o t o statio o ol sta t ir

as o t sitatral t s) a itatio-xtrati (ts) a stn J was readg we ed i ts tat r or do srv a iti tio o oai t ital to os r t tis apart t tio isol a soar osq o t drt a t it ital ostt o siaios rr to was edgplas s itra to rai taio, tor atral ar t t aotr itatio v to s a a i olitot itral ost, ts sato is at tporalat tat oi i ti r a ra a al tall to oran. lal, a s o ors ti a illora t to nia sq o vs e wd re te snad e s, d brgt d e ple-reei a o t tr aios s std t ra to tiral osi, a atrl rt is to ta t a tstat orr so a o ol i o tyll oral t o r i t arprst i tt vr, t s o a ss trtatio. s q ol, nll, o ll r s to a siltaos, a t osit a a xlii y aia apropriat aral t st h wi sultael

Aotr sst s t s is o itrd i rlaivor o t t vn s tg s osvato o ovral rst t nd , n as a ot ot aal or o vnt

s tii o tn ad ast i artlal orta in osn , l J as ad e b (s

1 this bok 'perfcv and pr n qui n om on ; ion lw.



Intouction

sed John ea he book Spi Jua h lo el lbo s sdt Jun l el lio) Tis e is discssed, wi eeece, inha n e ec adiinay, n wk ha ake disicin

eten tens and asc, he efec as sy, wys, ennsed n as, ug i df wee te deii fas gi b cn e eed cde e fec secw, e ec is ey s s, ic i dies in enng e us ese fs Sice e eec is ey fe eeed s n sec, discssin f i s ee incded pesn k3

0

formS fa, sc as ee seed esseni senctes, wit eeece t t inte sce in, iuta dscssin f fa essi f spec A ef cisit es wi be seu ee ee is e senic cnce f eece abse a), wic ay be gsed i anguge, i e ngg ve gica cegy eesssie eee, in wic case we sy e angge as ess anygues ak eses, ie d n v gicised i efec,uh bay agage c eicse i efeence, .e. aeea debias a ce ituais i ie, suc gishtoda th ya boe lat t e oclock ees sec, is s unfiy f eg, s a e e • sec is used efe te gen eic siin ssi , eiced aicu gamticised siin sed ese ecdistincis in indiidu gges te ese k e seak

n ot f e te ae ngag a at n pen frte ale Prf ect (o Compo P) o not neeari ae -

t ea te ppoto a prne Span an ot av te opon fr n eanng ee in re r lu le vT vr at Dne nonperft) Jan ut iT.

S tn a of e y to em fro a tn ne ape en

ge r tn fe to al vral agore t are neen no moo aec. T e o t p fr ah savaag a acomn h of rm as a n over a ay o r n of nio

on e sp om n a e of e akon pa: akonsan) a Gera o ma n acn a to e ve n no am n ag al no e a me geney ape e



0 g o

en sul dsns u s en e ec nng, sp e ey e gle leclsed n ndul lng e nun s

nly n n e ll e lys, e es o eengo pcl l cegoe n nddul lnges sp n nen ec specl dncn dn. esln o enlogl pl le nd ll undn o n e ug onc y e pn s pe uld n oso cn.

Cel n ny dcn p peee ll b gen

el nue e exss s gl cgc c lngugs d ls xe e n dussn e snn ung gl ege Tus n sussng ee d eenn, es exe o nsn,Ru d Sn (n Spns n e ense ) e n y Engls e p ps s n ngled n e p oon ce ney ween gesse nd ngessenng ol o /eec dsn eln o ld e o e (nse es) nd en nly l enng cde

s s e lngges do n gcls e enc g

dson bn s d osrt s dr n t ls folloto ue dt wys e rst dscto s tw sct sgrmmcso of rlv s sncos wl osrprss cl s o of sos v of o tdcos a lcls s s of osrt s smlr o otoof rnt m rld to t rl sm do of s bov dscssd n pr 2 scond dsco c s tusd by most Svs d of by scolrs Slvo cous o otr lgugs s b ast grmmtcso of sm dscto d tosr s lclso of e dcprodd lclso s by ms o driton morolo(or a rl dsusso o drvo morpology s (97 cptr wr s rrrd o as c moolog srsrco of t use of e rm 'tosrt n Slvonc lscs srdcd by l ( 0 copresve accout of osrof usn s s s v by s�o 962 3 forug s vov ( 7 vw of confuso c b usdby tse to rher det sss of ost s trm wl not busd prst boo

S fur sco 2 on te pros.



t

ense so some anguages do n gammaase seman aspeadsnons o ge pes. n e oms o eman nsanename ose wh he Smpl as (e.g gg 'I wen) as been

sppaned ompee b h Pee (e.g b gegg 'I haegone n hese oms o eman aso wen ) hee s no gamaa-saon o aspeual dsnons1 hs does no mean ha n ee omof Gem s mposbe o epess h eanng deenes ha aeepesed b means of aspes n hos languags ha do hae aspeshe deene bewen Engs e e e b and e eb a o some en be apued n eman b e deen

beween ls s (whh oes he seman ang of boh o heEngh snenes) nd m lea he ead nhe bowhh has epl he meanng he Engsh ogse s gHowe hs paua wa epesng he seman deene sno geneasabe beond e md se of ebs n nnsh hdeene bewee hee wo senenes an indeed n hs ase mus bepessed b a deene n he ase o he de obje: n he s

senene he de obje w be n he ausae e l j ead he boo' he n he seond wl be n h pe . j he was adn h book Howee hs s no eneasable o a nnes he dsnon s ompee nappable whebs ha do no ae a de obje whe n man senene pas hado hae a e bje he deene beween he on h ausaede bje an he one wh pae de bje s no a semanaspeua dsnon a .2

So fa we hae no plaed any esn on how seman aspeuadsnons ae o be gammaased n ode o ua as apes and

1 hese rs f ean d hve tn lefet an tre erfwever ntd n etn tes fs d nt nesly ndateee eann, a sly nde ltv st te eferene

The s enn f th tv se n nn s th nly a f thejt fered t s aeted y the statn were ntas twenartv and nnprtv s sse, the nnrttve ans tha thewl h bje s aeted One se elsatn f dtnn tht etween efetve nd erfeve enn sne eretve s sttn n e, t elly ntls he nleteatn the rt jet wevr t s sle r te drt jf a ver wt erfetve eann t e ny ary td, as otti uok e t se d f he t al th d wth the asatve), p pyst ' nt the d n h t , where ny r f t d t t It.r dt tve n nnsh, ee nn



0. Mning n o

ndd nt ng n uc ddtnl tctn, tugny ot t o sct v ttpt o o o T pc gt ctey l ny ot tcl cgy, y

xped y n t nctnl opooy o t lngug nutn, wt S ZY Z ce ; y xed y n , wt ns w en , stc Pg pd o t pl v o edFut dt o t tcu l devc ud xes sctostn n u lgu ng o e g ts nddl lngug nd nt t nl o n pct; n cpt 5,

, etn unt l n lnguge n t pen o tu tn l dcud nd intepeIn ctc, t n tn gmtcl ctgs o inddul

lnguge d nt ctg vn o c n i gtd y t ptc e ntc cg tt tegtcd n n u nug n n ngug-tcu ctege ten cn t o ctgy, ot u ene T Spn pct, o ntne, s iJu Z n dg un ue to d ', cn t pt nn n p eenc, con t n nt T t t clld Pect n ttn cn c cbn ctv nn nd etv t t n o nd, on otn nd lnguptcg tt cnd ly, u no ty tc dtnctns n tn nn, e l Egl Pg tcy s gss g tg t g n

1 Ts K 7 6 crcs niss cosr t Elsogss t b n pc ne t a vrb piphs t s o cpssbl tt t do bt the prblmt iss f how t sch ca t English Pog essv e pl smtl e ssemt ppos t nogessve forms, b re exprssd by f ppa Ther is r r probm hre wc cocrn mpog sytx s a

l tn s spct n t s ot ala t rws odrs btw vonl (lx d t mopl btwe pol d stx t E Pgrssvb s ot t s sl t cn th ch cnt train t n t pos f ntctc c rctn xp pos t s grmt cg of athug it is n xc w th b lne ld bdw bw h nd t gl Sps ogss c ll osrd a gmtcl cg.



ntdt

c soh de is eced he gen setc dniioo ges ning To od consi eee ngg-ticcegoies d senic distnctns deed indeedey

tic gge i i ok picy s e dd f sig nii ci o n f g-pic cegies, eeeeing cego s c o os eng ceoywie sn iii cis f ggidede sicdsincs. is gic coei sd e nod cey ioking g k.

n eig ngg-ic cgie ggideedesentic cceisios i is ssie i pic, ie o o e nggepc cegoies d ssoci e i eienig enings o s f senc dsicis dsee o, if , hse e gcsd i indiid gi don psi coiio of e cs). k eng th sc fo h viei gee igisics, second och, o nig o o is o esi sic cene o iees i o e pic f h is i tic nge. h pese , eefe, vios gesic disinctions e idcd d ised y es fggeic cegoes cesond e ess cos ohe seic disicins sised s des, co e ii no ys he cs pic gge sd i se gee oi v a egy coesod c snic disncio inoed e s does e cs is o ecs eog o s ee do ois fsg cocening gepic cegoy ny eis s e k cpis ve

igh e og d od to esis ecggeic tego a gee chceisti is iguc th ec e of i indiid se oud e edice isee chceiio d, ey e d e dic

hen ot to se e i es) d he d o eed sk ny i cesdnce eee o cegie dsic dstinctios. e his s ne's sigi s cose,o eg e esi f e degee f coeiy f eine cgois d eni disicios. An ne

a Gmn t gdtg en





Intct

sns dn s uy n ny On n nddnt bs usd o s pnonn, wln t nd, d n usnly, s b s tn

pd by dnt ngsts dlly dn nptsIn s b ts p n t us n ydnt snss n n p onss w v os s vw s n w nn stn p s o s stn w s psn , nsn psnsu ps n ( s s bee be Ts n

dsnn s us n dsssns f s y Cnnn nss,nd s nsstd n by ss w o w ns un nd Od u Svn w t s stns, nd ptnn t, tsd Iny n wks by Ens-spn nsts, wv sn unn ndny o s s • p s ndny s puy unun wn s onp nsn su s w w Sss s s s p n, sy ngls n pt s nss s • s n dn nos so ns, ow s s st o py ps ns Bun,n, s s s n Sns n to s pssbnson s no n sd s p nusn

dsusson sudsns ptty, st s wn s pss n • nuus , t n sdsn tt (ssvss s n osnss w nsty In dton dsussns Ens, s f s Pss (g Jh s eg ss d s ntnus, s t dsno d wn s sud y nd

suss o nu-t s nns s s n ln nn su n Ts s n n n ss usn ns nu-pul s pss ss

Ae Gek te Art s th d rril ese, th i ds h ss I e ds d e s e As s el secl, n eress ese



0 Sruu o th boo

n nos c Ao Ps D o pcvp Bgn n nc pevy nd e lcosly ng don s d no cospond o

gn lngc nolog n ook (g Pecw pec p nd d no s eecnnpcnn A Pv wc ev plog e only t pcl le. Covon o s o nl cpl sld pvn ny coon

n csng spe o ncssy o dncewn ss ns pcs scss o lyn cp

owve le ony nonecncl lngg povd

w e n o ysn elngg o vo dvon o no povd ny ge o e ll n pn wo n d gencovee on y e o n vn o pocs o s vn pos scs e n cn 3 Fo p n w y k sno ollows: co o nl ngw vn n po y conl npo gy no o co o ; vn y onvw op wol (pvly) pos o v poe o n pevy)

0 o ook ol o c o oo w n

o n w o y o s w o o ok o p o 3 n wc o

concp ld n o pc no n scss.Cp scu n non w pcvn pcv y n con so dcs yo o sn ccsons dncn pp n l pcl lo o o es

l o n c . p n o on ods vo dvso pecvy pc yconn n pne ncon o npc c o ne n v o ge loscss n .

1 kled', d.

2 section



nrductil

C s t w nn n o n c t s cbs o c c n snc ss, nd w s n n nc w

u cgs ndd ng Dncon dcdu s nd dnc son t dvd u sns, bw n n t o poc ng s o c nd n s o poc n wnus c ov wd oc cono c nd o nt

T t dscssd n cp 3 c v p os nds ct conssn w t gn cco cnss sn vnc o o n

Cs 4 nd s concp cgon pov t cs. Ct 4 nv nco o pct nds n vs g n o pc nd voc. cp ns psn pc dcd w pc dcs sd cs nk t nc nconssd d od wdow ono t nc sncons

6 dsus concp o dn pp o scsn n n n wc dn o Pg Sc d ow wd ns n n on gsc .

y, ndc v ntc con o ngc n b b ccon o pc ss os ggs tt n t non o d

by b nd odc d o coc t ns o pct

5 G d y w wos on ct o vwpon

g gc, n n dvd n nc k n dd gu ond n ppnd A nd n

s o nc t t nd ook. An nn n wok H 1 , ss on vonc n Ancn t

wo ds c n nmb o cs bo ot nddsc 1 nd co 7. A c ns , d's duon sov 6b Rus s n S 17 nd En 's nd sn n . Ao



0 ee

d del my Egl Pg l u ducy cl c lgu e, n y gl

n eF n y ue ndcy cy vou oud e, ee eeen 6 u dee emlg m l

lo h on d g ll rrg o "c "sro b b rssly sy tt dr ha whch he bot or e h cl thee o cl hlot fo a pl o n be lae gthe 2.



I

Ptiv iti

1.0 e dnon n pefey and pefiy haseady n on, n eon pefec idca h vew suan as a n le whoe wou dinon o h ro sepaphases t mk ha sn; whle he ieece pa eenenin o e a sucue of he siaon. he peen hapewl loo a dn uhe dea xas an aious lnae

. . Pv Den cvy

iusr o el w s mean by pe-fey ma be ss be ome feuenl ed bunia nadeque aaeons o s noon: ny o eeae ue weead e ee lu eaue on ape and nmas o idu ue and lead equeny o noeasn o e oe o ape

I s soees caed pefee o ndce sions osho t, ree os n suaons of ongo t s esy to nd exp o nvda a a hnad his sson pehs h ceaes bng whee bo pe-fev n mrfe fors n e n eerng t th enh o e ho y necesay pon o he aion

Sice e a o coc ith the itoy o heoe o ac, xccta, ded eeece a ot ge o h o h aiochaactatio c -e mma o th tcadeomet o cct o ectity ( imctiy), ipaca ead to Saic i y Dt 1954: IQ Someo h a acco patica thoe om th ith ,thoh iadqa y ate k, tl y a pao h o o h t aect



I I Pfectiv

sh lng in Rs, oo he o a hou c ber itr i Irv, a soa a s or i la lowig o eectve oms a posoa a s, ooa a as

o e xn o s gv n ndc pero td lo or r rce vr wposoa) uggs scte) od d e onPciv vn (wh oso) sus ve) logd, wl I l) u Silr l, Frn i gn Dni) tene ans a gna () n ans h gnd f h rs o oeo obve r ubce t iod e i r e w d t s i a ge oo, orrod rl o Esh rg f rtr , . o in n i d rr np o r o r d gni i cnnc wh r gn d u b r a krod m cio ndduleve a ur ed dr Sr k Ar (rcv s) basiluse k , o r , r t m Ir c pt s a r r , o o xl r egn rien a

ql, he pece cnn be e s descbng a siuaioi e a op o nled duon; an ho, en ea , a e4 peos, b as he e ae shob pfv pe b o e suchdui

Rel he nce pefeii as dig or od ie is i chaaeiin s ndc a uu ie. oiike oona siuaon Ee s d sv dconr i ve o v, s i ec y o ed v g se o v , l Whle coe h bas ncin o hepeece is o epesen an even oena o pnual hee i h n v a ev, b no gvn d pson o he nenal sce o uin, irrece octv

S furr ecton



Pf n

o hs he ct o edig it t sing on. n o , s cv n e ome wici o sca o o wi

gc nd ycic op o ivi l e, d s yids c o e o n, R n p e od c o oo nii,k on o ' c , iiy o o s s o d i in Enis opoa c css i no ci o wi s o so ocg o doosSce te oo point ses o pcld intenl omple, r pl metapor wou as b t say tt t ft sito o a l, he h to a point: ob s trdmesion obj, and c theor av t plxiyo i eheless snge bj t b

A e eet aacerisio f prity s tt t idics

ompleed c. O soud not o a t �o is oped not 'opt i t sete the to ods te an rant smati stcio wrs out o discssg aspt. T v s nddeo a compet stuion, wit eging i, ad end. he eo cole, hoevr puts too u empass o he enoo h situn, hee t s of t ptiv t no r passncesiy, on th of sto tn o y o p of

o h as of tuao t s sn wo!e xisnc o i F i R o ns g au s yo o oi efcie o wiiv f n Ai , o is, g.o/ o po e i o o s, i Aois ni, doss i o o , no, s cciin o n Rssan, o

n a ar rd y nly anyi e. g Czc dokoQVY, Plish oOny Lanju al which rv v ann l

Irtg gh a n r, s an di pd san s n he r n, vn ans id as p; sfuther i



Prject

b a a s ca cca c a s ags znat' (I .) u otznat' s s s tol'ko ct ozn

s s s s sc c at c s poa, s my oz ole polno as a g , g , s ci e e of sii s bes oe of e poibemenis o pefecve om eny o s eig eue. A p feie fm ofe ice he pi i wen sepll onse h n peece m sce he mpeevenie si ess sice e fc e ice son hc s en he ny e semi eeme iuced bye fc mi f ua s Rss dogo govaral (I) menj, e gvor (P) ua() g , bu sa () , i lg ua , bu cual sua

n mny ges h he sicion peecve imperecive os he eeve os o some vebs n ul osme se eb cn be e ie e bei o sio ingsve eig c G, f a, s (ci ) b asle I g ca e c g, a eaies dk t g f a ag ys, u a s a g eaes I bc ac c

(c a easieon ' a g Slal nk ca , al p nto Tot eein ne(is) bu lag ca, as s , l sa sua bas s , sac, b s ono ( b acqua ) (f c, c) S as (c s ebs f cas s, as ono (S

Ped hae mho ao I a g I Russa, onat' ci fonmat sa s as g u gs , s nakone o onl m elo a las as a a u aa C,

h rk xmps fom Good 1889: 6 ss g he way whh sp s xprssd opogcay

e . fen l dde whh macllylr mpv or sp



Pece efece

a n o dcts ot djc nd vs, t om a o a stt n v gess ng n t Pct, g. s l P.) c t, s c t. Cla on

cannt ay at ch piv rm dic com tion o asan ty rer t ts ncin.A oss ais o ts ssv nng wod to s

vs cn ne ir sttiv o ingrssiv i ng it to t o o n into t s nstn Engs c c n t sitng o adot stng posii co so Egs n l he s

h s haeng, w nng s so gssv. n codt ca tt t coc tn ngss d stv nton s dend t conte tn n spc povsott sc ctv os n v ingss g. t tsc cn ntned s owv dot, snc t is a dc en s, istan on t on nd a t otvs sd : s c usd ll s wt t nn dota sitig pst ncuig os w ctv m anig .g. Pgssv h sg n cnot, ov s n i ts (hes ng as hg t s os o ot lags. Kno ts ds o ese w es pto nt ino nw stut nd sd n t Pogssv hessoy esg has haeng Tr s ss i sntt sc t a ll t scri y rfcv os tn n (incldg ntis it stts) n tr is m fnival in lig t piv orms f stiv vr to not tvt f nry no aroiat stt sn otis ol bi fr t pfiv os o s vr t sc planat io

is t prnt sclaiv f e efece s f a cee

c is e n , nn cccpion o on. It i tue tht erective rm f certi

ndvidul veb do eectiely dice he ccefl cmpleon f aio, with Rs g ver g(Ipfv.) g whch cod e endeed to Eg ' I cceeded n

ors o te me r r dret er at reted te daon m n e ce opot' /ponjt', oe er o s arempoog atten re aeua a e nt/' enmt/znt' ccup ugt a pot'/pon

Cp xn 1 1



fiv

peri i rid o per i '. euv s onoe p oe p o pereiv an e e rave i pe pus nner p on e n o

suion on oa in, e k Spni s red, c ' o ab ko ' cdic i eciit idic cc co te en rdo y t uc co f i o e i refre oy saMa I ' if yti, e revre , it te itonree o y ice { ein e re o e evereere o up.

Fnll, e onse a e pre e

een n pr n pe ou an aona overones n c

c cti m ny pecpoiion o iit e tr to qetion od it rn o pct opiti (ce 6) r e e it i uc o e ee e e pfeci i d ( e rcie i e Svce n u e pctie e e. Dn in Fec e oi i n ri Grn) d dto do o eidenen dento o eecii d o nge oe di e peci c e inretenin pc, u o ti of tpeecie ud o h iti ciiecie

I Pftivty t ata aF e iin o perevi ien ve i fow

pereciviy nve c eic reerence e inena pornsien oa o rr n pit yn ck o nen o on Tus ie poe r pefecivr d o ton e nen oe, uc

r coer p er e o ue a ner n nerna e r ove oy oe on e snge . er nen rcu f uctin n b ee i ci o a pecivo se is ciey peeve or nn n rrn cn e pic y n uc



v

ecl o b volved o oe asecal ooso

oe faces o co sco ll l vosm h lluse s e e c

le efecv s e cble h ovs of e f su s fll emed f covec all of c coa pefecv vb foech g tet s Ace ek ss e ee s ' Rus o ostooso s e sod e fo hou ls e add ese g Uf t e e led f ve s e Rs as

e es ee e sl fuco of f o d o vebs o s clss s o dc aem d bu o ucul su e ee s ecl me f e veb o o elcl eesua

Sa he es s Sml as esusImeec c eesed deede f os o es e fo b e fo of he veb b us use of e couc es s se c e ec ucul os s ese ace ee efecee suc s etvo eo e eed e ed ce suh fms do ccu al ae s o tv to vs all e vsos ke a'

lr Pr rr mp v r P T d h uxli u pls ii r ly Pt T u r r P P T ip r soj ' Pr j su d ig', dur so l d hl e tg Th prdb poso d prosojat P, ly w a pos 'I l d hil, a poso ' l r l h) ; s "a u poo r ·a

u posoj Thus stot s Imprf whil posoat d poso Pri

Jx 1 9 : 7) hr � 962 33 , h s

r v i po-, d h p r sh ri

h l y 1 970 : 63 h m i r r h



. erectie

h uaton descbed o ha std thouh ( c, hh o h atenoo, d cots o nube o dstnct phase (thaou avas), hc th Poessve; ov, h hol cope

s uay psented s coet ho, hc th SpPas Sa use ud n Potuues, e e esee ledo emcs d itro h se h ho dy ho a

ua, aa n the st ese, t a o ophooicalopostos coeso o h ect vu nonpeecvdstcto, a tat ben Peect d peecte, ad hateteen os a peect O o h a se o h ae

se-cotac ectv ost s pecsey to dcae an actonhc peete a a e hoe (hec the os as ae oeecvy, ut th ea colexy (hec th pectv ae o eectv), n the oon exape: ed ogikoi oe o t od (v ot) d Ndk Te se six (vost) s Nkol dotoec . . ed ozte xgete l . athe Stphen ed (pv ost) od Neo ot o an othe cos Ty tped (pv ot) beo Stchos t hauatue, , bo th aes o th achagea ad che

usa, h ts less ous aecual ophooy, no noaya to ve c xpsson o sn ho th tena tuctun :e te stut s pesened a a s he (Peectve), o t sunoded to s coon pats (eecte) ove, heete suctu ca cate othe than y h Peectve!peectve opposto, he ussa to ca decty xpes tuatoseed he e hve een dscuss Wh h ectveet oc, e ca hav setece o e de' h oced hdoo, o z se dei h loce al doo ; th atte splin that h loced a do, thout vg y caton ato ho (n ha od, o phap ll at onc y puh a onolutto) the do ced u h i alo th vatoay elate

oms 69 ledo s litlly ml Pt) ig i gli t or o o Sile P rgr c oghtot y fco rg o Sim P spt a t rgri forrag. sim omiio o is o Eg orcios o th y: hppmed ri oe ay tat wawak m ao the treet . I hapee oe a beak ao the eet

2 i (9 9



Pcv an erctv

v ozaat in n ozaa vs ve ic cit oo ockd idviduy o t t ot: tot fctv ct t t uto a copt o,

t ibut c a o ti vb i oato a to ti cottucy o actio. oa ao vse ovsaa ssv ms ty a j o t at (o at t ot

vu vs vso so svo s ty jud u o ti t(poiby o) .

T oo obi it Ru b k eatsa(/een' ( ca to o aot, c to a c o c c ao eegvatsa (/eregn's (P i t o ot, ut tca ofik Wi th Pct i t k et n tcn c o on aot t ita a of ituion o by ica o t vb t Pcti t ot a a o a a Ruia a, yconi ostte ones gaz v nt tt y tt, t itobou ot o d to oo.3 Pct onanes ica gadua poc y c o th to ot ou ito t o ui t a cd coidao of d a b ccuud i th oo i y cot t t tcay o uta osete nes gaz'

nat ito out u to t oo.

I

From e ove diso n on oferfctiv wl b nt, ny xlc reeree t nte tepr o a sitution vwg a sition frwthn; s wll b ener pin tht imereti s nt be wit peett nd tht oth cn be expressed n on osssses te orm n to o so, s emls o n ion

i n o v a o o p mr-fetity ere ae thr agu es were meret s sednto umber o distnt os n t ts there s om

1 Se n 6 494), w s e t sb uc

s 196 9 w se t t ( 96 39 w ss t cmutedstb



Imeecv

o opond o p on o nn o piTo up oa, ay sent h ot ypca bvson o peity n abl

Table Classicaon f spectul oppsns

Perfctive

Impcv

I

I

Hahual Conns

N ge

W loo b o lnu hi a spc pesinden oupn o sant ncions Enh, o nce, pa ba c hoh oly h ps ens, Je ee h so p Poes, g J as (e eee oths h us h Spl o, ihno uth ncon o pe, nde n he oonly o hbiua Apec n Esh enc J k y avbtl ein, h ecld osblt bn poi nn. n p n Spn, o, nonbn pciv d peeciv, n t Spl Pspiinction eg pl Ps) on v su Jaegab pec on s , ohn u to v ;

pa o o J esb e John inhou h o i oo n J eg o no udpossiv n ls, n ec h en ysen p n, thouh nc o a Sp P t pevnn oon o al al, g ais i Y a

The Bane n Sou Wl hi con t h on, pa,o e i ae Y ae ' dn Te o se to Te Bnn Noth Wsh ov, t o e i Y Fn' nonhbua, i s di Te he p bia o, h ocllp, le i ' Y e u o ad Te e. nLhunn, oo, h o-cald pc inc bualy, .



Pfv d v

v I se o e u e us bgdv (Imefec) I use css e oe s se bg I , I su f ues e a mefece fom,

c ss h ss (s soss fms o efecve e s ; e seecs ss s e s e, us e Ld, d , B ech (Imefec) L Rss n (If) vdu (f Ifc) n e eek d(If s) d N eo b (f Iefec)

I mms f m lus ceo cee mefec, e ess s e e eel eo mefc mus se o qu sc cce ou cuousess us s he mefecefo esss ee bul su o uo ee suo he em meecve ' s osse s coob'( ueu s poc uk es bk, fs o ecse es vou sss o co oee fm s e coce, s s sese umbe of ues e sle ce o eessme s e esece of sc subss s cusess

scss pcv w o posl o pecveo o eer o o he ie ce Fm h

dei pcv hever i ow m pectv sc ed ree iuis ckig ier rcure Tqei t remi is eher here re siuis sric uc i he h he o vw ig i, o evrl usive phes e sll o sques seco

Habtl 0 I scuss bu csess, s ess o

s b s eo o u e csss e ee e s meec s o us s sec , eee e cceed e eo ou

her ternle uavy



Imfective

so dsussos o hbuy s assud h habuay ssseay h sae s ey, . h pon o a sao hsucssv ouec o sa sas o h n son. Ths

ooy s sad n o sss. h e po o suao s o su o ha suaon o d o y spay haba (o, dd, p) o. son spad a ed nbe o s he a o hes nsn o hsuaon a b d as a s suo, ab h nnasu, ad eed o by p o an o nsn ase he a eu sas up, ouhs v s, ad he os o o

dev hs cue Ensh h od b dscbd s oos theecter stoo up coh v times n si . . . oud o posbo s he specay habu o h se t .. no the ectrerstoo , se to coh v times n si n eh, sy, onoud xpss hs by s h pv Ps D houhoe confencie se ev touss cin fois et t ssan oo a s hPeecve h oki vst, kaanu t' i sz eody,a suao a b eed o by a habua o ho he ay avy a a a snc te Teme o in se to stnt es h s o ssay pcaon h h ocaso on h o hch hs p sood a Ephsu h g peos h d n; h hs pacua s, h naepao s pecsey ha h pe sood phsus hooa se pod, ho nsso. sa s o ho ses Smon se t eeve in goss Jones use t ive intagona, ad o h ussa s ego znva • usd o noh .

v caed h c hay nd y, ay no u o he eo o habuay s. t ll hbal, he e a hey ds aon hch he n

Soc gc hta fom e often efeed t te e'v (R mnogoknYJ) eg. Rn pv' :v thehbl coear op drnk In . ( Rs opposedto oe er Soc lgage (eg ech) ea habta esed re at ls he re agage aek 1 962 : 0) ; the ys e placed b the ohba Imefective.) thana the pefet s le b z e 'ps ve ee

Dse he r emoy hc reers �kl/n g sem ve n el 'oce ) .



Pectie d merecte

po of i f siti eeed t .viw o i pp of o pi

i f of wo e f

ne po t tme, ten tere s nd fo o ov the e Diana e tostand at Ephe), tg q t s n xdd n polaned t stand the cr f w hus eah y. f t sitti e tt n ted ro tpt onw o vi (s the l pfe ed always to lae

T o js wt ntis rrst et f endd rd me n n dn n s , t gs itae g Say d t th stn at m ind i the moi eay i sew stoe wo o e ie o eec i oite it s oi ove pio o v ea ew stoesa y o v oig; ee es o es it io d o emi ie o ote ad it wa dgee ogaity (o fw oigs ou ss thou stoeSa o v o o tos o ake i o tteaIn e wd n w e tt nies rers n w s x e , t t desn a iio isi s nt e s

sssi of Egsh abi Past (eg I ed t it

hs end at the ace ad keise o te ussa itua Pse a nx ia c asa t s ote caed t a utee o eaig o tes os s ta te statio dscbed ooge s . i h a ot o og t fo ou i p Ts t od b cato seence sedt e t a sbse raatin ta o ge eog o vsi osaio ts ee a cato te t sese

a y adto to t te a oadce s iaio wo poc a cotaitio t is cea atio o ed t e t a serie ranat t i as a so to o ogd sbvev ogato so t if sooe say i to bog o svesi ogiio t as

�o 1 6 4°7 h go i Eg ioI ud to kow i o iy h o o ko hi



1 2 mectie

n blon o sbs onson, n s ncct hs W y o s h puvplc th atul a, l ha h suaon dscbd no

lon hlds s an n sc sns n c t uns ouo o b, snc on n u sonl s ou slconcon,n ns o ueso o n ll s o b eb o sube s onsn : s, he se t e mee serseoraatio, a h is Equally, on could nse: h e e . . , w hthr r he s (s oppos o he sed e, w whhr he er hs en Eull, o couldns: he se t , er meer, ou bn lyp (s oppos o he sed e, a has sme time e memer bersie rai c pt, n o n h scon clus s e cl n h s on) Ts scnno b n plcton n s sns sc p plcon cn b cncll by n pc al o

Suppose o, h n pl uson o o lus o b b sbsv onson ns spy es, e, he t be. Spps o no ll sll s b o suc n oason Tn uston, onc odsc d l ths knole, coul ll ccus o nsldn, n o out lyn n bsnc o n scl o cont, sec se e member bersierastio ll b t by h s con o sp sp h ll s o ln ebe ll s ll b n

n h sp s ply s h o no l s sll b, cn asabl pc o sp l so suc dscle, oths sp s n lbel sln n cn lnusc o poposo s er memer serse raisati s o dscbd s n plh n pcon, o i se t e mer ssierat. An plcu s hus a n n plco

plcu o snnc cn b en, n c s does no ol,u no n, o suspnd b n plc h spo os n no o o ls, llb o ol Wth hs ls pl on c cop ollo uss pl h n h plcu o h buls sia s cncelld e ollo : t, eonka, ato

p ce



Pv and fv

s' svala tt i stan'a ou otn ud to t , ka, u can ust sta h

. atua nd o pu vui an itatio tat b oat uity int, o can tat a nmer o e oe a onnouh od - t n , o any suio xpd iu i oos hiu i o-n iou ote emant au vue, m y osepop o h nd of iuo h oon o ee oa ucu o th ngu oon o oveke o ous i u, h hvos h v ove o oh o hu nd o so ohaspu vu

E, o ntanc, th Hu pct (sd t cosuctonc c f th Pov ct, o v uch o d b lg. Sc povn ha t n dat t n dta a c ou o ot to t oo tp octat btn ogv n no-Posv, akn ntstnc n h uu n, h th no pc hatu: (a whn vt Jn, e t latst s ; hn vhn h be tng s latt s n (a tnc, t th nonov vb w te n an cu, t pcaton taton cta occu t va at s ou, a i thb ntnc t pcaton tat cta av tatd o

v, d cotnu o at pat o th t at a th t ca, th, th ncat tuaton (on ctn po ha anoth tuaton (y av h thnonog cu t nptaton no put h ann no Hu e, n pcy h dncbtn og n noPov n: (a wn I vsd Jnh d t t latet , ndng on c occaon nt o

n and oy he oy , vsus I vdJn sd t tng s last , ch p tat o ac occasn vtd oh ad h a ad ad n ct s po

1 Th exmpe from 90 16 s y pss t s t Ht te rae ce o

c : when I lISd to st Jol, e ed o ct/b reciti his ls ms ng te epren ty s aw nc t hu rm cude ata



1.2 Imefectiv

ae he haby doe oe ey e byob abtuay h oe apeua e poble opey he peua nae o ea a oue o h ua

on hc o oehe o ae p he he on eeed by he habual o n u, o ne, py e hee o he oe dcae habaly, poble o e e eee h abtul ea, epen e eto o uao haoud el be eeed o by te eeve n he eape ka�> a e aals, o koo oky (P.) oo, i e vete (P) v bo ea te ed o e a

seone (had) pened Pv) e do e d (had) ed) n h sal ad abuaty ee eabd by eadebal : a eah e o ha he eeepeeveopn need no be ue n e ubodnae la o eablhhabu, but an be ued o dth he ape ha ould beased a ne ouee he appopae uaon hee o ohe oe ae o abaty, pssbe ua tdu u tee by yvao leal o be, hheabe abaty, en oug e apea e haud be appopae decbin ea dua ouee o heated uao

n aan t oe poue o apeual o ue a bead hee o he deene eee he o opoon Peee!peee and ost/pee e late ony n he pa enseOne o e uo o e eee pee o dbe aoha teae, and eah o oe ndvdal oene ol elbe eee o by he eee (n a he eee Aot), e.o n (P e) zoata, kava vct avn oon da boe ued o de h eep o e e ee

s xmp s o Rassua 8 As Russa no ava s luprc o ca ut con h ngsgoss ou us mp as o upec ee

o p s sc

Aoug Rssan a o Aos an pc s os arcompy an rom morn nguag Slvocgs ra h Ao a mprc no a ow al oucomnaos cv At mrc Aors rcv Impc mprv pc : Uppe So o anc oh rcv or ad pectve mper xs (w 1:1 g ectv ot kup oug Impecv Impc kpow h g ue o u no ·kup ·kupow.

uux lev ( 1 3



Peecie nd imectie

p nee ing o h n ing, o ndia ho h p oion oud a i, ing h v oi,to zot oon dn o . . . n i

biu oun h poin i i o apiuaing iyon he nig o h ugin pi oi nd vpe, o o hi oin pi n ipi, u no n nonyou. peiv Aoi a a uaonhi de y n ipe o pev), o gpii n o i ina opi, nd iu hiuon gvng a o o), i unon o hpiv Aoi ou did a pv o n ipv, o h Ao o h pv. Pv p,on h oh hnd, a a iuaion ih oud in diy a pv o (Pi), nd hn uppo upon hipviy, o h on o h poi uyp o ipiviy,ny uy, i i p o, o pay, hau o peiv, o h p o h Ptv. n oho, h n wn h pv Ao n h tvp dev o h dn hacha odn o auo piviy n pfivi: in o pvy donipevy, n h a piiy doina pivy.

Gogan, oo, wh h iepev and op oppoion oy din in h pa n, hiv p an u o hiua uaon aof ho oun oud in i e did y puy pv

o (Piv Aoi), g i cebm med dianes mioxme xrd sme midd, miibd bze xe da axedadzze o n i Slo ud on o go oud, h hnd o h , an oo oad od h ah omoixda, midoda, miideda, and xedad Peeivp

Prgessien h pn on h ond h ang o

iy pogiv o, uh a Engi oh snn, Spanih st cantnd aan ianni st cntndo and Jn e as t en cndh Ahough o o h utap n o Engi, i ou o o h ou

ogt 971 : ).



fciv

that the s essv as, aso th poessve n ay the aua, a uuuay de e. Soe o the use the Es ssv tat a nt haed by esve o n

te ues e td ads he ed ths cto. n soenus, e dtton beten rosie n nonpgresseeang b ens o ogrssve n nnp gressie rs ba,weres n oers e use o e sc esve ors s oona

e e nonroressve des no ecue progrss enins s st e, s that essve ad -Pesveae t a caae, a ay ne tse eea c b te t ash a taa, on he othe hand, t s ssbe t ace th sse by the os, thut essve , that oepodn to EhJoh s sng s ve e J canado (Poesve) cat; s taa a hav Gn caano oG ca as a ca essve , an

cher, bu t ve ss u d a the pash aa sss, s J is iin a b tnsatedt c as en cnte.

De sss ud e tatona aas,ao th s sb u pss, t a to bnut te dece te essvees ad pevty. o theas, te s t set set be t xpapossvess tm t d pectvty

h s, peetvty cude a a s abiali ad

a saon an b ieed s habial hu t eng viee a roesi, as t te -Pssve abtua n on ue owit poem s t Poesve Jon u o wtnos) ts sc, esvess s a to tnounes,hc s d ecvy that t ocasd hbtuat.s exaes J used to be writin oes ho, pssve t oa at a v tut a be veed bot

s au, a ssve, eah dvdua ocuee o hestuat s est as pssve, ad the u to o ates ccus s td s be habtual the habtu apess ov, uat n ts o t sut eque a t use o scc essv o In uae heessve a ssv a thed, ae ntstsed ty, suh as nh, the t noposve



efe ee

imperfctv os w ay hv d g tn do th Engl h-Pogss. Tus, n F cqe jO d c eues pot(:vit U poe y hv th pcy mrct v r

v

smpy by v o habtalty ( ' c dy t

ok pt rot a po ) o y vt o t t ta t oemtngsu s oo t v ooc ach dy 'ac y at oo t ot tng o ') th us wt ttgss ms a k ns n h ct, n BzlanPtgus tas s tes, uo ee egv (mprt) cs sas st bao (Porss) u vy evnn n htn

Im

rt , h hdn payg

(P

rogss) n

st J btlty do n en ossvness, soquay oesnes oes no en abtuay, a taoncn b ve as esve hu en v s habua, a non ws wti po t e o 'cock on the f o e n *on use to wte/us to be wt po t e o'coc

ft o f n t sccaton f t on oasn on

s ton took pc xcu th possby hbtua g On m ht t concude, we, tat ssvnss s h sas contnosnss, sce contnousnss s ts m petvy odend b habu ty

e contnu opang anguae t sea s v d to ou, en n evn e cle snencs abtua m eann, ag o oesene naw thaha npessve us w tk th n ntc e

s ' pat top te o cs sat or nw , n , ak ) , ad asu onhbteto t t s osb cond v apa n Pogsv n gs (ndd necessay t t houl o strpn o t n sntnc) ut o o h t vto p n th sv : ohn ew/ *s kno t he wseg too cy o t h anag wh pcay

ogssv m, n h a statn ods o stan nSpnsh ( t ovso ta nsh d t ot sca o pgss mnn, o tat t rr o s asopssb n t eco aus) : Jn c* seoPogrss ue b (pect)/st o (Pgrssv)asao e . Tn uth eam e h s n e n ta

h :



ve

bs t t t st (g ss, os e esse fs ts tt t Mee, ts st ss t t btee stte stte

vebs Tus w n ie e nral do f prorsss obnon o ee i nd notti eig . Ntt, ste b t gesse frs, e t w tt bte e sttiit e eb te t s te gess.

n s ceion o t p i, g expcdie lanue w ogiv ors o agree on wen serog i o cn be s Utte, t t te ttitt e t bs, t gges i t e dees tg xt gsse f be sd IEgs s e, t ext gsi euse te ss aig, e uve , on tet , t essie f s ibe ee hgi (t *hann r ig Egs, it t in enessbe t s gssie fs f ebs it et ke ha (tg se ext w be td , i e * m u he und h ab o *y e eaig I otges, ve,s f e efe be eou vdo bo d av ouvn tse parila ase, ean o se e a s pssle t ve ann ei arig ir a no-saes (ynai aions) : di yoa dr s o js e eep an ee no o o uppo a gg presoss e anser nieciig prceo a eer a se o a dnai iuai. Dirlanuags are r o coose esseally as an arbirary oie suc v e clie ti o no

o so n th er langag an Engls er an i erbsaso pea Prgse see fr belo

inass (: 44)

hoas (: 20) s e f se pl a essa d erne ogon

b laag w save ves he an se w nsavvebs Te x at hs p ay ee peey rlaprogessees s deed n ts of atvi b then ake s uent dee f assg v vb as ve or nsave uuee see a r t Progrev bease t s o an t sav bease a or e rogressvoev aget depen o he bin suel lag lass



Pfectve an merct

So ar, a tac assu tat o rbs ar stati, otno, . tat tis s a ttr o cication o ca ts to sjonnonolapin sts In Enli, o, tis s not t cas t

an s t a ta sois as stat, ot nonstat, pd on paula a a n t gnsntnc O such vb h Esh vb b, so that n addton oFrd y av Fred beng sy. h cod of h can bpaaphasd by Fre actng n y manner, th h nnivvb act, ha ts s t posbl in th a. nncdo no py ta d do ay ly a , inddh ay b ba u by th ot t oy c tha al s s th d fs spccaly h ay d hav th ot d ak no ai byod i abo bau at t ts. Oth laua hav a o t lccascaio h taa fo stac eere • b i aiv adth Psv f ths vb, n to essno • a bnvn Es ca s opsd o sat csscaton t vld so hat o ds yoyou o aly yoyouscstucions t o cas h Po possb ad th o, e rn rom nuenza ad e i * ben iwt nnza er s a osativ vb, and th Pssvs pssb v hn t s b ud a syoyu ih stativb. n Enis, t na u s to b tat ca ti rbs nonsat n n t Porss, nonstati r no o tr t to n t Pg ng stativ

oth nonstatv us of tav vb Esh s n t k' undertann ore bout quantu mchanc a each day goes .Nora h b nrtan s sttv, s tat f soo asks ta ay s cophsb, s possb o as ye, undertan you, bt *ye, 'm unertanng you. I pivn abv th t oss unrta, hv th

is not t a ucha sat f cso th d f cpnso b th a fo o t-pt t at but at ahan h d f udrstad ay v day udstod

f whr dr gg do g o g ofaiv f he agm d g h ri vf de k, a h i me gg a ttiv he ol olgg rgm w wrg

mp from ch ( 7 : 2)



. ecie

o abou uatu chaic han on a iou da Th h ndestand h ee no o a a, u o a dloping oe,ho ndiidua ha a nial di o o aohe

Ev i allo or oaiv baical aiv eb, he,h a ill o o h Elih oiv ha a acoedor hu u b a ve, sand in h o in i aioiion, ra han auig a oiion) a i, ad in onguag i dii ogi o a no aa in ogiv hi i gi i ogi o a ud, a oai orpoding onpogi o, a in I ive at RaayCtt n I ii at aiway Ctts, o the in stan yt Ni ad r th s standing y th ie n uh a nonPogeiv e o a o n a o ai ah oiv e o a o oa u a I ie at Rawy Cutting, ha hi i noa idee, hea i ay I in at Riway Cutings, I i ha h i onl a poy ridc (o ian, hi aai i bng oad) Smilaly i h exap ih stand: h Shinx i a aoaba xue o h ba o h Nil, hil gh pec Si o b a poa ar adig he o a idiod o i Eua, h Engih ogiv an abiuaiuaio ha hod o a laivl iie iod, n we' going tothe oe a ot thee day, at that ie was woing the night sht

n addo o i u o h ogiv in ngih, ogin ngih ha nube o ohr sci u a o no o

u gnea iio o ogi, o inan I'e onyhad s whisie and aeady I seing n eehants og o av vb see in ns ha a on agining hig, i ach a o lpha o o ), o se's aways buyng aoe vegetabes than th ca osib eat h h uion o hogeiv e ipy b o ad ga o eec han oudb achived by h aih he aways uys fa e egetaes

tan th can sib ea ialy, o ue e o u

asso 9 1 hat Icedc ny e ha oayo o occ Possve ca u ogressve f em veeect, eg " M ? ely hy are ou ng s e o eah you lve A? (srps dgt o sgss me t the y ue f te pgessve ma a fo ue eote sua ht e unepected s y ou ue th Pge gsh f mpa



Pfeve n fve

dosycatc : hu e oe ca say et yo look w o yourook w h as opposed o look h Poessve po e oy you w no ·yur ng w sa th

son he appopate se : you un oar, o you unoar. x eor h i Engi he mning f

rgreiv ig i rgi ini iuu eg he ueson e ase he e Eg Pogessv houd beven oe ohe eon han h ga lgus deton opossvees, e hthe he nng o he gs Pogessv sso exeded ha e shoud no spea o a as pogesv eagth vaou usda eag, u athe o o o geea ascea ch ncude o posve ag ad h aous oheeas tha th sh Pogessv as gsugge h si mig f gi v ng iu hs oud uu ogssv ng e,and aso he use o he Pogsv o ndca epoa onge)sae, ad u o de onge aua iuao he irio i i gi rgv ingihr b a u hrerio nn n As oe n he aov duso,ee a eea dosyncae n h u o he Esh Poessveha see, a eas n he pesen sa o ee, o ta aast aeea ea en abe o acoun o e e us o hs o

oeove, ahouh ay save e can used h Possveo dcae cone a, no en he cas ha al atveves a e us h ay o sanc, he e kn o noao oato o Poe, even eee o coesate Jon ad tat t a a bo ay ca n andfo h hee wa no a at a oon a h nt out tat whnMry wa n th roo nwa known tat t wa o ar

r pr) dd g ur h e ph) le hi ggei i pciv, i y g wwd pvdg pl fr he ppy lfari g h h Prgrev h e fhr fe ge

1 r cc he tht ay cc i he Prgivad he ha ay ee ech ( 97 142 ; h frwk ed i the riefe dici f he ev ir e 72 927)



v

wt f t ssg stt (y y kw"knwng b q w fc ctfc st ( kw"a knwg bt q

e y? wt fc gg g f wg Itt knw"m nwing m bt qm n yt s t xts f t Egs Pgss i stc t f ctg t tg s sgst b y w b t Egs i vg f sct s Pss s wt gss g t ts xtg st s stg stgbw s w i

cic v c wt t tgg. Is istt Pgssiv Pgsv . Pss g d is gig s sccgssv g I s f wit t s tygii s Is Pss s x s g gsv bt g d v s y m yn y i gg gs y e f yn c t P i y f b f stt s I c s gy gssv f is w y st f vbs bg fw xt v b s tt it is gg g

g f is sst ig f t gsrve e cscs t t xy b tng f s css gssi g i fc

sc ss i ycy ics st s fc wt st f t b s wtt B w y b ( kw " I

knwg ; nne kwg t wb f Sm mmn w r ( y w kw t y knwing ; d kwg w t b med te tgy (. t t t d kw t

tt ed w knwng h ss is gssv s cts s c f gss g s i wkng dwn te t t n d (t b wst w w w w w w

1 C he ugQ h 7 26 h ee (ev re g ie e r of e o cre e



Pfctv and ipfctv

ocioot ( t an b wakn down t tt n, p tan wo i wakin down t tt now)

, ow, t cci w ig o

d pccll ogi oc, l r v pp t c w aw t accd ta t vict d aw t accd tabbn t vct pct tab i gv ( ac, ct c i t I wd wl f tg d o iidg p topr iig, ddl d d, ptig glcopl wo) tabn i gv i t c o

v wtd t gi d d t pc l ddl, t i ll I lld o) Slal : watcd dit a wo or di notn, w Fd ttg, no t wo i td, d gl cpl tt, i ctro watcd d iti do notin

u (1974: 4) tat m mial a a apctua tci, eg vng (impfi mag v f (p

civ mag), cp a t pua fs. idd asptuadiiai i me u pa, itii etwepgsv a pgse aig



2

Aspect and inherent meng

2 ce I e cded oii beee eecive ieecive r, d beee a ct r,ge reeive f e pcr eic ie eiig cr e i cet t geio e dici eti 2 f cb f eecivi i i r rcic e i cre a i, d e dicio e gee i e 1 2 2 ee i a ed ogeiee i iie bd iere v o te

beig debe ree c e k e e de iee c (e. ec ec eie vi ce eic ie, d ee ee ei e pect , ee biig ceti ci,r evere cg e eig

2 1 P d drv

e 1 1 2 oe i i e ibe efev ve decig t ie r a cei ed , i a o (P) d er o ' . We eee e a ic beeipecv d dai ee eci e vieg i it egd er e (dto, ece), dt i e f e give iti

f cei ed e ( e, ceved ig cei perid ie) ; e veb oo e ee ed ei div, g iperecive e dv

ome termo tem te term ucu urve re eel me ee o erm prcve cotuou rpe te pe work te wo o term e oeut wl ome ppre te co eow



d rent mn

s hh ths ans h qat of a staton ha dos noast t (s nt coceved of s asn te), one kes pacna It shoud b noted tha e cruca oin ere i tha

ctual statns do not have n duon o eve duto of v sh d hus unctu uton, detio, nonta st and anu wit epaate mpecve osto inct efnc t the ntal stuctue o uton, e leauncta and eectt w be ncoptbe

a, e ae th taken fo td thee e pnctualstatos, but e us no nsate futhe dtal the cse of ossts in i e One ve wich s often uoted s nxamle of uncua ve s he Ens ve co, nd ts tnslaonequants n ote nua, efein o a inle couh, ah hana ses of coughs f thi wee tct ue, tn th Possve, wchas fcv ea, ould be mpssbe wt co on hentetaton hn thee s on one couh) e wa o ouldbe naoate in fen to a stao he gave a snle couh

the sa would b te of Fnc tot Ifect) fo stance ony ntetato posible fo uch entence oud b that theeence s a ses o coughs, sce eie of coughs, een theeae ony to coughs, clel a dutve stuaton t ths tag, weay ntoduce e • eelcive ' o ee o ituation ta akslace o nd once on (e g o ngle couh),2 and • itete ' to efeto stuan that is eeatd e a e of couhs) hus th ihen of o ud estic e ane of inteeatons canb gn to fective fo of th veb

Obctns av been ased o hs nlis o v lk co o hegonds a n fac e ne of couging fo nsnce, i no pucta n the tc sense, u te es o suato ass for y shot im Fo as on s we e tim, s unk anyone would wn o o e duao o successv phas ake u thi ituato, u estcon cn e fted , o nse

i pe i i he iua ahe h he ve ha i pucahh fo vee e h e he dii pie of u m 'p v o a ve efi o a p io

h i od ih he m f he m 'oe di omeh m i e i fo ie voi ihe e ve 'uh i deibd mefive ev hi i ud i a eee e kn j z 'he hed v ihee h o r eav



Pncta an uatve

w o o o low owl wc oo oo co o c n o wol ppo o c o

c lv l and no th subject s cong,v o a l o l o o d, d clly v lv qc lss o ol w d o o w v w w, w h l pc ll wol o c l o o cl wol O s l o a o o s ohn eachd th summt o the montan : Jo o c o w w o v wh N o lw o l o o o l v wn w wollwy b o, l w o at thsnt, Jhn eachng he mmt pv o eac thummt wol oy v v , th sodes aaady each the summt . o v l c , o ch , v v o th )

w v l ouh, o o v pc lss vb, fll , o hd l ccc c v v bsc y.2 o c lss vs w s nu, l v, wo ec ctv Ac, aant besnt'.3 o v wc v l v c, sc zen , v o 'c zg o' (osb l». s o l

Copae the dc ede 1) hat a the ere tb h er 'aheve

voc gc he er eefacv Rua odnokrat oa (ia novenn gve to ch ve, qa eca, rrpecve o whhe they are ued teratvey

aeo (1 92 802 ; he are ofe dervaoay eae peecve ve, wih he a ca a cpt ia a they aot pca eg bet

Maiaja 99 1)



c an nnt aning

o ecoie cla veb e o ccce c olee pcal iio o ei p i pali i vali li aeo owita the

ppe iclie e b ece eclo pcl lowio o i iiii e eie e p io

22 d e a te icio o eco i

e e eic ectal opee e iio eie be w eee singing ad n akng a ca B ee

o ve iio ice bot i ai e itai c iee e coeive o i a ceai ie oeove i poile o o o ee iio o l o ah o ime epedi ce Joh' iawe i coe o ii e pe wi wic e e iHoweve ee i a ioa dieece bee tee to e oi wi e o ei ieal tce t ecod exale,ee coe evetal po wc Jo colee acto oi a c e cai i eady, ad a o e iato descbed ak a ai o eceit oe to a ed oeoe tl tip eaced e io eibed b ak a cai ca coeo e b ca ol be boe o a wa tho Ti o e iio ecbe b n singi oh ca op ii at poi i wl l e e a e a , ee i e a ocpee e o o o e e o o i e iatieie ak ai il ito i a emal po aly poi wic e cai i clee, we i toatcal e e iaio dcie b sing a o c emial poit, d cae pae idetel oe a poit Stai ie ebe ak a ca e calle eli e le ha cbdb sing eic e ec ae of a ao oe b ttd i teolli wa: tc e to i tatio a m wh

ipeecive ei c a e Ei Posv imli teece eei o he ae ittio i om it pec a e Eli ect, e iio i atelc ote it seic T n is sngng oe ca dedce hn hs s t

e e e uaon coepods o e r 'cops use, o se, de ( 1 97 1 02 r 'ec ws pprroce e (19 (c e ee tlo 'end



22 ad atec

on mag a cai o c c o ha mad a cha. lc o vl poc l p ll l p, o wc pc co cn

pc p o lc o, lc A , col cll v hf lc lc o lc lc c pc q pl cl, c cll down lc v d pc cslco o w l ow ), sig lcv. Hv, t c v l o w (c ojc)2 l ohn is sigig c lc , c ons siging sog c lc o c o ll l p, l w Jo co f q ohn is sgig sogs tlc w oh is sigiv sos lc3 Sll l on is dowig c lc o, c cats dow y t th in de at lc c c f c dw

c c o l sct b f co v cpl c o o oov pp c povd c ol ows

Cpe he e (974 ) th the eme: Sqlq'un jout t tot jont t ntopu st q' jou?O o f omee w pg he g terpteh he pd? Ye he ped (ae) vess S qlun s nott tut n S nt topu t qu' st no? Non, n' st ps no 'f omeoe wnng an he wg tepte he re N he h dwe (te).

ee fo fthe dsson Dty (19) e {1972} me f theeee tht ge ee 9 4) n h c feed pem eem t te m the fe t e th je e ec mt e ncle hee. e gee thgh petd tee m e dte h er phg the t mh hctee the e tef the oe the etecg ect d ecs

Acl t ct t hn of ete h mt b nepte ecrbg te it h if h ere to ept e cet the eveJhn is ngng ng d e e e secJon kilng mght eem t ebe a ey tec toh mt me t e when y de t ee s ygve edge bot he e d he pepe d ot omet e agn th fetg he p tht they ght e etetey e cd eiy mge an d rge h e e eea kg efe e



p d h m

b ak ci c iuai c b iv li ioIai o iac ii cl o ppi i i in cai paa n v sng o o n o

x y a o pa o o ill o ollw o a sun. Sa ooao pui ai i o eadl ha th cc ipai cop i ahou i dicl o oytc atlic hi dos ac h a ic c and ac uai

Th aicul iac ici iicio o uy asc is ha h cobi i pcivipvin th atic a i i coy tha ca loca duci ca o p tc ig a c itio a o t c i o lic iuti Fo isac pi n o a l iuao il aai hmnl o o a iatio2 a n Rusia o dea P stuch il Pas Dn) a Pc) un ce h amad chi t o hich y a h cai a co ici ca o uc icaio iply ah ha ai ad b co i o aat Ic) u h he w mkn Poiv ch.

I m anua psi o i v in o cicly ic stuas m v a ci o lic

siai uuy a pa iva opoo a isnc th is oas w me h ily wiu achi hn ad ekm cv y o h a i pc p o o ili. A i c ess pcicaly l, E os eat eat up Iai m la oai bw acee k d a

wy 1 972 28 cmmn : nt n t n ngty c c n ccmpn c C n n t t m c ntxt

S xmp my gn t t wp w cty ct cmpt

n , t mct cn ccnd y t mn t mct t tn y cy mpr mnn cpt tcty n mpc t cptn nncmn t c c wn m d tu.



eic ad ate

dvav oee cml ' T ma tc die Paie ae f e Fehe ihes ades gem aa a f cy ' d n mly ha h

a cc wa die Patsae hae die Fehei ihes adeekmft d. s f lc stats t ma ha

shld b bt a cs lad t h tmal a wl a tal . Ts h aml qd bv Joh eached hemmit, lc sc cant sa f c lad t' ac m by ay Joh is eachig he smmi2

al asy dst c ats f hs d c cvs t t a s dc cas a lca, s ssbl t s bal w mfct an,th mca b that a t qst tmal thad y bn acd id, sb tat lctly tat tal was n a wa ii a og whenhe died cmts c th s f sccay mctms at d a Joh was eahig e mmi wh heded b y, nstac Joh hd amo ehed he mmi whe heed dcu ca th Es b die th hs t a cal a, y l sbl ayJoh i d chf c an t J da and m ths ak die a tc b H, sms dd ay ?Joh adig b he dove of a medicne ed t h eoe tds thu Joh wa di s that a t tm qt ha y dad, y st t m t y a d d lt) smlay, oh i di d tt ay f h cyk a i igig a o wh s l sb a bv cmlt t s. T t a a nw cs as l ha t b c a t td h mdatly cd cs t ns h ss

1 y, b e r, ae h o,

ar , e he o o a y , a h he he o e, a om chdrn a hfd ; p h xap at down abov

967 02 h 'ahev fo a keh achd th ummt : he r o a rooy h y o 2 1 , o e a o h

r (97: 07 g d r h v



Aspect ad ihet meag

eei e o iiay bo wi t a ocee ps wy t caot b o ccI isi ta Rssa dis o s , sic Rsi

ie osib o ay Ka mra (I, o e me Pf) Kyawa y, b d i o wods mra/me' ie Ria is ic, i to t ocs a o dat, ono e is ac Siiay, Rssia gvarva I) ma, ori (Pv) os ot ay sa io od sh a e aai , b idt sad m Rssan gv' /gvr' ra i ic, was Es sade c oy r o eoe ai to e sasio ta c is fccs

3 S nd dn sonT dstcto btw stat ad damc sitai is

oe at asoby ca t, ad ctc o aa a amt bt iids o e as cassiyiats as stic dyamc, d simiy bw s taa o a t stacdym dstci, atho ta o istacs o dsam, as wa od i cti o ossi T s sci wi am cay sticobw a a yam sias, d as te ai crtaia ms, s as ' cs

W ay aach h bm by cos a iat ta itd i tm, i stit ss ita y to at itats

m as sd t stao a ay of ie i its atio s ms to wo wt, w ay csid o e vb kn t a sat, ad io dyaic stto O dc bw e sai rr

hr dissis f his ii, psii s f mdig ms d ai m iiss r, us rm 'ai a m rd ss, fr a dm io h

ris h im f ag; hs t g dw ud o a i i his arrr ss f h m T aipsib fsi, mr xpi rm mi sia is usdhr.

r frhr isssio s s ( 9 : 1 - 1 9) a ( 9 d r(7: 0721)

hi is a s io f h diiar dii f ph hhsu rris h o a hagg r i rss a dipois f im



3 at d dymic iuaton

y o ve i i a w of en in e ce f k al a a h kowhee ve ae ca wcv f cse c i

J kede, w all acly a wv i : if w ay oh i uig t h f wl vy d: a m wl a u a a f i gd a . T k, ad vv ca vs cay ca h v raat f chaacta f a vu yam tt

Hoeve ee ae a a wc tcy ccy caaceie. e ae f andn (i a a s ay v ca b qay t sn c lty f c t I ca f y sha a c-adc a v f t s hc (. if i vy a a. O mt theefeuge ha dynac v neceay a wssa ua hat ay y a he

cul c. I st fd y tc hociocoe emin ue ce w a dym a n nv ay cs c, a la y a a qa the a he ce, a wd ac hcc f he ymc a f t Th caca c c bgh e ghy ded c actaf c w t dyac an t a te meh ha hae a a a wll ct qy stad d w h dyncio ad, h ta l y c f i cally jc a ne i f y: s as qy u ad o ce if J ng any u w c t a a cc ct

o fo i oce of poe i no l . T a aa q wa ma a yamc ut qu w wc c w a a a h f u (i hh ca w av anaenve ttai t cc tt a u t

Dvl frhr pcl si f I , g 3 mgh r hhe ha h he Prie i gih



Ac an inhnt eanng

Sc ctua tuato oatcy v c f tt ta tatcay dyac: t ca uc t a pctatat

W av to of tt v c ato c ddt of y latcl tcto, o lct aatcu dtcto la o tcoc a o colat of t tatdyac ttostct t dcoto tuto o o l t a fo aa to aot, t t cto o tuato t ca d, tut a t tat dac tuto t t b dat o to o t to qt to u cotouy d

f, a f to tat o oo, k at stt t Of cu, tat ca ao tat a ca sat d f tat dyac c fo a tat to ttd osd st t co abt o aout t ca to ot f t tat t foo fo t dto of tt v abo u , cto ot tat tat ca f to yf t fctv t f dc t y t t tat, u ao to t cto d tatous Ra oo (Pfv ta a I too t fo a o,ct ba/ue (At dka o y t oy to t tat ota at a t ut ao to tt d to, do cd dyac lt ayua tat do ot a fom t fct a

ay ot aa t a to l u of tats2 t cobat of fctty d tatty ca yv at tctd tc a fc to tt t t

pay d o dynam iuan d ongn andma a di o a maoa no qint nn dna iuaon ta ut a oiningnp o ng n nngn a a a a no noa o tg i o diu o anain an an ao a

i noa a o tg and i ng od pd o t g a imiay, a aba aa, g or o a, o dco o po i oa o anda on o pad o iaon mang p a ao, aog a oninn mpoa aiua, ao o o b in po om

S, o nn, g and oba mp n ion S, o nan ogan amp ion 3



2 ae and dyac uaon

c a mat ad sm lauas allw fts tn G ass f h cba f aa mfcty s asy s why may lans ha a s

f ss ss ma ss a cmbnssa wt cnts man ad fn satsh sc bw cus ad fc ma s ma ha f ss, whch a cally cnuus u f fmal dscn s b mad aywh, i m lcal b ad wh dscs f yamc suas ha wscs sac suas

h lusc lau, als cs acss h ms n cs' f sua h f dyamc suats css fs h a sucu of yamc sa (ha o pca csss h ' s a yaco s sl cl o. h cs ' as c a vw mfcly, h ' mas ac sa w v.



3

Pct

Asc, a w a coc wi i io coc wi i way o si ial oacos f a siai T c i a i fo ascs, sic it lls ot icly ao sitaio i islfb a a o ta o iaio A a liiasatio o is, o am m i al iscso l w ay cas Eis sc have lt Pfc)myekne a lt (Pc) my nkn. O ssi ic

s tw s at wi c is a ilicatio a k is sil s, was wt t Pc is scilica M ay t fc iicas cii slac a s sao Ts c w fc a ot ascs as l may lss o b w t cso b cosi sc a al2 w, i aioaliy i wic t ct is s as a asct, it s s

coit al i c i a oo asc, wl bai im cy a i s a asc a a i ss fo o ascs a s a

O ay wc t fc act a wa ami is a sss a laio w t-ois, a ti of sa slti fo a siaioa o o t a i saio T s

fc, fo isac, sc a Elis ave eaten, aa o o a as sm aas ts al s syac

n to te ect cme t t petcteo t t oth co m nomton t tetton se e oe on a been eeg heos.

• o o th kon to t om g y o(6 3



30 Pt

ooicl c i Ac o ic c alo f o a a a ill a iay oa) o o o qc o

i a cl Pc co o fc c c a dico iqc o i Pc w c a allya a a wa c w fc i c o. o la fo f fcico al io o o e. a i c j o f dco c

•0 ol a f (f lycll c) i ol o oibl fc ac o lao w a a a . o w o ic a fc fc) .o ad at t , a la w a a a a av i ia a f fc . on w hav a ths, i io io o oi lo i o o ccio o bol i o aio acio wc ( do' kow o as at th but w av don so by t tim o uw l a i i abo of J' i a wll c o o ci l o ).

ici c i i oa o o l o ii v o i lall • Pc i aaboo ac c i. T i f ac a bov ocl Pc c cov o c a oc c o a) i ay oancaa ciall i o o c a c aloi o o Si o cill o iof a ocal fc a i a o Sil a i.. i fac bco P s

civ o c Mo of l i c l bo Eli w cla al co b fwi c ai a oc ain

1894 ) eseee a ge ( 895 14-9 sequee f tess e ese f te v et suore aus eteme es e tese e e te a luse

It sol e e e a tere e t gs s t te ee lmatn eee Pert a Pert



P

a daosc chaacsc o h sh c,hc s h s scss hs s ha, s, h c ay b s h wh sccao o h

as s, . o cao say I have g p a ve o'k bcas h scc c o h o a o'k o s comab wh h sh Pc. I s scca as sc ha s cdd, sc ca scy h hch h as sao hld odd h cdsh s, . I have e Fed oday o v I have en Fd mg dd s s o a h m o sa. ha c dscssd sc 3 b, aso adms oscca a o e as I have on o oaon in pa go a v o'ok ho ve o'ok s o o somescc isac o ococ b ah as o a poss ccs o cold o o sac say I have go a ve 'okon e sx o ne D., as a al c ca ha h al ecsss o h c a sccao o h o a sao s a cssay sa o aas a aa. Sash,o sac, wh c os a sccay c ma, s s ssbl o sec eacly e me o he as ao as he vanao a a no a cloc l o eowhy a lo so e avo en ha eo aye e haado aohe en o ones de neve • sao F dd ysday . cash as h o h sowco moas we Pc wo e ossble he Esh losss2 I Rssa whh s a dsc Pc h ass sco ., sccaos s ssb w hs fc dom ooen Pc v oog • h hs wa b as ya whc mps ha h ose ss sa, d0 by ose o-c v oom goSlal a sccao accal Esh o s

form arcua rca n oera o a reae fecefo Pef ca er Br wou re or

equ Prfe a b a ou of ndu arao ere eec

71 : o me En per I've t thed m, n if d i h roo h Prfc i vert lre evg i i ee pb ahorecet r e pi f m e p. S f hr i3 1 4

Sv 970 � 9: 4



. Pfect

ddd as a tthh t sc wth fc , sch asI v n rmngam, las wek in , as a y a qsi,sc s v y y rl n Tn mrplg? Ys,

l t t, th stctn n th ccc f adbs s ds d a sf hstc dic dfth Pfct tt

Th s y th ty f hs ts s s it f Eshs tht s, ct ba cstc esciyt fct (av s s tc) ds cssiy hct hs sm th f scs wth atcid t cstcts w b hs wth t s it ct ts wt t s th S st

Havig ean a reecre iner Bill nger ngry A a eaten a treecre nner Bil n lngr ngry

Haig n in rin r te ar Bil rrie at tha cang A e a in Ber in ee te War Bi l ri at te a cang.

i a aray ave i i inn I ie tat

i alreay i hi inner. a ave ee n Berln ere e War It i ile at a i Brin r e ar

g l Bill t ave t evera ie alrea Teg a Bi a evral lie area.

T ri r iv Bil l t ave en Brl in erte ar e riy ce elieve tat Bil n Berliner e ar.

I sch ms wt scct f t st t th s fth Pct m s ssb dd wt sc t b s ths t dc s t, s tt sc cstcs dstct t ct d a ast t fcs t d t s tsd)

T rrictio aga coiaion o Pct and tim ciaioma l pat o a mo gnal rtcto agat t o t Prctn rg o a cic occao T occaion may cd y t

o a ad o tim, t t may ao pod y t ato oldg coo to o par d ar i I yo bro I can a w k ? toPrct or c I a aig a alrady gn t act at yoro yor ar, ad am lcitg omaon aot icdSary pat tao can irodd io a dco y Pct t ra common oldg ard ypar ad ar and l l d to y onPrct om a n txcag A ' o ar . D o ra t oa



Pet

A l ss ve sei isi eees e ee e ei he Eish Peec A seee lie hd rrived asix oo bis O he e h e h si 'l

he ve i i te hich e e bsei he e eie ees, ne hc as Bi' i Bil ve ive ve ', hh he s sil hee si This is he sc eee-, ie ees s se hic ess n eve eei si 'cc e l ave si h d O hee h, i is s ssibe inee e seece qes asi si 'cck s e ie Bs a his se e e si ha i's ivl ecee e he s si(si-he-s) w hee bein ei beee Bll'sivl sae eisec he ie is le sii eB h d s ' ; dd ge he u eh. Te se is e he Fe Peec, hich be eihe eec-i-hee s-i-he-e

3 . . Tps o pS a, e have ive a ee eniti e eec s he

i elee evis si I hi sei e sleie se e si iesis hi enel e.N ll les ha he s wih eec e ae he lle he enis ise be, hie i se uaes ee est s se hese eis Te ticu es pee iscsse be e he ec esl, he eeien ee,

e pee sisen sii, he eec ece ps

3 . 1 . 1 o resu he eec sl, es se s eee s be

he esl se s si : hs s e he eaes iesis e ee elevce s sati Ths e he ssbeieee beee J s d n J is ha e e

e essee e esul Jhns i, ie e is ilee ees he sec es n ase he qes Jhhere ye? peecl esble e l be ye, he h red, yes he rrivd iese he eece e h b ile e e ba (ha ea, ha ' eie

Te eply y arrv a n lo i pi ce Enh eqeoPefec fo ee s oe im pco



Tps

d a ba tll hld Of c, nc oly say tat tl tll ld, wth ay idct f h cctalbacnd t my makn th tamt t Clata may ly av

ttd c a statt f had had a bath wh th last whlf a dval nk th lvan t-a ay ah bnw last ya t ca, th Pfc aat, c ta clam ab what ctt a cnt slt, ly hat m c lt

T at f fc f l ca b ad by cmatalat alnts ac laa wh h s Pfct(, t abc f a dsct fct, a ast t) ad th t t t f a tatv vb ( djctv), i lana t a a lt f a) at ac, wl t t j t a a at wt ay vt t f w hs ta caab s f h aml t cc cas wh Eliha a at adjcv vb, wl th laa ha a Pfct t ast t, tha t a b a El all wad f a P a a a tlaa

Act G, a al vb tat a i Pfctcd t a Enh tati , cld nkna bdad (Pfc f nk d ) , mmnsa mmb' (fct f ass f mmnskn d ), hna td (Pfct fsna lac (t) ) Swal,2 Pfct, mkd b m at th sct , ca talat a Elh Pfc, a ama has avd , but wl ft b aatd mst ataly ns a a ta Pn, ka h s d (ly h as d ), amsmama tad (lta h t ) at, td' , c rJ ttn td ad as c, ayabl as 3, ltally h at td ' . I K s al s tald by kp, c kpE d ' and kp h as sh t Kll, v

d a a Pfct, i a ka ca csd t st ' a caht iht f t ' 3

1 t Gr s some uh vs hh Pft fssuh s w d crrespd gsh Prses; hse r ssteg e th r of Prt om idst wihi Gie hs d r mpes se Gdw (1889 1).

2 h (197 37) e e ad Kpee epes r fom emes ( 1 973 37-8)



as wi dsc Pfc, Pas Ts will b s s cscis a Rssa slin f 's j 1 s is a f f vb (s - (Ifv,

(s -) ( id' I ci as, sac i I i d, (by id ', was i id, I sd id . ad w , scy, e Pci Pas d ecive s sa Rssia ds a a dsc Pc av ic ad csss Eis ha d , i I a id , ca as smy i , d dd I ad d , c I was id , iv a Rssa Pass cs a is Ps Ps Pfc d Pfcsmaly is I w d ca as I will av d I id

Madai Cs, va c das fcvesc d aiv s i fc (sc sivcs f f s cl s dc s sli f s s si, as i g g is a xs ( it mci a c y w , . y ac xsi { I is is (as bc d s cas wt 6g g s vy xsv', t O s a is vy d , w s ilca a is v is cm e i vsentnc : / ' h in t w ai in g , wn wa i

. h nrd of bin n ain

3 E T xia c2 icas iv sa s

d las c s i i as d o ps

Si Ria a o ooa i Pr T o mg irom Egi g a i a ai ' a ii a ai sly 'rd o i rpogiy

b prai orm Hr rr aai o a o tl i o a o o ai sly; o a ' air m o a j sal ao i pria Pa T o oa i y Ra o ao ay ·j y slMorr ra my l i rba g aia d gi my sly. ' i b ir i j n n a oy b a rb

Or r od i ar ar iia r di



e of pfec

A sl lltt l li s t ticti w be o i c li B bee to Aeic Bi goe tomic c Es itic w

xiti c c o lt. Bill h oe to Aeicis c st ils ta l l s i Aic, i iwy t, tis i sl is st ct i t(tt Aic. Bi be to Amec w, sc icti ti tc sys t cci( sibly ) i i c Ac. l , Eis isict i xti

ct i A t s, icli s o ii u , li Elis i t ysystic disticti tw t ss. , lu c t istci y. MCis, t Exitil Pc is t ls sx_guo.2 Thus Chese we hae a as betwee { h ho y t ? mio y t ss ? A iila isticti sts i Kl T Pct st x i wl kpt (. w wi t Exil Pct wl t (. o ccis it, bi w)T c tw El e h goe to onovi e beeto Moovi c ut t wy, s tiy : DM:

t xls f itl c s t t cs ti wic t sit t s l t ls c cu t wl ti to t t il b to Ameic lcs tcti ll w toAic, t t t it ti t . ssib t stict t ti y ciyi l l it t csy lt liit t s t, i bee to meic ince te wic y il oAc ls c i t tw wa (l l) rt mt (lt iit

Ca ( 98 : 51-2) is als a s sally h foh one cng cmpletn

an acn apa m nil to iernc, of ompteaco t not epeiena ma folowe h pctmas eg l • Welmers ( 1 973 : 35 -2).

Wih pnia perfec the reqren rn anc s ill



ec

. . Perfe o prsisen itionO s f t Els f, ee a be

aa f Els, s f e f ese sa

a a s b essts e , a weve ved here f t yers Iv hpd here for yer, Ive be wtg hr ay e lae e s se e Fejt pu trs jurs a h re schon dr Te, Rssaj d e tri dn av bee a f e ay e e f fc Els ey ss, e aefe b pa a pse, cea a a laae by a fe xpes s sa ay, a e ee ya

. . Perfct of ret pst ay laas, e f a be e

eleva f as sa ly fa eess, e as a s vy e Els, ae, e al csa aas b ef asca f l e e a veb rely f ls yys : I hve reetly lerd thtth th is to be postped, hs jt (hs mnute) rrived eef , f s, eea ecesay ly a e asa , e lva essaly leees: see th od Wor Wr hs ded l be fcy aabl se a be a ds sla,

a se f s 44 Hv, s lvae ly cees, ce a b cd pe lva

e de f ecss q va a laae a

h aal f Esn as vid PT wh E1n a sucaccrdg Chms) pc ardg cCal) f h c,g ha s s dad h Cm ad Cawl

la h n n vsd n s apal who as suc p g wldg ha rc sls h pr ahs ud s ar h hc sc ad ms a h ps c ar c s dg f dlcal aa.

Such ss i Gra ad c h adr sch(Gma) !d ussa alrad.

Cpar McCals dcu 97 485) f ha he s hh ws prc



3 ect and ote ect

aw th pfc t p t pat tm fc F mpa nh ny th adb cty d t a ym aad h ay th cat pat tm pd cd,

. n cant ay ve to t dentt t mon d thft nn ns th f th fct ctat ath d th a vo fct) eta maana wl sb a h t ' , ad n th afn aalaat f th d ctn qd f f th fm t ha b y pa f th dpm f t fct mayRmanc aa t st th ml at cmpty I Fnch

amma f th h cty a tmb th l fty-f h ' as tad2 hby th ct cd b tat tht hld t m ta ttyf th p wl t ct w ady a d t pactc th l ba m a t a f th m In md p nch,taa ad Rmaa cp cta a dact f thaa th Pfct has cmty ppat th Smpl tc th Pfct ths ana d t ha pfct ma thtm Cmpnd a ' ap pfab fc ' a mtadta amm f th aa that th pfct pataf t t ad pat t sb aa t jtw pn pat t pfct fm a Th m ta at pac th Rmac g can a a adal dc f th pstns f th an fm whc ly cmpy pat

3 Prf nd oh ps3 h majty f th a w a

f th pctnfct dtnctn t c whh apca dtct d tat c cmat d acc a cts ch a Md k wh th fc, a ca m tctd t , ac can l

1 por o r s o r s mg r r O n Ive been o e en roo v visi c lc n mg sce toy r mm (s s mi is n sii o B o I g 54.

o Ad ( 1660 04 o ms PsD sr r (rc e in e I ro ig ig



fec

b md m Pcti bs i a, t mcti Pcs at ast o stati bs2 I cit , t y t Pct cds cmbiat it t istmpct asctu

dtct c dt sts a usd f t t b ms l,/on mct I s s us t lsa ost I sd ,!uk ct I a sd t a t its ib t bibiity ad sutat a ascta dstictstt c b cmb, suc as c ad ossi i Eis (hm'bee sg) ad Pts (teh d rahn a b Pct d mcti i uaa t st st it m ctadcty tt a b f ca b bt pfct admct bt ct tt si s m std t mcti), bt ts aat ctdcto c a d t t tdcy t cs pct ad cti Tct ks a st stat t a at stat, t ts astt s idda t, a stt a css t yt cmt s tat t i oti t dt f t fct t cdcbat it t cti s

T s o ai f sc cbiats f ascuact c b ustatd by i at t Eis Pfct Psi f tk st t caactstcy Ei us tPct t t a stt stuati, i ta ctis u t tt tm (d may cti bd t d tt t distbuti t Ps ad Pssi ms is esstay t saa t Pt s t nPs ust b usd wt

tt hv been n hi fo a ie) tbs s abt i ay b i t Pgss hve beepek f es) it xinta pct, is uit ssib ft t ic a itstd t b a i css, as i�e y eve ben watchin telvisin whe he e s exlde?m t t fct ct at s he olic ve recelbeen e y eiho nde sevtin have jst hi it

been lkn o sici. M ay, t Pc Psscbis t ssb mais te Pct it t ssib a t Pssi

pog P) ' cd i no * ) g 1 971 193)

3 n Bgn p P o pb gn nn o p P ; p

C on in 7



.2 Peet a h ect

In he dscussn ussan a sa am ir or o ird'ads h d secn 3 . we ned h ussan oe s hePeecve csd xc c ms in laus ha

ha such ms aluh Russan has in fac n dsnc recms Russan mc s b n mas comableh pc manng Sm insances he mereciv alwg man m h umarkdess he ussan m (cha 6), bu a sance, i is end ad shs hus ha-whashd and hm sng n s aden sg hnI ma sa sh I see ve bee whewash he hse : hs halhashed sa o e huse s he rsu o m fndha bn ud h ask hashn , hc hePrc Pess If I er sa ussa, usn Pc,v e d h hs culd l m a he wewashng wasaead cmlee, e uve wheashed he house', and n hsuan dscbd abe hs wuld sml be unrue In fac, n sucha cas ussan ne cud use h (Imerfcve) Pres, dscba cess whh a h s mmen is n e comle ie vbee d ; hu a m abae aahas h s n a o c h da cand h sh Pssv Peec a uanha has b rud bu whs cmld has ressus Sma hee ae cass he nsh w use h Pc buRussa us h Imec wher he nsh Perfec reers ahabual suan as n da zasa sa ede e e a avdva (v) seba he cnne use h d

mhds hch ha aad man ccasins jusd hemselves Cs h lsh eec, en, one nds bh Percad Imc n ussa jus as ds b ascs cspndig sh Pc ms The erfecnoeec osin sdn m h fce/mrv sn

Thee ds s hwr man he generalsa a h asm lauas ke den Grek, whre he ec is rsced

ece asc hle hee ae aaren ne wher h erc sscd mc sc h s a mr aual rashbeee c ad c han beween erec and impercI w lk aan a he meann f h rec d h eecv

Ts lies srcl nl he cie vice he ssie see secn6 o r o R Perecves wi ec mng g (73



Pe

efece s, e asn f s feqen, b by n eanoba, an becs ca fec s a a san s f s csqecs and w osse fo an ncee

sa a cscs, s c e y a conencew be cnsqecs a san a as bn ce, e f a san a y be decbd by eas f e eece.

. Propv pTe fc s sc, n a esas a ea

been a a a n e and sa an a If aaewee cy syca, qa w xc nsece fs, we a sa ad sm bsq a,f sac we se s a s f ab do eMay aas d ae ea f xss seceea, o s s s dc nd xac qaenw n ass ed Idc,aaes a ac smeca ab ax f s e, a sd n be s a e n ec csndcbewe w efc ea ad f w oceea

Tyca Es exesss f sce a ae e cscon to be gog to to be bu , to be o he p of, as the shp bout to sl, the shp is on the poit of sg b wc ecbee ese sa a f en, w ee cc an ey fe ad the shp s gog to sl,

wee ee aan a es sae ad a f en, b ewo ay can f f I s a aeca e deec bn e eessns eceea and exssns a f efec, e beweenBll gg to h hmse he clad ll h hmse th cl I we ae a sa w sene ay ne ee eenc, ad e ac eed f w

e c, n f seae sad th hmse o he cl, e waswn s edcon was on f, w, sad B sgon to th hmse o he cl, e e was necessay w,

omar ams od y c 1 1 56 I o o be apoa whe I gro Wteboto allato ae coe haet o to r t 00,000,000 ea o w No c s ob o scy a c sao ocr



3 3 Prospetv spect

snc a he was aud as Bs ienn hw hmse heci i h aa s seds sm ue suai wichuue suai mh w e evd m cmi abu r

ve cs go to throw hse o th cmhw shd as a wan sme hd vn he uursiuan m cm abu

I Russia sac i s v dcu v a dqua ansan an ish sce hs wihu add r subraci sm m ma Thus e asan I a gogto k you wu a soaus ut te I nd k b hs des add an mn n which is n ncssarisn n h nish sci ms Ths cnsucn cud ne usd as he Russian asan thee ae gog to be p forpug, wh h aes a sumab n indi b aen rudd and in Rssian n can n use he rdnar re Tns :uut aok a tt he w be as r dd' SmeimsRussan ss o us in such csucns, poez olept v em v h a is in ariv a sev cc', buaan h Russan s a xac quva h s ad a beess mih b he a s due ariv a sevn cc



4ect an tene

40S fa, w a bn mass dc wen

s and asc, acu n s fa as adal rammaicalrm ds no alwas orously dsuis w aamrs,wch ca lad conusin in scuss er asc or ns n isw h wev, a arius s i as n nd a asc andnse d smms im on n ar, and s nw im oeamn mr ssmacaly som o rlaonsis wn ascan s in arus lanuas.

4 Prv ps d Sc s s s ssnall usd scre, rar

an nar i s ssnally imrcv, cnins ohabual, an no fc. n s sc w sal lo a prcirss i vaus lanas insiain manis associadwih s aan conradico combinaion of caoris.

In lauas wh basic ns dsncion is bw as andnn-as, w a scl sain no e ossi o a erciesn b ra of a fce onas . o e rfcive o rs-u Sinc sn is rimaily a nse of dscriion is qu aura fr h rfce nonas o a as o s meania a prfc fur. Varios sa o is delmn orc n-as erecie ure can e sen in ire do

ra seciall Saonic nonoEroa lanas. InHnarian, were asea sinicance o e eral res isar wa dld, alou y nd o i erb recieman, hr is a dnc f n as suc rx s oa fur man In e Eas an Ws Slanc aas ncdn Rssa, Psh, zc, no Buaan o S-raan), an

Mn (959 81



4 Pective et te

also n Gan he dvopmen s more comle so ha hePrecv nnPas s mar a uue nse a pon o wc we sallun n rar deal blo; s aallled b a nw perphrasc

maon h mercve Fuur Wh nondered erbs omoon n Czech, a urhe developmen has aen pace whereb heealer Percve nonas has bcome a Fue Tense espece oaspc, a developmen rm Percve nonas o ereceFuue Fuur. n he Ps Tnse, e wen' s mpeece andoe Pecve Bu n e nnPas he deence been and (or po +ju) s no aspcal (as s he case wh ussan mpeecve Presn versus poju, Peecve Fuur) b pureemoal e ju o am on ', pju shall o sall have neshall be on' Wih hse vrbs o moon Cech as no spccallmpecve Fuure bd t o paralll ussan b iti sall en shall (Iv) ahouh hs s ho mpce Fuues ooh vrbs ar rmed n Czch oo e bu t shall be eadnshall ead (Ipv)

One elanaon he emolo o he Ancen

G ascua eura Fuure Tense e p shall we, shallb n ould dev hs oo om he Aors (e peecve) semo he verb cp he Aors g wre

n he lh o s epced esrcon o he peece nonpas ouue ns s woh lookn n some dal ose lanuaes whehe percve prsen s n prmarl a uue ense (e Sou Slaonc)and also a ndvdual usaes n som o he lanuaes ha normallhave h eced developmen bu somemes hae a peece non

pas ha sems paralll he merecve resn rah han hmercv uue (he hs s a dsnc om rom he mpecvepresen) The uss he Pereve esen n Souh Slavonc nolecass whe h Psn Tense s usd n was a are no srclern o h esen mmen

One characersc h Souh Slavonc lanaes, oun n sulles om n Bular hou so o a cea een Sebo

Caan o nsance, s e loss o he nnve n s eplacemen a subrdnae cause wh he conuncon and he Prsn Tnse

I t Sh Slac lagag cn gaan an SCa e hc e fo th ac h thePerce Pee ot a t a t at an t anc ;t Pecve Pnt n Soth Slaon fth

Kycz (964 )



pec e

o wio a necessar reerence o presen me, an mor aere s wi he Ine i aaes ke nish or ssia ha haan Iitie) The Ie can dssh aspec ssia, wer

e hae e Imrece nj mogu e I can , u he Preciei xou kup kgu I wa o b a boo I we rasae eseseneces ino Baran, we ms repace he Ine e PreseTense, but sc er s ot aca rence o presen ime, easpeca opposo ma ad ms e reand mog ej Ip),ira can a - Ip) , erss km kupj P) kng,era Iwa ha I-u oo I he ma ers are p to e

Pas Tes, hee s o chae he orm o he sordae erb mox e cod , x kupj kg waned o aboo

n Enish, a sentence e he come hee o is own, in pres meanin, wi norma e erpreed wi aia meani, since hreerence wre o a acion o on a he prese momen wodae o e e comg here, e Proressie oweer, n a conewere he come here does no ae pesen ime reence, e pereceeanin s a posse erreao, as i a sbordae case o ime,e he e ome ere, e hm, sce ee e er come reers o a co Dirn auaes de as o heer o no heere oer speccaon o ri in sc empora cases conraswi e ns seece aoe s Frenc ransao u i rFre) ci, e e u r, ad aso w is ssian ransaion ogo pre Fr), j u ku. Baa and Sero-Croaan n schsences are ie sh rather han Frec or ssan, and ae hePese i he empoa case, as n Baan e o Pesen zi rbo, e o P. Fure eo when is iswork, I sal o o he co

A pon, a apae waness o e comparison beweenanaes e Es ad Baria on he one had ad c assian on ohr, espcia bew Buaran an ssia, ma

sr rader orooca, usian pre i eampe oedaboe is Perecie oPas, cp he Imeece Pese e hoes The same is e, moooca, o Bari r, athohien eisence o a spaae Prcie Fure in Buari wie r s specca ce Prsen raher han e ss speccPrecie noPas. Ge h paraesm o morpooica ormaionbewe e oms sed in Buaa ad ssian, ad ac a ot



4 Peecte, pesent, d tre

are sed eqall in temral causes wit uture reerence, it a eecasistic o speak in e on cas (Bugarian) o erecie reen ndin he other ( ussian) a Prfectiv tre, inc he daa proide o

vidence r such a distincin weer, te dieren ction o hemrlgcall arale Blgarian and usian orms can be idniedb caring eneces wer he erb in he bordinae cla iImpeective, rater an Prfctive, because hre Blarian andssian have quite dierent mrhlgica expressin o te Iperective uture : in Bulaian te aricle te with e mperecive resen, inssian bd wh the Imerectie Innti nd in such enence wend a cear dstinctn beeen Bulgarian, with the mperecivePreen as in ngi, and ssian, wih he Imerective Fure inenc: Bulgarian az kato pe (Ipv resent) ti te pe iankogd a bud pet (Iv Future), ty bude pakat, Fench echaterai (uture u pereras, ngish whe I am sgg (Presentyou w be ryg T e cmarison it crrespdin mperecives cnrms the distincion beteen Buarian with h resenTnse in ha is stictl n resnt time eerence (s in Engis, andussan with he utre Tens (a in ench, desite the aparntmrlca aralleis beeen Percive Presen in Blgarian andPerectie uture in ssian.

Anter unctin the erecive rese in Bgarian i henaratve Present, i e . wen the Preent Tense is ed with pas eaningas a narrativ tecnique wh retenin he ascta disincionsua in the Pas Tense This se o the Perecive resen is discsed

in greater detal n ectin 3.inall, in Bulgarian te Peective Presnt ma b sed with habita

meaning, r rher is one the ssib mans o epreing habiaitwere he habitualit inved i ha a siuaion hich wod inisef, as a sing istae b teated as perecive ; e he resen Tensi ed o exres a btua situatin resening one itce oexepi he recrrt sitai, s n: spoged (Pv resen se,

pousmxat Pv reen) deok, oaeva (P. Presen umeca . . te gil e nother, sme one anter, incine theirreddned aces Th ss is nt, wever, tha is is wa heyare dng a t rs mmn, b raher t his is wa apenweneer a ceain st ccumstancs hlds (and, indeed, it is quitike that thi aticla et o circumtancs des nt hd precisey

ee is e y Ac (8 2).



spct t

t t rest mom) Tis io o Pri Pr isreld us Pri Imrc i Bularia odcte tu erfct suai i s tim se secio .. .

th ths hbtu us t Precti Pr, i ma sem o tt Rss s am eomo as Bulria, siRss t has a smlar s o Perti oPas wit abiuam ad idd i i usa Preci oPa ualcurs cunci wth t mrfci Pr, absraiaa rm sua dir i woud r a w ar rdl ith Prfi Prs i ssia Tis sa i mmo

th s tim rerc t cua as im bi mard morads, rb frm yvao i sd o b as a orsml ctx, as i t foloi xam rom Tr

l iit .) mt . na Irin a na kak dts (I kk k .) n (P rtja Pf) k xln smtr (P) n ng t ( lI t n tt wl t () . . n g ( t rn . . . n s t angy ) t .) wl g (. )

l P) th m lk P) clly a him hrg (Pf) sl.

e the Imerc rms dsri bacroud sae o accrrce i ries o s, il t actu ens ar xrssd Precti rms, t ses ei mefecti Prs d Prfce -Pas wr, as wil b discusd i rear dai isctn tr is curr us a edc fr s asctu dist t xressd rr t drc bwe t Imrt uture i it Iti) ad Perec oPstutur) i is ol h fc t t Perti Pas is a Pereutr th xls crr moem owrds usi mrfet utur rte mrfcie Pr suc cosructis

st th frma rllis ewee Pefeci Prese inri d similr au, u as SerCrotia) ad

Prfci o-Past ussia ad similar auas, suc as Czcd Pis) it emers t atr is rimri a fur s, ad eset s il re isas o s us s a re es ar e trted s rm, as omals win sroi smGn t sricl eelmt rm a Prfeci Pa, existec f suc reic o arir usa is o rrisin oria,

C ora an Crtan ( 1 71 : 1 )



Te rtrictio

as i ssia, he Perecive nonPas is ow imail a ue ese,ahuh here ae ehas raher moe remas o ealie usae wherehe Perecive oPs arales eacl he meecive Prese, as i

he maieace o asecal disicios in he arraive Prese(seci alhoh he absece in Georgia o a secicallImeecive Fure should as be oed as a condiioni acor:Georia has i ac a merecive oPas and a Peecive oPas he mer bei raher eel esen o uure he laer uureexce in ceai secial usaes (i aicula he araive and habialPrese) ih ove indicaion o is nsual ime reeece

Summarisi he reain beween asec ad ese in ussia, weca sa ha here is a Pesen Tense which is Imeecive, a PasTese wih a ImerecivePeecive oosii, ad a uue Teseih a merecive/Perecive osiio rholicall heImeecive Fue rahe lls ouside he ssm, bei eihasichie he mrhoical aallelism is aher beee he ImeecivePese ad he Peecive Fue The mhlo ehe ih someidiidua usaes he Perecive uue sues a eaie sae heehee was j oe nonPas Tese wih a Imeecie/Peeciveasecual disicio, bu his is o oer ue he mode aae,whee resicis on he comaibili o Pesen ad Peecive haveled o he Peeci onPas becomig secicall a PeeciveFure

Asp dsos rsrd o r ssOne o he mos ieres relaishis bewee asec ad

ense, m he viewoi o auae as a ucia ssem, occurswhen an asecal disicio is resiced oe or moe eses, aheha oerai acoss he boad, indeeel o ese aeas hahe ese ha ms e eices asecual disicions is he as enseThus i ma Indroea lagaes, ad also in Georia, hedeence beee he Aoris ad he merec eiss onl in e Pas

Tese ad here is o cresondin disinction in oher eses hushe disici beeen Saish ha I soke' ad haaa I asseaki, used o seak' ai ve came' and veeam ascomi, used o come', uaria ox I coed ' and roax I asconi sed o co, Geoia (aee o wroe' ad e

a dnt nayss f t ussan Pfctv Past aun tat s n a futu ts, s (193)



pec ad e

ii d wi' i lle c diici i F i i v iiiv d ici xc i ci cae e e

xici e) I ce eca diici ii ee civ i a d ieecieai iv i ic iici, i i ii ci vii d iiadiici i , ic e, ei dciie, ca a iecie i I c d e c c d

e i ic c iici i i O i ed i ewd xici c diici i as eiwe pec d i eeece i Aica ae, e ic v i e e d ci i a (ie wici ci d i ei), eea i ic e ve eecia i e, e i peciv i k i i i s a v eciv i, e i i e exei a d idic e cee ci, d i i IcAi diici ee I ac, e Ipeec exee i as se a cva i ica e I iia Idiic Iec i cceied a i e ic c v vi e Iec ic e ec va i

Hee i e d c icide a i e, i i e ee cacic e e eaca diii i e p e Ei iic i i sed to a cedi

i e Siia Svic H -v- cc yic i d i ae, c Ria, ivi ice e a e i v ikt i ei caae e i wad ee ec deeii i e Wi ia ike ycal

o d on 5



4. Narrative

Induroean Imecs and As, hee s no morolcl reasnh h asecua dsncn shul e resice o onl he ne ense

Thus an elc eecve, dsi rom mercve, mos

cmmn n he as ense, an leas ommon n h presen ens Ours, he ense dincon is a verss onas, raher ha avesus uue, hen s ssble or her o a recv os,ih basall uure meann as n sa Aa o he as, wherehe eeiv is cmmnes, an h presen, whr i s rares, eedes n see be an enera rinl a o wher secua isins will ne manes hemlve nc h remn caeries(uue ense, an nnne m innves and acls) seemequall susceble o asecual erenian, lhuh n ncenGree we d he asecua snc bewee A an Imereccae over o he vaus nnni rms, bu n he FuueSnce he uure is eneral raher rl derenaed as a ensedsn m he ese n man uean lauaes, s ma be heesn r he absence o as el-mared an asecual scn n hsense ; omae he absence n alan, b n Sansh o a FuuePessive (Ialan ·ta o Sanh ta eeo shallbe wrn ) , alhu her is n rhlca reaon r he absence ·a ceno n alan

3 Nv psOne ineresn ace o he eneral rblem he relan

beeen ense and asec can be suded b eamnn cas whre

lanuaes use ne nse in lace anhe, insance in e naaeese, hee he esen ense s used eer a as suan Asmle nlsh eaml wuld be h use 'm ttg o he ehhe up come oe a ay . rahe han I ttg o he eaahe u ame oe a a . . huh hs use he Pesen s ehasraher less cmmn nglsh ha n her urean lanuaesSnce h nlsh Pesse is n ed an ne ense , hee s n

blem h asec n he narve Presen he eence beeePessve and nnPessve bein eaned, o ahe reanaben he dslaced esin Ths s ue ch r nsance, heehe deec beeen eecve and mecive meann s lmananed in he Pas Tense, b he deence beeen Pasene and Imec Thus he asec disincn n he Pas Tensevesn s ls h e use he naaive Pesen



Asp ns

() n P ene homme 'aait mpefec a ue conduiat mpefe un Il aerUt P Dee e cha e it a Dene ( n Pen ene

Un s'ae a ue, conduit o moon. aeroit earg .A an asi walkng aon he ad h wi aing hee hee. es/s e aen nky saidsay . .

I rch, hn d likwise i oh once anaes hemhlical rsricion o oer spec dieeniaio o he PsTnse as ha riori ere cn e no spec disinci in he

arraiv Prsen nes ha do hae orhooical aspecdisici in h on-pas enses oo ee e wo loical possiiliies her h asc dirce o he pas wil e eained, ee i hismas usi orpholoical ors (like e Precie nonPas inGi) ha ar nomall sriced uue ie rrnc; or hilusn rsss (dscriion ahe han raion will cold b nuralisin he asc disincion

I Gian, alhouh he Peecie nonPs usall has uuemaig i h narrai Prsn i is sed o aralll he ImrciePs, aii h asc disincin; hs e Prcve nnPassds o h Peci (icall Aoris Pas h ImereciePrs o he Imrcive (icl mperec Pas:2

n Pat neGzz �a iioa Ipf mpeec, am cxa ihqaa Ipf Im

r iax (P A ieu 3r a ta P A ( in Pn nGz �a iis pf. ee, am cxa mihqavs Ipf. eedinaxavs (P Peen aeu r a qi P Preen a / ing aon he oad, he w/i leang hee ee, e ass an nk an i/says . . .

Ga hn alhuh he Precie o he Prsen suall hasur mi is ds no reen he use o hs or in he narrai P

I Baa, lhouh here is Perecie Pese ha does n

Qu gnly gug tht hve tv Psnt we ndrnt chc s t hw snt nd hw st ths f bhvs hus , n th sunc tnses, he tv Pesnt (hstc Psn)y b tetd th s ( Pst) s strc (s) nse Gdseeve nd dg 895 7

o ( 97 8 -2)



43 arrave rese

hav scca fuu mann, e s he m usua cnsucnn he naae Psen s se he asec dnce, usn hImcv csnd Pas Tns fms scv f as

Pc vsus Imecve, Ars vesus Imfc) , nd cmn he usn of prsnness

in s TnseC sje er . Ck Ar dd nni n e obi is Trgn . Aris p ei r; . in rn TensCr s rsn . C uk esn dd nni ne ue ob I n Trgv rsn b r;

T King ws/s seepng . O In knoeknoksnne nsweren-swers. e se/sets of ng e wie pen

v, s as ssbe manan he asc dsncn bnPefcv and Imfecve n h naae Prsn csndn Pcve Pas usua As) and mfcve Pas usua Imc) , rsecvl

he h exm w nd ussan. re, he Pfcve nn-Pasas bn md s fuue nse, so ha n he arave Prsenn h Imefcve Psn ma b usd, s n he fwn xamm snv3

i in as TnseVrg n r snovs' Vred dg yl us.T e-d ini eni sdi stojl I

sorel I n nu Saina sl p M S sosko n drg i in esen TenseVdrug n pur svlvt I.. eed drg psa. Tld-de k- dini eni sldai so sotr; nu n Sarin t I M Sa5 soskvem p. nrgu . ddnl u nend-a-hnn spesos. Th ed s/s Onl w n e dsnc ne sal die so/s ndlookeooks in u direcn Te egn s g. Sh and jume/jup w n d

s eape s ted y ndejcn 1 938 : 3)• Iv ns e tht te use f te SeCatan tve Pesent

sm t tat f Bugan n ts espec: ethe he apect dstnctn n u e mpefectve t ay e etaned

Ced y syt ( 1 97 : 1 ) the Past ese e s ne



sect a ese

e is o possbt o us t cti oPast i suh a stc How, thr is aothr at usa o th Pst Ts

ussa t habtua ma: a urt squc o ts is

arratd as i it w a sl squ, oe istac stads or thwo tt , s uua to mata t asctua stctocoro to a Imct ast we ha th Imert rstw corrsod o t Prct Past w ha th Prct oPast th tm deoid o ut ma I t olowi xame omShookho, w ha t th aoriat Past Ts oms o dsbi o idua ocur o th squ i qusto h tharat us o th Prst :

) n t Tenseeuju uk ooao po loko, no odnj ku Aesej cgark sksno bez poma) rial () set k vyplomu zaslon grd, zubam oorval(P) nuny klo bg sognu (v) eg elobo nareb v ) tab neuovmo pel (f) paJca skuvaa e e (v ) eloek ogljanut sa a Aeksej poargva ue eval Ipf) gooj cgar rosi pv)ogonku

() n esent Tenseevuj ku oorvao p okot no odno kutt Aeksej cgak skusno bezpromaxa:) rimet fv) kse k ypou zon grd, zb otorvet(Pv) nun oo b onet () eg eloo nagrebet (Pv)abaku lo oede (v) pac, skra e ueet v)evek og nsja, Aleksej poargva ue v gotovuju cgaku rosit (f) oonkuHs et arm h bee u o at te ebow, but ee th one eksey oudo cgaees sll ad wthot a slp ) He would res hs obacouco s blg est er o te reqred aoun o ppe wth hs eeth,bend no ro coo up soe to d ro p wth exerousne oveens ne had no tim to rn aron before Aleksey ws redyin the nshe cgree blnn, and kin o a gt

I such costutos, Buaa bas k ussa, dsp usuadc btw te Bulara ctie s ad t ssiaPrcie Futu

d y rsyh 97 8 ) ; the Tense rn s n ne Fr R thre s se ece tt th re st rther

t d s nd s sn etee erte reet ct t s ecl th th erl yst Fy( 90 8) ns ht n the hl nrr rsnt ne cnll the pe rhr th th erct reset hr rs gen tht e he h rces h n n s ere Ftr the ntrl tenens t se the rrsndng erte he erecte tre.



4 aat pese

Hvi looke umer o oher uae e my ow reur ohe iercio o pec ee i he Ei rrive ree Ano boe, i Elish he noorssi ree o osaie

ebs es o be rsic o expreio o hbual cions. Ahruse o his oroessve rese i he hiori rese, we haspec icio roresiveororeive o e i reie.A imil use o he oroeiv re i be le hecommeary e o he ree i rovii a ommery or lm oobll mch or horer mue rro. Here,alhouh we re ree me he rcure o h ommuio ish o rrive hi charcer ucre rece i hepossibiliy o ui he ororeive ree reer o opleeio .e. o mai pec iicio u oe ol he ee, he oy eree be h here h mie o hediico i opol e e ree ese eerlly heoresive c be e or l oi io l commery mih

Now the viin seiz the hro, no thy drive o towrds the ralwack now for hr out of cr ow e ti he to he tak w ate ime t trai s gettig arr.

Al verb orm ecep he re ororeve. Elly hecommery oul ve bee ive hroo h roreveorm

Now the vi is siig he hroe now thy'r drvig o towds t

awy tak now hes oig r out o ar, now s tg h to ack, whi a tim th rin s gtg nerer

One cor eci he choie ewee e obiliie i hahe ororeive i voure he ra erie o eve h becommee o hey re happei

e e oe o ar i hi ecio ve yply he e esee pree or p eiher hie pec i ccorce wih

noma e he pree or ree spec ccorce ih hiinco bewee eripo rro Aer loical osiblwoul be o re he e, bu hi pec, or ce o loe pecisincions i he pas e, us as i he wole bee hie ihe pese, wih he ic pren pcl iincio, or ck oicios Th ma sem a parcularl cmple e o hi, b i

Lc ( 1 971



Aspe s

s aent qute ue n conprr rc trry ty mak se o t Ima pttorsqu pcr perect, chas ust tis ect :

Ce n'es ren' it-if ( Dene Pu pnsn 'iteromit (mperfec pou 'cre Coup ob! ou u omos ! . C'est cur u a r oup ob! Ah oc nn ctpe toue e Chana' Oro ne ri (mpefect pa I ta pcmm un ot et tema e ou e memb s ng' i (P Dente h n h m of anagnghe nteue i (mpfec) o shou : • Dou h! Bo o hem t cpses ! t' the ca ho' gng o agh Dob h ! Ah ! Hr'

that tte otos Chaa at Oo t r (mperfect H ae a copse a tembng n e b

He, t Imeects ierrpit nd poit r usd s tnra ad ben trnsposd nt Prst s

4+ omb s/s oososn tten Arabc, ter ar wo sts os, ratona

rerd to aous as spcts, ss, stats, nd dstngusedther as Pct nd Imprec, or s Prct d prect.Here th erms Perct and perect w used, toug tmeanngs o the ems a irent om s usd n Saonc ngustics and ese n tis boo, s wll bco pren beo

W ma star te uncon o t Prc and pche te rest o t stc conns o spccto o

rence eg no mor drbs. r rcti s pwt prect and as nng, pct s prdit meect and resnt meang:

(f bbTeysow a he oo?ahu y amu (Ipf b- m ana pfo henow abo h o-o

o now a o ongOn bass o se o p, ps t ate basc stncton s on ns wt cua irnc n ts

(96 92) t ee Me Th e d et t etn re ed ny n

Wrht ( 898 : 2) r re dn the ht t o, th n t thr St gge (eekkd), Kry



44 Cmbned te/pect ps

p e de o cce) o oe o ec w e e eeecedeece e el o peeed epeo o e pe).Fe ve evel ee o ee e.

e ollw ele odce e e o e peeve Fa hu a}kuu pf bana -hu awa l -qati b Go jg bn m y rrroB Go jg ben m n Dy of Rren

ve o owlee a e o eeco o e plce o le o led e e e e e vel o eee a e me efeece. Hweve e eee o o a

le, o ecely) eeed v peecve e, deed cld well coeo o eece Slvc le w efecve Ae So e eee ewee e Ac efecve deecve ca e el oe o pec

A fe clc odced clo o odecae

?j? fv) ka 'mar fv) bu

om oou n ra om o n e n

e Ieeve 2j ol wod e e ee opee e e peece of e ode epol clec eal dve f a le peeece fo ee w fe efeece e. I all ce B e eei f he Pefecive cii f i

peed o e yoe a e efecveIefecve oo pely oe of ee p e eeece e w ee efeece e e e o e ee). Howeve, w po o e le e eeece of ve, elee eeee e w dce a e pe o e daewll ecede y c o o So oe ll code edeece ewee e efecve d e eecve oe

elve ee. ee o e e oooed e e oe Iefeve oe clae e leal e le of epoe folw be elve w epec o) e coee y ppoe

?a fv m - b k� fo ao H omo or o o m bo



d

T ubuciv usiv an mrativ moos a of wich vraiv uur tim rfc xis ony i h mrfctiv I ur (ubunctiv) t uni m sise shou com' kt

(Jssv) ay it ' 2ukub (miv) wi ' Aany hPrfciv inica rtiv s im mrfeciv aiv onst(r o fuu) im

as o abov hat h mrfciv k in ioatio is intr rfering o th snt athough it c b ire srrg o h futu if th contxt mks i car ht th rfc is uur T usio h o aris is h ineretion

b fnc o as im w is a v inicator of asti g l/ muki sayna i ooon rig T as isi aaiv a :

Wa 'ttbu and hey-foow a mlki sym. rgn Somn

m at (Ip) y!

w hy-ece he demon

Ad oowd wt emos ed o ecte Soomongn

Tus mefctiv ca us ith ast im rfrnce rovoy aso ha impeectiv manin Summariin h uses o thrciv a Pfectiv may ay ha th Peectiv icteso rciv anin a raiv as im rnc i hmrfctiv inicats vrhin s (i ihr imfctiv mag

or ativ onas ns) Th Araicoosio

mfectivPrfciv icooa both asc a (rtive) tesn auay oes ow rabi makes nr rernc s-

o ii ag covr by h mfctiv n c bn o cic ma avrias (n v uuy

n t c t tn ennt e t e cne c te eeent f c n c, he e he eect t ent te te eeence

nnc n he n e: c l e e e eecte the cc e eTene (e e, ece en n c cn den en c, e tene e ce elw l een n he eenc e , hh t tl et tht th eece eect e t enng, n heecte ete ee ete nnt enn enecu e te ne ne tnctn n tn t ten c n eet



44 Com tsspct ptos

whe he a esen esca n he mdern we anuae),Aabc has mans ndcag secca u ense Pasense o he Imeecve (h Imeecve ms ben b ma

Prese) uur ens s secie b adn or h rxs bee he veb, e saw tb o s-tb h w rie'o shw he Imcve Pas, n cmbies h Prcv verb b' (here uncnn as a auxar) and he Imereciv o hma vrb, e at he was wrg se o wr' he csuc s sma hse dscussed sec I 12 whee percand merce ms a cmbne nca b ha a ac scme n s an ha has erna sucur h Aabc omced mh equa be ssed ra as hapne (Pv) ha he bwrn (Iv) ' wh a as me ireai assed o tbbecause has ara sce he es as Pas

In add, Aabc has scca Perec ms me cawh h arce qa Thus an exc Presen Perc uses h arceq an he Pece eg q ata h has we ' he Pecvben use becaus h vb rm aso has ercv ad as meann r Pas Peec, e uses h Pecve ' a h Prc he mai vb ( haen ha he wr ' raher haeedha he had wre ' , snce he Perecv each case caes reaivpas me) wh r wh q: (q) a he a we'o h uu Peec, n uses h Imeecv o b' wh eecive o h mai verb, a wh hu : a ()tb he w hav we ' ac, h Imeecv o o e 'reuar uncns as a uur Tense sce n h Prsen TseArabc has o e cua

A so sma h o Arab s aso ou i hes heames bw ar a m anda hese ahoh smroppso usn dere mrhoca maeia s un i oheracs hes h sio is bewee veba rms wh hsux ad hse ackn hs sux, e he eb w',

n tn t te el -e nrn nee enenile -e tt e lt r n e entene (nt neily te). Te re ierent t nctilly n entlly ( 968 67 79880 n n er let nee ere e nnn rtie Te entenele -e ill n e ie ee Te t e eu -le en ere n 1957 : I I5-2) , l te e e re te ( 1 96 2468 e te r Perete r er t te



sc d s

xe ad I may o - opo Aabc, wh s o ra po o rpa rc yh mci) bu wh i do ocr - idca pa prcv

a Xao duizhng xe-l yfn xin

ommad Hsaowo a r' Sricl s rla rar a o pa mnc a ca mo ary n m a, n! s-, ZQ hshg wh ou di, I all om mo ' . oc yo avdd . I av, a o w d bo h b, i dd' om ' ; h aorau da h v - ro c

Wh h c o a rl pr or r uao, wu l s sd a m b s c , a mgn yo

m b l sl cl mow l . ooow wa sll o

a la as suai whc s fc, s sa

s, w m da f , a yunl m b

fl ld l sc u o ds so

As d a m o Ara aa d or

ad Ibo, h ar o pcc mar o pas vr pr s,alhouh h a marr o apc. or, oa vbhav o mar i y a pcv m, ad ma bo h vb hy ha mpr a. Sa avol mprc ma, a o arr I o mprv o osa b s mard or h v O mhho xpc a c wi ao vra orm woudb ambuous a o m rr ac ac o ay coxual dcao o rrc poal aal), hImprc orm p r o or o osa va id a r o prs, wl h orsim osaiv ) a pd rrri o h pa, o

- Jonto ses the le rI QrI e t coletehe thn r rI (t eecte the sl te n cssons o Sonc lne t note ecly th he e o thehnee os th he er re esenlly he e thoeo the erece t n

Wele 1 7 , o ot ele elow reten

Soe lecs o or he tns t wt nte, n whc ce te or oe eccly roe



45 Aect and tie eeece

isae Yuba R w b 9 c g he wans mne Yorua #�, b 9 � ¥ he is worin, e wors aiuall Y uba w Ib 9 b h ame Ol in he esene an over

idiain ime would h meeive oms inrreed asin h as oua #� l'n b n r¥ hwas wrin eserda. Thus hre is a lse relainshi weenmive Ase and esen ime and beween Pereiv Aseand as ime in hese lanuaes wihou ns aes. This is no dissimia m he siuain in Aai disussd in sion 44,where hee is a se rs inrrain b Pas Tense and Pere

ive Ase. is n ulikl ha a ve siila ssem obained a a lae sae inhe hisi develme nd-uan, wih ase eing madve and ime reeene a s a snda nseune aseuadisinis we n he uure s, whih is a laivel lae andauaaiula develomen wihin h nd-urean lanuaes,ad as, nvenie, he Pee, which des ener n hisaiula aume, hn i has en bee assumed ha Idureanhad he aeis, he Pesen, me, and Ais Nw, while hedisicin eween Presen ad Ais and he ms eiher aa be aed a PrInd-uean he same ann esaid he mee r whih he alleed Induoan orminwih he aumen and resen sem eg Ann ree phee he wasaig, he usd a is ased on in ndanian, ree,ad iie2 ain ad Ba-Savni hav quie di maisdiee aso m e anher, whil Gemanic fas uside hisssem b haig a Pas Tse undireiad asec Thus isms ha Po-d-uan lakd h Imc, i a seialm mbini imive ase and as ime enc nasaiin whher he ense r he ase disiin was ai, ema k a he main h seaae mees in he vaiuslanuages: in eah h lanua us mnind av wih an

mere/Ais disiin, he mee is med m he soaed

Wlrs ( 73 267) es t s s s ' , e t qs e st t rb q, n he cse e [ie nB] rs st n s se r , e [drte nst&e esC] s tht te uat s

uc (6 ).



pet a tee

Pesent stem nt the st stem) wth sme he ndcatr PasTese e he ume e-); wence e chaacesat e merc as he Pesen n the Pas' The natue the Impeec b

schca ad dachcy becmes clea ne t Prese sem vesu Ast sem bu mpeeive stem versuPeectve sem: the Perctv em is in isat usua nereed reer he ast wece e Ast) e meecve em iisati is usua iteree reen the rese secie cmnatn mpeective ad past tme meann sme addtiamaer is eeded such as te vaus addtns t th Impeeve emthat ae und n the idvidu anuas ma he Imeec

46 Asp d oIn many anuas in patcua in man Euean

lauaes the ae nteeas beween aspec ad vice cveverus passve) Snce ths reas ss u dscussed i eatu aspec than ae eats beween aspect ad ese smespace wll e devted them re

I nume aues ve expss peec mea ispssie n i h passve vce ad t n he actve In ussa istance a sntence ke koak vypt means xpct e bdy asbee drunk ' nd t h and was dunk ' whch wud be koakby vyp ut ths dstnctn cnnt e made in the active vice wheon vyp koak cresnds th he dan the band ' ad he hasdrun the and' The dstnctn s thus mananed n i thepassve r athe cetan tense th passve A mla stubas s whe he Smple Pas athe lke the ussan Pecve Past ca ave ee pec peect rce: a bhfaas fs ave u seen m ? a bhfaa a ppar ? dd u see epape srd ' wth e vb m faa mutated baca feran) th emples wever hee s as a seccal Peect frmusn the Past Patcle Passive jus as n ussan t a ar te To Tm has an dnne' teal dnne is avn-eeae() Tm Once aan a dstct pect cn e mantained nl nhe passive Th nl deence betwee ussan and Irish hee seems be e eater endec n Iish t v ve expess t thseec mann b us he passe cnstuctn weeas ussn

For fuher discussion of the Rssia Passve icluing t nteractiowh spect se Harson 197.



4.6 Aspec ice

ha raer endn o neuralie h emani diinion b uingh e reiv a

n o h diadan o hi aiular rlaionhip wen

a n oi i ha he ere an be mainine a a orldiin ago onl wih ver ha hav a aive, i or hemaori o noEuroan lnguge aniive verb hi ema b omard ih he lighl deren elaion beween a advoic ound r inane in he ndo-rania languae Alhouh ndoranian inheried rom Io-Euroean a hre-wa diincin amonh imle a ene been mere Aori, and Pre hre ia nden rom h arlie riod or nw mound n o arisebae o he Pa Parii aiv eiall n he ere o heba o aiv onrucion li Sansri eem m ( b i dm hi (neuer) tm aid (a ariil aivenur)

, hi wa aid b him. The imran dieren i-i

Saoni or rih i ha n ndo-rania h a aiv aril analo rmed rm inani erb and ha acive eanin o horronin in aec (hou n in vie) o eem w aealo n Sankri mt ha died The em i il no ull inquilibrium bau in oder xpre Pre Ape in hi wa onu in h on ae ue an ai onruio (ih inranii vrbs),in h ohr a av onucin (wih raniiv rb) n h lamen o hi onion in ndrania hee ar o mnhae h on h pra o hi oiinall rihrai Perec,onun ha eome he bai a ene nrucin : inmo morn ndo-Ianin langua her n race o he ndEuroa imle a ene bu onl deendan originallrihri nrucin wi a Pariile The her han ish anai o e Sanri- ai eem ktm a n aie, e. wha wa originall he uje of a paive nucin is inreed a irec obje an aiv ncion, and he earlier aiagen einerreed ubj o an aive onucin Thi i

ri o h ind nsruion nwn he erie, in hich hemorhologial marking he ube o a rniie er diers rma o an inraniie eb, he lae being he sme a h dire ojeco raniive verb, nd wer moreoer he erb oen are ih hedire ob raher han wi h ube, Hindi r cl i hewoan ha one lirall woman (nminive) gone (eminn i,bu e e itb kh hi he b h wren a (lirall bo



spt n tns

a b ma w mn . Th n hs ac h nl ssv csu b ls, hav h rhrc Pc Ps hr ubjc

n ma oje h cusav, rav cuc j h em dn Prn:z rf h wom wn rl woman ma wn,psr tb r xi h o u he oo rly boy m b cuav uh.

O auall wh culr ln bwnrc sc n s ou2 Th c re pasc s a, . a r a su sm c h d rm o h sv mlauas a ws av.3 Wn n c e dn ojc a lc, h reun ch uully rean n h objc hn n h , h nmy hs stryt ity Wh sv bs, r, h ms uual sa rum a acn w h h h mac bjc hac h xm ch h sa h cy. T rcass s cs ha m w rdcs cha sa hbjc an co Wh rsv vbs, h cha a aa n , v v rra : Joh hsv

n Hindi, enne The enin en here sed n the dscsn n Krywc

196 5689 lthh the reent dscssn ed t erihrsc

sn he ndEren t ice nd her derties,Kywc ne essenly the se henenn ih red t hendEren erect, tyclly cte th ntntie e sie with tnse e t n erier erd.

• F stnce, the Gen cnsctn da Ha au he he iie. h ee it i lde hn d H rd bau he hse sen lt her ees re en y Kr 96 : 689)



5

Fol expeio of petualio

Morphoo o sp5 1 is o im o rs cr o loo da a morpolo of an o anua or rou of auas, sncmoroloical iormaio o is kind ca radil b obad fromammars of indiidual lauas, d is no i islf of irs o sud of funcio of asc wiin luag ssms as awo Rar, h aim of rs car s o ook a rcurr

faurs bo morpooical ad snacc, in formal xprssion ofascual oposios, ad scialy faurs a recur in anusa a no rlad o o or ad ar wid sparad ograpicall from on aor i wl also b our im o o a ose furs fascual morpolo wi idiidul lguas a sm o asom bar o smanc fucioig o aspcua ssems ofs uas.

rs major disio a can b mad i was o formll prssin scal oosiios in lauas i bwn moroocalsic) d scic lyic) mans Alou r ma bidii cass wr i is dicul o dcid wr a n formaois primril moroloical or scic, i as majori o cass disicion c b drawn d is orms usl rioi or ourclsicio A clr m of sic prssio o sc is i Prorssi Asc o orub, o is wori,lirll i wor' wr vrbl cosrcio is l a o ndrbial ras S imiarl, Prorss i Elis woud fll udris in, as i ri wi consrucion Copua rb +Prdic clr is rc rogri araras je er rier lirl am i ) rocss o workn . W sal



Fol expesso o speu opposos

r rn o synaci xrssions of ascal oosiions lar in iscar

Amon auas a do a morooical mans of prssin

asca opposios, w my mk a disincion bw oslanas wr r s carly idniab marr o asc or oon mmbr of an spcal oposiio), fors of rb binorwis sam for bo ascs, and os lanas wr is sno so lr xmpls of formr y ar lanas wi iarib dicain sc, sch as ins he rorssi ndrsian m- Imprfci) rxaon as a markr f rfci Asc

in Slaonic an Balc lanas, and also i or is similrprocss, ho sliy lss sysmi, n a oc f pr isofn licly drmnd rfc f ssian tt rd' iso-t wras rfc of pst wri' is n-), dm aso odf mani of rb accordanc wi mnin of pr lswhr in draional moroloy n Slaoncnd, o lssr x, i Balic b o oran r also xiss dro procss of mrfsaion, wrby Imrfcirbs ca b drd by sao fro prd rfs cpso 5 . )

. Preng in Blto-Slonc, Geogn, nd HngrinIn w f mporc of Slanic asca sysm

i discssions o sc in rl lnisics, is rhaps wor

sndn som im n ookin morooy of is sysm, bos fons n modr anas spcialy ssin adisoraly. rom h wpin of h sis of aspc sys, daroi omprs ay b ad w Bal las,d oloa compriso may b ma wih rin.

T Sloc las, lk h oldr Indoroan lanasnraly, ad oriinay rfcvimrfc disincion in s Tns, i h Aorsmrfc oosiion, o s forms b os n h maory of odr Sla laas w xcpio o Blran, cdonia, and som forms of Srboroan n Sorba). Th crr dsincin w rfc mprfci, no rsricd o as Tns, s wr a Slaonic

r a fle cn, ee aeo 1962: 581 rcent re dcn ryth 72) wth eerece lle

dcn



5 1 Mholog o aect

ioion shre prl with he loel ree B nus nwo n e prlll he oher re o oErp he oern nue Prives re ore ro mpereivs

priril b prxi, comol ori oprexes se r his purpose hve heir ori i preposiios orvrb s such r imilr orii o pricle inEnlis drk p cp drk) or he ermn prex in rkeri p p r n ) r he L pre con concere oplee p acre me ) lhog i hee nus ors o Sloni, hr is no se oppoio o Peive Ipereiv

er e i h eeope o he Sloni nues i iprobe h prxing iple er i no i el l o periio oern uss il oins ner o prexe speers wihou perciv i oe orrowe ro O ChrchSlvonc he erlis s Sloi nue eg. pred-det oreee',sosat coni Susequel erin pre ss ce o eierree s specicll erecie lhouh he oppio Pereceperee w rinl o e ll evelope e oerin wospec ors r ll or ner ll) ers o h hose er at inot he pcicll prx r o spil Perie rs oe h es o prexion he irene i e ws purepeul (epeill wih po he ot erl pre seni) ;elsewhere he iio o he prx i iio o hi e pco he er o hae i ein s i e reo ewe ezt u n o-rez cuo' z-rezat up' e. or erin verwhere in he oer nue, e pre i sp pe i ipossie h erler pero ere w lso se ierene o e h the prex, huh semill noe pl rreoe inhert smic ure o h r wi n-t wrei.e rie o ro-t r i.e. re hroh . Ol where hprex nohng o he mg o he pereie er oher h

pereie eni w he stri pecl prs this e, h,we hve sicall sple unprexe r which re eur s spec,u b sril inerpr pereve whe e re n

crrt ici R ct, tr ch ctrry rt h ch ctl r, ith tlly ty rxs,thr r, rticlry ti ttit t y ( 962 : 86 , r ii, ryth ( 1970 : 6



ra eess f aspetua ppss

ab Deeot o rexe Petive e Ierete i R

rexd or m

�

O l

Pi.r;' � ( (

t1�\·-"i'Yt (Ipf.)

ppsn a c, and pxd vbs wc a osa Pcv sm mpc vbs wl n a a sclyqvaln c, snc hy y b sd w ay p ads n ac ca ma o b, w may rcvbs (ll hs a a od aca psha n spcc mpc conpa

nx sa n sysas o t spcal pson wsh dlpmn mpc alns spcc o hs cvsh smancall omp pxs, ad s was chvd b mns sxal da o p cs; s av paspcl a Eapl a c Sloc zbajati *iz-baa, h mpcv o zba-i av', ad ssn t-rezyvat' c o', prc trezat mnd boDaammacaly, dopn o aspca ss can bsnd as n abl wh low dow pa sh dlpd a n soy o rmaon aspcal p

n dn ss, n, Pcpc ps r dpml r b c b p drv o Imprcv, o b pc n o rc, h la or ac w b s a acallyn-mp px

w l a r mo o w d aspclssms a a v l a o Sonc as w r prod.

Ts n Gmanc lana a som prd rb canhav pcv mn, b hr s no ymc pn os wpcv ad pc an, nd n n wa o drms t mcv mann vbs w pc man2

1 Fr ert th t, ee hter rked t tht the re Gth rgy detd r ce

dete e Gec e erete e t utde



5 I ho aspec

In Lhuanan nd suan v smla he earliSavnc sn n sm b ma mak Prfcv,acu hre s hse n semanc chane nvvd Where h

ex ds nvv sme he smanc chane, ambnas suessha he veb ma b hr Pecv Imfecv, r bh, acd vaus la dncac eaus, huh ncudn enseThe s a cedu dn secca Imeecve fms frmexd ecs h h sux -, bu hs s n as rducve ah Savnc mecvs suxs s a resu, ahuh he aval u ascual cv/Imrecve as n Lhunnhr umbr s much smae han n Savnc and h sc aspcuassm s n s dved as n Slavnc Lavan aars besmar hunn, huh wh dnces n h mrhlcalcses usd acua avan has n mrfecvsn suxThe addn a rx a sml veb ma ehe us chane hemeann chan h mann and add Pfciv sc smpldd Pc sc The a / (Iv) z-ls (Pv) ead 'ms be a u aspcua a h ' and -e n ivlvechane bh meann and asc (huh can arnl lsbe usd as an Imecv Lavan ds ha ne (n u rduce)mans m an Imecve quvaln ven peedPerecve, nam b us nsead f h x he equvalen advrbThu cresndn he x - s he advrb k in( sde) " sha ansde Pve hee s as Imefecve k Sncen can as us as a ecve, e k, h duble speccan

he dcn mn x and dvb k, ehaps wuld beme crec sa ha h real ps s beween preed Perfecve and nn xd Imcv ne wns ndca drcin mn hn n can us a cave adveb, huh bvusl ere ises n d s h vb rad has a lcve e

In he alc lanua s n as he case h pr smle vb leads Percv Aspec, s des n he Slc la

uaes (ecen lans n he der Slavi anues rm OldChuch Savnc caqus n verbs fm nn-Savnc lauaes),n s hee n na an a frmn Imperfecvs fm prexed

o Goh r is in of u iuaion an n MonGmn o nsan is imply a ruar mrk fo pl wi n or mann of is on

1 o aa, Dabna 1959)



Foal psn o aspcal opposon

Prci ormion o Prci in Gorn i mir o o Blic n r no wy o ormin Imprfci romPrci, ou i is nry ru prxin impl r

mk i Prci. Gorn lon lirry rdiion din cko cnur, nd i i posil in Gorin o rc dlopmnimilr in mny wy o in Blo-Slonic u Wrr i ny dirc inunc o Sonic on Gorn n r rormin n opn quion r i lil dirc idnc onin o nyuc rlionhp In Od Gorin ml r could prxd, c rd r wr no ccly Prci In morlnu, mny lon ro oldr lrry nu il rin ilr ri, avs i conin' ( in o , a-ata ln' ga)- ou o', nd in ddiion crin inrnii r inpricur r o moion, do no cn pc wn prxd. For moriy o od rin r, owr, iion

prx m ruln r Prci nd in piculr mn run r uur Tn u no Prn Som prximpl cn pc o imp in ar wr' Iprci ) nd aab do, mk' Imprci ab) I mnyc, owr px cn no only c u o nin wi ar incri', aa coy, gao-r ucri, rom r wri', nd ab rpr' oab cur' ,gada-ab rm ' , rom ab do, m'. T quion hrorri: o do on u on o r i Impr, fornsnc Prn T nwr i on cnno r on o

u om circumlocuon wi impl r nd, or inn, ndr xprs m min pr woul ncwi om r rx idiosncric mnin i i yno mn lwy poi or o u u imp pr rwic in Gorn i ponll mrci o iprd Prci u corrpondn o Prci ao scri ' mprci i impy r lou r c

lo kn in i mpr ns wri or on' own : babav sa a v or m cdrn I uri (v r pron prx o r o nor mzin'. Sin

97 83 n h r e re nt dean e, t e

cd rsn V 97 827), d nct en r n ke hh gm�er t n t tee



oolo of apc

c smms q acly c h o sb h ossbiiy o iri p cimy i cic b mo scd Ths h r Pi bs

iaaba m d aniaaba • disam o rici hmrc hic hs cs hs a sy my ca) aiaab shod bos o ric i il syb s • h smcly or br oh s Ths ho G s od r r ooiiow Pcv Imci ys s dod o h o hvi o sy o ily iaasc s

T pca icc b s Ha is ssl o i Gor Blic Hi rbl c c syci cocio b o b s ho h cs rs dmi od h r o b ad di o a os rs r mi o, asily so o driyoicly om, rbs d/or oposiio os oosos b i oi y s o h s is cos dy bw s o r o ars i a s (dk p ann Gora or Bic Hh y o mc o Pi oi o o Lii o r i , is py prr, i r - P) ; o b

d o io y ipy ii i si oas • d s -olv • c O s r so smi sd ih ly scl mi cr bs ; sc i wih h l il wy m ) od b p dsoy , Prci l i os r, hic soc mi o pcy, c icc s bs dy

id r or rb ai ih, oi, c ri iic ca b rdo oo cdi o o c y h

g (1 1 1 85) te ta ttie e whee te amt temeag m at a f e mpeece e

Deta f e apecta cance f ngaan pee gen yMt (15 1« eea 8)



Foal xpo o actal oppoto

u ssm sions wn c n Imcv, sn wh hs lus w h s ul vl ssm :nsh n mn, Hu Blc, n, Snc T

t sns c n oin hs btbl, sncth ssss n c n ss o scul c Th cht ms ows mn ssmc s o scul osions th snc n hws smncll m cisnx such s hc a- Hunn on a Lhunnpa- Snc po- oh s w m sc ss vs) ;h ssb mn mcs om v wh xchns mnn h hn us sc Slvonc t som xtnthunn) clns scu ncs w s ncsSvnc, on, sm xn unn s scn 41) huh hs s y no mns ncssy c o no ol oSt Svonc cus, h ossliy o mn cImcv s s mn vs s ossi l wvh scu oson s compi wih h lxic mnn o hb Soc chs s siuo) hs sm n onus cn ls som insih n h wy n whch hs xmns o scul mn: h n o o sml vb noml sus scon o mn b, n wy n whc such scon cn n s s stctn o snl uni com con s s y n mns ncss scn, s show y s s w vxs no nmlly v spcu sincnc ou picy

n h snc o smicly nu scu s o pocsss mcvson hs cn l o h vopm o n scssm in imy on ion m o pcivisi

1 2 . Cb tct oloIn nu wos opoloy w hv x o

, h oms o h iv nss moos sons, n

c, v n o l sp . ony n nh sc m s suc, h vy s, Cns wh no v m o ns so c. o mo inny o nus wh coml v mooois l h Bo-Svoniclnus n on In suc s, spc s clly snc mhloc coy om h oh mophoocl csxss in h vb nus s h



opolo of pc

Tabl Vb oogy (Icat oo f wtte abc(ataba e wte '

fect Ieect

Sgua 3 as. katba aubue katabat ttubu as. aabta tatubu

. katbt tuba katabtu atubu

ua as atab aubn. aabat ttubn

katabtu taub

as atab atuba. atabna yatuba2 s. atabtu aubna

e atuna tatubatab atubu

cur: hus n rbic, r insnc, houh hr sinc smsr h Pciv Imprciv ( rspciv kaa- n-a)ku wri) h vb nins inicin prson (s scnhir) numb (snur, u pu), n n (scuin minin) qui isnc or h w spcs. n h prim o h Arbicur b (b 3, thuh h r sm rcurn simiiisbwn h incins o Pci n mprciv ( r rmh rs psn sinur, h su h Prciv crsns h pr - h mprciv) in n hr is no sim csnnc bw h s us r h sm psn/nnumbr in h wo spcs In h s conjuin i rnch h mspucv cnuio in h nu, hr is n ss cruisincion bwn h mrphooic pocy o spc ( hirnc bw Ps Dni n prc) hr rbcris ; whh w h wi r spon nu, hsm s h sm r bh spc os ai- m] ) , whi hr isi prism bwn ui orphooic orms o h wo

spcs (b T hisric vopmn rb mrpooy r Acin

Mr r is irsin in his rspc b Ancin rh Aoris mprc hv sic sms ( raps- (or "ra-svrsus a- wri), wh in h mri rbs hy so hv

The n gn) e ne P en hch s nsreed n Men Greek n relen he resen dcsn.



Fmal x p pp

Tae P D m F ae o )

D mpgar ama [E] a EE

2 t [E t a EE aia [E] a [EE]

Pa n a [E:] n an Ej3]2 v e [E] vs ez Eje] i ai [E:] i aien EE

a Va mopo (datve Mood ) A ad Ge g )

Gket

a g2 ge3 ge

P grMen2 gMete3 gMsn

od etImptv

nga g

Pa

2 g3 g ge2 grete

ge

egggeigpsegretgrn

Pgrsgpgigpegrpete

gne

Impeet otgr gapaga gaage graeegen egaenegrete egpatega ga

amptv Petvgraa gapagae pegae gaege gpaegae grpate

graa gaangane g

ii ig ahugh i sm fs here s car paraese h prs a umer eigs The Prn a uur aeh ig h f h Pr i h same as ha o tper hi h of h uur fe ( awas) e samea ha f h Ari ( ei ) M Gee te rp

gi xpri f apec h icreasigy ma ii frmha r vra cagoie s ha i he m aguag irc ewe quiva frs ier apc i he irece h prfiv a Perfiv rms f h em By par-ig h Ai a M rk a i w seen tath ig o h e Gr Pa T rep a ompromisee h f h i re mperfec a Ars wle h



5 1 oplog of sp

drnce een h urren merce nd Prcve ssdres hsrcl m h dernc ewen h Presn nd orssms ncen rek n he nn-Ps ens h ense dsncon

ben rsn n uur om a been s bn lacd aur secul dsncn (he Mod rek uure s erhascrn ec a gro Precve ta grpso In ncnrek s ned bv r sme bs uu and Ars ms dre Pesen lp a uur lps al ve ' u rspo ' , h la n ne he ew nn rek Arss oha sme ndns s a r u mrc) n Mdn re rer n h dscrncs bn he em rm Prn Prcvnd Ps Perce (po ss ' , a p sl be mssn', apso s ss ' lipa a mssn sed o ss ', lips I ssd ') Two n ns shoud e mad aou h morhoog o apc ndrn reek rs, rmmrs o Moen rek undr he nnceo ramars he nce anug, n ren h ncen rekns h vrus nssscs e Ars rhr hn PrciPas Imerec rr hn Imrece Ps hh where here ren equen asecua rms n he ncn nue hn erncrrsndn mre he ssm o h mdern u s used or h Prcv nd Imcve Fuure) Secndl he ridsaran scul her mhocl crs s u onl h c c h ssv (Medpassve) h drnceewen Ars and erc and ewn Prsen nd uur, wrmuch rer n Ac ee n n h cve Vc and n in

dern r ek hese eens he n n levld u es he s cnsse e n c ce

T usn he mrhc mrr asec and hr caori n such rms s he rs nd mrc h ndo-Europanangua ohr h e resrcn o hi paicuar apuaoposn in ms css o h pst ns, exlan w orwic ar dirnad apcuall uc a Aoi nd mpr

ar rdiona rrrd s enss rar an p om of sm nse n usian Prci and riv P vh sme eds s a s rea srahorwrd sparat e

nn G uur o r a or a gna aua n orpoogca f a u c rapa o pora t aual agn

oul b n or h a l num S n acul



o eeo of aeua oo

e s a aks as e mooaaks o se o so and nub I t Gk o casa a ake of h s/Ift ds ta e

sx n th s bu e eson ad nb nds a sdee as beeen os ad It h o cannot eveneay soa a ohooca seen coeod o e asctadsn bt ast t and Ime s th moo anags k nt Gk and nh does no ode so ovet aak of as as anuaes k Rssa In anas a d aea h dstton b e asual ses o e ba econs ae oese e sae fo a ass) es a c e dsncon mad mohoogca ddso a moa st v aa ad fass t e of mho ah an te ene ast hs nd v fo st) axatRss o- ead nc Gk !UO sa Iosd ' nna cae n G eo o I ' ac ka yakuu e os ') sueto Rssana v ak an xeav axav s kes{ I at fg I ae ode Gk o I sa) lack odeenaon Rusa e ay Gan a ea ) st ass e moooes of the anas concend

5 Syntactic exprssos of spctul oppositins

Loave exeso of aeu ooso

ss and efecte asecI a anas blonn o aous enec and o

aa os tee sa beee e fol exessonof ast sca oesve asec and vaousocae adba ss

mos desead aa s btn oessve asect andxssos f e lace ee soen s ocatd ou ns aas as nod bo s locae o of e eb s alssd habua eann e s efce ae an ju ss e bas caacec of s fo f xeson s at

lgges is o tes o e se isek 39



Snac xpron

s s kg s o s / okg s us h Mod Egsh sso h work os oso n t schc o g oc cosuco

thug h oc hss k a work aar o ode sgs o h Egsh gug o o hgss s tl c h bl ou pcdd b oson mos c a houg so n on o h nt a s n hc n c Frd bn ann Som h nc ggs sm c ossbts o ssn o gss mg oug usu s a g mkm h s css o o ct ogssmnng s Duc h aan h nn h s gng s / t gg b u n clc hs egu Pogss osuo usg a a s h b to b stn s bsc mg s s to g j a a g

n u ss ogss mg n Egs hougt cu tu ms custncs u b csso nng u proc g h n ro o np sm gugs gss mg cn g b ssd bsg un g s mng s gpro hus ech s ncss o c ogss mng oet s b ob usg consuo r n ran d b oss o g n ran d un [ I m h os o g et

s t mst s s o oct ssos o ogess sc oEuo s t lc lgugs togh so b o h t s e con h ue c ssos o b cl ogss h cog h mc Is oms e scc oss Is Scos c d sh e bsc csuco s sme hb b s us th oc os h b o o b so s d Scos c t nom

u h b n s cosucn s sho b ug cobc n g ccust sml oouc obcs n gugs u s ssss ous) Is h st us s n uu n o g. ahn who sh s okg s sh n ok(g a hnn ao n s s hg s s s n ou hg us o

bj



oml xssio o s oosiios

ts rm can s usd h stat bs an h abtua mann y ma h' h co s ls c , mae ' itho dy shrs r da' n sh and Scts Gac th ppstn us s a

nnt ' n Scs Galc) t ' sh hs Pss cnrasswh a nn-Prss Psn whl n Scts Galc th narss m as plac th t bl ms, apat fm thswh prfct ma has bcm an pfct Charctstcmps m rh d s tea h s cmn ', td s a dadan doas h s cs th h da s th t os d', cp dUa s a doas h css t r ') fm Scts Galc th e '

h s s h sns ',tha 'a hadh

h s httnhs m th ppstn g wth th pssss prnn mo m salsd as ') n sh an Scts Glc a rath dtcnstuctn usd wt h b nuns sm stat b s scus n scn

lhuh th paals btw pss and lct csuctns n th Cltc anuas s r cls, s n abslut th adrncs f dta btwn th t cnstuc n Ws nstac, thuh th ppsn y ' tas th sa mun f th pphrstc ba cnstuctn ds nt cntast y1Ngedydd Crd Cadydd Cad') wth y m ' a1 s sn n y mae ' ha Mrr th nta w ft prpstn n ma nt nrm ld auh ma n thrphasc b cnstuctn tu nt y ma ' hadydd s s n Card ', ut y mae h y haedydd

rn, t spccal utu ms ms bs cn n busd n h ct spct Sos da�s Ss ll w ', but S wrn . wr, s dcts h prsc rrss wt h nm rm f th r n hssn n' th t utu h rb t ', oso�-i neb Ss wl b wrtn , tall Ss wrtn-n lb m cnstcn cn b usd thr ns Ss e; a

S wtn ', uh h n s ncssr t rrsn prss man cp rnc e a d n

Mo chg co of wo h occ cr ro h c. Th h mon \Vh of, n, d , ddo o dic md o orc, h oso o, o h o io d o



52 t epesso

e ure e perpr i oor bcau otrws o mutaie epi eio o bo uu e ad Pore p oe u e e ree o �s Soo wri ' o Soo rt '

w a e ierpeed e appopae o w uue me Madr e oe wa o ca Pror pc i oue e o za be) ' ore e ai erb, wi or wou preeding zh ' just, precsely , e g (k") z sh ' he s

studyng .

Loatie epro o porse ae a qut wdpad Ari ae oub or ac orm ma b)i

aloop l' bo owl), ws h Pore pc o

e e o t aloo eore owe) e t oi ' , erl he o ' e r s slh cbewee e prore ad trct loca costrco wchae ao ued w pora epreo e t toda aderb) cp oda ou)

): Yorub h drce bw a t

e bewee y + radal ad y + aa muao Som ooa ue t all o wth pros me ade a dere or ea a a poib) o abua ct wloher pars ue e t or el i bo s3 Ibo a toae orm a ' befo owe ' e Q a K� he o ' , ad e e ame prpoio i e Ipeee o otae ie ecopai proe ma), e a so e atall) o' iera e o' a re adere o dea betwe prorse ad loca coucos,

coeri dabl o owe o a lo act bo ocaie e he prore costuco q a locati ebe be )

, pl h ua w o di ocio s wh

ooal d om th u imp o theb o e ' , bu ocl ucios a loca m, ka t i e po ' ral e ow oe modicaoo ka o ka dcae te rd pero bjec i o d '

roree couco wh ll c prosma) o pobi aa o u hs ka ou ma b

: Fo daa, ms a od 1 6 60 Fo c i cu us h m u ;

ch o h d h



ol ro of apcl opoo

m a p r m a p il m s m ur suws, w simisu S l is rssd " wi

rs wh is suc i , wi cssmr n sm l nu su s ', . b r cr s sl T sm srui, wi is usd Psss, fn cn w r sui ini, w su Mi ic S)

Tus

s ml m su wid i nu mis su d i i wn in ndssi sc

lu su di suis s lrsiirs i ssin rssi mi, r ss w us n uii ws ui is wismri lci, d smirl w mlicl i ms usd s ssi uiir w h ii idn su lin In Iin, Prss is m wih ra sd', s n o canao I m sii ', irl Issii , lu n his us r is n nssr susi Im l s, i is s siml s m Pssi s T ssi uirs i Sis o caano I m sin ' Pruus caano m sii' i mcll rm Li ar snd,uh in h mrn Ii lnus r sd rimi in ss b smw, r mi

,; s s ur s

uss lw sn Simi unin nd riin r Sslc a is nd Irish ) h is ' . n isussin diis, w d h n w rss h Prrssi ws us a irl li ' A simi nsin, hu sh ss s is m ii, cus n mr rh Iin nus, us h P Pril ridiUu ra unj a i, s, rmin ri n

Prssi ms in s lus i rd nin Prs Piil nd r ', whic h us h sm rms s h in di r is, I ' s 7 cla Pu jaa v rl I i m In rr i r rssin Prssi Asc, rr ms r drd c1ra Pui ja ra v il rmd m

Sm i mus w in ssi ss r s rl



Sna xpon

lc d gsse. h clu o he l s ehs ngs essns lk o n po of don on o np c se e c e o some snc ocess

b eng hle e suo s e sil h sue u e sm secc he sutn s beng sun Tus el he n uemen s h e shouldbe nss m sce me d guges d hs ul e e us ogl lc ss, e sml, eg on a on Fda Egsh lso hs essio o n o don on s h mgh be emg u h ens lcs big usd ih hbul meg s ogus css e his g se dubious, helog esos. h ss n a o sems mu oec Eglsh h n po o ( eh n an dbu ao ad d li o he he hb ) Moov, o heguges emed ee bul meng s ssd b mens lce s ls e cs h gesse meg s so essds lcie, idd i is usull h se th he sme live consuci s usd bh megs hus sbish mlil elio live eessi o gessive d ohbu meng e li eessi o gessive meg issi, d lngug hs hs ssbili i uhe ede sme m hbiu mg d hs eesn s h esi e gss o beme he ol ieeiv o

ge seOe ohe e he hee sems o be edee o l

bee lce d oe eig i se, e h eoes o doig soehg se hee gi lge ube o ggesus peios e o deiv om, loive o Aill l se o ems i ovided b v vbs iish d Sos Gi se lhough hese e sed s veb ous

h he b Ish Sco Geli a he is oo sds he dee m he Pgessie A slio o hesece meg h is sig ould be s he h sig hee eds d hs e coed s egull n e suns he cm oghe sh na So Gel

1 oted bove, Eg tet exreon Pro t nohe nge (eton



oal o s oppoo

t n s Sm xss nd ns n nns di ss s i a na sla e is n ', ery s s '

T y s s iuar n s s sone s y, nnn n y nsried s dsn s d ningnsae s nd s i hee s nyii s sd sr s sdn s y disni n s: eou rooInouroean erb e ' nd s Ge t dern from he nsnd' In s s ys sg s i '

s b n pp d ppa bn d nn smy s s s sd s ss s my s s y w sy s, dyy ta is ss ', s o t ans y s s s siy in w s ymy, s dy

s xss s Ss Gs s s s ds : n s d s sd w s a ' a a s n ) mn'in is m ' s m m g s ;s a is mn'2

he use of oae emoogy hou an eene

n he ad ei o erss onngen sae s oun n ns anoruguese he erb n queson eres rom Ln ta o snd'e ay ae Sansh rs n h he reaon beeen oaon anonnen sae s auary ea ahough shou be noe han boh ngus here s no wy of arng onngen sae h a

Th the temno of ndeon 97 : 5 n esh n thi ime th yet dieent mutto the tonoccs wt adectivl nd noml pdicte tho te distctineee redcae with nd he itt is no that eteen conn and ue tt e dence etween a 'n athrawesie n teac nd aaw d ie teche s shee tce s e tt s sts theedce m ae' papIT he ppe hte doe notimp contnent tte



Sncc pron

c ou o h cou sr s ossb n Ssh ooco h son o o b s ar whh no h oo so s r n spa s S

s r us bsou s n r o cogn shs gg sco bw o u i ' an s no (h s Jn nro ( s ow i b cn b o co w u in goo hh Pogus hs sco s wh s aq caaraa joa how s og b o q (oj) h wh s hoo

Pougus oh sr n r b usd o ocon

h sm bsoucog sco s o c a casano Flano h hous s n mgo sus oo casa oo

s hom h og mg o sar ( r) s osn ' s c h ougus · hs od h gh bsou/cog snco o o s s w c ho k b s xsso o cog s nd h us o r c co s os r coms o b so om o ou gs sr; Snsh o h oh hn ws coss us o sr s oc s cos o h ogn o h conng us o sar n g oc us bg n s k big

In uss mn ssos o congn whch ino dcs h hss wh o o hs; gosss bow h o Ensh2 Thus n nsonm wh nral un h g mz w hv nal

v ln h g s m nral v an hg s n h budg Sm we h sncs ke nalprl v ojn g m o d, c nral vol an h g ino h bung' Th s gn ghc bw s oi io ng s:wh h o h s vb s voj Ps Tn vol ie go/ in' wh wih h h v is pr o

ows Th sme ou wh nsiv vbpora prvlo nral oajan h d bogh h nino si c an vvl rala v an h bugh hgn o h bung

f To 6 226J ) Fo ean Run ee M ( 972) Ohe e

o o eon o re ge 97.



For ron o ptul poon

Diction nd seSimi to, hogh en ess oo th, e se o

ct sss dite ogssive meg is e se o

dcton ssions o osetie st meig nd fo eenng t st som sbset o ths motio ods seings m oscti meng, nd moion om s te mod oc ming Tus i Egish, oe y o essig oseivemenn is h o g m gong to wrt letter enh j r r Igbo hs c he sm costio e g by s gng t com ' ty e go om ' In some oth es ingugs b usd is om ' he h go ' , g . nt bb s gng to c ' litey he coe come ' , esb in he ss c t I h nr it com om ', s sed oss cnt ct menig s i n d'rr l lettre veus ttn th tt' s i e mging o bing egged inso ctit

5 a prt plu at

5 kig t s o eessing e e in vosngugs s be ticu ested i ws th gges seof gg t sson o both the ide o s sittio nd he de st stt, o combiing he o ceistis o e ego te t o mes o essio.

On y o dog is is od i h et gges, ih se cnstcn lt tstb io Eglsh I m e ig

th tt ' o h itt he ee ' he vb to be ' is eest Ts, hie the s o the emol osion te ' beoeth mi vb ce ts h cio i o ime Ths ilsh e h y we ygrnnu'r ltyr I hve ite ett t t iting he ete I Sots Ge hesto usd is r ', eg. th an teac r bread c hh t s hs bk the bo's foo ', tely is h ose

t bkng th ot o-th b ' T ish o t ' is r s, sedith t b on i tm tr s t h ite I- tmng i, thogh i Iish this fo hs e pee meing, e• us ts mnt c in '

omm o combiig eset s menig is o se h

We 1 973 534)



Snac xon

s s u vb s cl h sul covs h s g wl h s cl covs s c Tus w ul o b foms lk

ug a o c Jan a Il Gann avao Han anko oh hs v . Bulg smcsuc s us wh sv vbs van ku kngaa ohs bug bok lll s hvgbough h omc c lgugs m Egls Ssh fo sc llvbs k u v ohn ha ough bk ch an aa un v Il Gn coao u b Ssh uan aoado un lbo Hans ha n Buh gkauf

m m omc g. c) mc .. mos omso m d Svoc mos c Blg Mcogugs s os sccll c g buusull k c mg s l modgugs s scc b m c clus bohs s g c s us s) omgugs s scc s b los b movg oc o s Tus uss s o ossbl of usg s Ts o ul h ol) Ps Ts .g. Kakl kn Kol bough s boug h boo wh Ol ussul cosuc lk oa ku kngu wh s M uss s us scb foms k ku s sml s Ts ou g m mologicl ogs scls . so o Slvoc lgug v o c ou

s g-u ss o s .g zch ku js knhu bug bk l hvg-bough -m book oug s u i h so g ol bough . ug ul s ll d b s o coc sc o sl s scl c g s howv sco 2 2 1

coss do b Aos whou uli c w ul s ou i so of h lgugs of oh

g. u Pub. Boh os Pfc o w s Picl ci d i h Pfc is isccmd b s T o h ul vb o b whl os s o ul. Thus hv iu bca

s cepc s n Lt, n th Pe, wh CasaTnctus s, t 'Cs ke cn en th 'es h eeke o ke



a expesso o aseua oostios

I ecae ' y ba h I hae c ', itealy I ec am ' ;a i Puai b ga he wt out ' , litelly h ot oe ' , ut ya e he ha e ot'.

a eaml o oIoEu lue whee te essioof he Pefect comie Pet uiliy Pst Pticipl, w ycite Fini ee we e cotucio tye i ole aat Ihe eceie itealy I m higciv ', with th P Picilaaut he imple Pat ee wul e si I t egti, theoly ieece etwee Pt d Pfc is t esec o the uilii h ae ie. e saat id ot eceiv', e ole saaut I hae o eceie . I Geogi too the Pefect, t t i cetifom, comie the eet ese f he e o ' wih PaPicie ee eio

By ayi he ee o he auiiy the n cite ov thte the ee ee o t e o to e ' i omi the Pefect com ote tee o e Pefec, e. te Pt Pefect luefect Fute Pefec e oe i e yu , Fecjaai ; l ette, Bulia aa bj oto, iih i oi

kjttut kj ' I had wrtten the etter In those S avonic angages

whee wh wa oce t Pfect i ow imle Pat ee, th io eae Ftue Pefct, a eaate Pueect i eithe aee.. Czec ooet e.. Posh, o oot e.. Rusi.

Pfect ifeetiSeea auge hve pcial ifeetial ve fos to

iicat tat th eke i epoi ome eet ta e has ot himsfwiee, ut bout whoe occuce he ha lt at co hthouh itout, icietly, eceily cti out o th liailityo the imatio1 itict ifeetia occu, fo iace iukish, Baia Geoia, a Etoia. o ome et ti i aaea etue thus Buli as petly eeloe the Ieetilae f the oh Sloic lauae a le Bulgaia ue

ukih inece, a me coul e tue o Gei; ithtia ee e a eumbly eli wit a ieeeteeoet. h oint that i aic iee i te set

6 0 u nnl fr Tu i aif a w vn i Bul ar , llly r i u l c w i



5 2 n xon

coe, hoe, s cose om , l be suggese, mo homl elo bee eil ec he o oess i ug, eog, Eso, ll o hch he Iee

om o h Ps ese cosss o Ps Pic lus h Peseese o h eb o be, om hh hs be sho hsche o be ces o he eec

he ces eml is eog, hee h so-ce Peec s c boh c iee i meig, e clees oms oscuss h Psse ( c ele sie oms o hs,g vz-/- I hv (so seems bee bough u, euced o I h (so i sems go u , he s he e cgPeeci se, - he icig s so subec, h sem o he b h su o he Ps Pci ssive; v he sme s I m l, his om be glossed soml I m hg-bee-bough-u o I m hg-gou he mo o o oe s h combo o Pese se oh ul h h Ps Pce o he m b

I Bulgi, he elo bee Peec Iel s lghmoe come s h o-Ieel oms, e he hois g p I oe, ps h oe , he Imec p I sig, p he s ig , he Peec, omed ih he PPicile Aciv om e ois sem he Pese es o hl o e pa sm I hve i , psa he h we Ihe Ieeil foms oesoig o hes he omll hvhoughou omou omos ulisig h Ps Pici ce

he Pese ese o he il hus o he ois pis s I(l woe ; fo he Imeec p sm I ws ( elig , wih h Ps Pcle omed o he Imeec sm ; o hPecpsa b " I hve (l) we (h he Ps se o huii, s o om eece be he o-IeePec he el ois cu, he siuo s o ue sosme, sce i eso he o-Iel Peec Iee

l os oms e usu e isic b he omsso o he u he o-Pec fom s he hs ie oIelPeec, b sa he (el wo (fee os o hsee, he, ug eeied he Peec (s h om he Ieel, hough esehee coe esb h om esio o h o cegos s ue

I Eso, lhg sil Il om eis coesoig



ol eon o el ooon

to mos o-eei oms (ie. o us o s Teses icudigte es Pc, s o t he s Tese t om etobeen eei Pect s ou c ge e s o

Eso ooog, his s e o c hee he eis coudbe esse Te bsc ke he ee s e eb suv n e o-i os, the o-Peec s s smeform , wth the Past Tense sfx e.g kju he wrote ; n e

Pc e d t s ce n t he Pes Tse o eu o b eg e on nu s ie c e on e s n te coesodg eei oms oe deecebee o-eec Pst d ese Pec is s, sed o boe is comoud o w e Iei o he u o b te Ps ce cte eg e olev kun he etoe' o e s (et ite, c. e olev he s e e te o eect omo ese uius s ice esses ee he eec eig

g od e o dett o -idet i ese gugsbt ec us o ook o eoo hs e t e ec a s ee s e to ststte, i ohe ods t t is o sim send e se butbecuse o s to o st s he ie h steet is g o esd si e se, s o someess ec esu o e con (eg secod-d eo o m cence, suc s e eess o e od edg o e ce i hs be iig ee e he iig itse hs not ee diec

itssd Tus e semic simit (ot o couse it beteeeect ei es e c t boh cegos se e o e bu its esus d is s siit dso exesso gges e Geog Bugi d Esto.

r l lnn kn nd u! 88 whdcu h fl h FUrc ln Srk 0 l h fll lnu knw h whr cl fr rln d d h r e a nf mnn: Tukc lnu h Urc n YurkSaoe Fn CeremKm Zrn d u ; n d ndun ln n lr nd n urkc u ou un o un nd nn n l dlFnnc nene o u hrd u lr h m n h Tkc nd Urlc u



6

Mrkedess

0. h tut bhd t ntn rdn n nutc tht wr w h n ppt wth w or r br (pr ru prc) t c t n br th ppt t t b r uu, r nr, pc th thr (n k rny, t unk, th thr rrd) cry ucn o ry y on n tut cncp rn, d th chptr ubr of crtr r

ct th nton r prd.2 crtr r of yntur nc rpc, ttc) d r ocy ndpd o on nthr. n ny c crr, r h r jory fh crtr, p n h rcon nd r n cn b rnycr o h pprprt n rdn u. tnwr, h crr c n r n dcd wh whtu b ttchd c crrn. Ep o uch cnct r cdbw r, rphoc crtr r tn ncth rpy otn rc yttc crrpnc n rrr th hty u3 t t, t n ncry, hc h ppo w nr br nd rdr or br i oppot, r y b uyr ny, rd pprnty n n oron cc

kn a noc nguitic ag oo

oolo ; o ntnc zko ( 1 939 o cn icuion o en n ooly e o Hall ( 1 98 : cat 9). Mn a tuc in cun oatic tc oiti akoon ( 19 )

coic o ct o i la a te ui i (19) j ct tuon o kn to in gut ncin ntx n anc

Coa cto n ology uc ooton ot cl quoln ooe t

i



dss

(d vru unmark) sinc th oppotons wh thmkdn inc bt th mmbr i y gat, a opi-ios w irn i muc , can b o

md. of poibiii a utad o

kdss smsOn o th t cii crii i ta in many cas h

mnng unmard ctg ca copas tha of s ardcutrp Th ar mp of hi o is wr xpri of h mnin f h kd catgory s as opia r h nmr cgy ca ws usd n i ituatihr h mar gory ou so b appropt Iaia nSsh hv Prgssis v sir i anng o tht of Engih I n Spah s ibid Eng ii.Hv Spnsh d tia hs os ca wy ithoug pogrs n b rpacd b noPro ifos hrs Engis chnng wiin o wrinsry vo sf onprogrssv nng ompar so foog an xmp th Prors nd t Impf s pr Piz in in isnd Progv) n. L e prepr (Imprt) o e gzz . . Imprfct) legn fc izz as in t itchn nd asxig Porsi na i wi a aying Imprfc)h ta d th boy . as puttin Imprct wd on h '1 suc css y sy quit sticy th th mr catory inas

psnc of som ftur, h h unmrk g simp sysohn bout psnc or bnc2

sio Svonic ngugs s rar imiar thou dc. h Prcti i t ak mmr t Pfc!mpfciv oppiion, but cannot a b rpa y hmpi . t rci a as pi nin whah mprci my r may ot h prfc mning W may

xpl i ci Maa 15 5 5) wo povi copi w ala Sp a ng mao pp

ao 74 7 xpici m of acoo m co o i i m o wo o c m of qio fo c Rz�a (17) T n ofaa o i i vop mo f Fo 17)



6.1 ss sics

llur by o of co wr u, oly rfc pobl wr o pob o u prfcv dp rd crcr pcy ow lo t ook

r o o co bou u prpoo z pu pro (o uc ) u fc bul oy h rc pob ; dr o z o occo cud ul u o o occo oo u u o ol pob rfc po prc cudd tot az y i (Pf.)/"a (Ip)za z jt iut rl, owr wr, o otrroud o h pc ct b ud, t pobl u o u pct w r o pcc rrc o op of , w h b cd cottr fcu, or mpl dott m o h mprctr pr i ply rd pr b fc th ucd uc dd plc whou y urr pct, ptculr wtut pco o po o btu g ;cr o rb u, uo vy iai Vju iir? h you r W Pc ' d mlrly wr ia, bt wt t prfct ply u bout rr c t h pro uto d rd boood; wr h Prfc vy roi Vju i ir ? mopcc, wr t ddr hd a ac clrr p woud b wtr uto vy u zaazyva? ou dy rd whc clry tr prr

r btu , b whr h mprct t pbl h fcu h prhp th tro pc of dc Ru (d mlly h otr Socu) for cd ct to h rkd orcdy whr th prct d rc r pctcod mpc y w tk o oppot tcu of Prct, o go (pf, o ao s

(f.) dd (pf d o d, uroo) ot, bu ccph) ltt but ow, th Ipct t mp tht th ct ttmpt bu uuccu h pc of h pcu ctr y otr pctul optuc ProPror El r t Smpl Pt/

oy (170: 2-102)2 kobo (92: )



Makn

pfc n Spn o Ao/pfc ncon n nc n o Slonc ln n fo blc, c l p fo co

lly cl plcn of n Ao by n pfco c lly pl n nn lo no lyl of om nfon by u of nm coy nllyoh no nly n oc n Slonc lng, n Gon Ao Spl ) k b of Ao/pc oppoon b poblycnno b cl w lin w o lly of poll ppoon So f o non blow o ow o pon co of o n b of oppoon1

62 Mkdss d mohoo b of opolocl pcl n

o cl w k/ ncon nnc uk co n o h l opolocl l co fc/mpf oppoon Slonc poltl nc , nc pobl bo o fo fc fompfct (m by pon), nd lo o fo pfcom Pc (by xon) On con of x polcll, o, ll o lo wol b k, ic oco n nl w fln bo kd : Egh o n fc n n Spn P

ll pc fo n, n con o p f b pfc n n (w p co6·5

con opolocl con, lkloo ofolocl l n fo ood l fo o n n coy ndoEopn n n

Fo n o h oee k tegy eeH 951. T oiby o Spi eee k etad (Sip e a de l aas regalMa h l a de ero gaz P� d opu uxuy nu Iido Mino l o n idl youggm S mp P i m u ou y ietra ed Imee a uge my od r ong Smp P unmke e o mee



Makes an oolo

t S P th c u) ypcy,s th t h t rd pnc t tht t t t u ptt, t Imp

ct s us c t Pt tm th b. I Snch t c cctd th y, th mpc suy t d c th u d pd, t t h p d, hch y bu. Sm, G th d th Ipct rur,d ttchd t th t tr u - th t y cb th , d t c

th t In th mk c th y t ycm m h kt t th ukd c, ct mp m th pdm th kd rm hu u h ukd Ict th thy dcsntPsutu, th kd Pct thr tct Ptt. It, th kd P m ck ut ( sa sve I b t ) I c (t

tct h hu , h th Pct h h m b c mp ppc th c t c d h t ut y rn tu S, sc, t m haa d duty r h p d thd pn gu t prc, th Pst h pt r th pn dbh u ( tcu t ha d thd pn uha ut t dc s t d t kd dnc cud n ccdnt u u udch

l oce Ie eqie x (eg S pn w g haa ' ekg) le ma Aot d vgd e ge (eg pse ' ae l g haI ok)

Eg Ol C Sloi Ieect daax& ws o daae e og oi a e di

8 E Ie d yo ee iig y e ng,o e yo oe pe 'yo ke

i i i c e Li eig beig a ad o eo ecl I i oo by egla od age old xc o aava o ll ee eo o e ect o ae o l in c in n ic a nw g aavo aav aava ee



Maknss

6. Nrisiof ak cse r o v o vral form ecus of

it or for oe reao, orpoloically oly o ecul

for wee ote ve o vl fo v wo or or, oi ect ooloy of t veb o ct ta of th umaedb of th ootio. Of cor, e oe posibiy, i cas of vb wic fo ic ro av oly o for, my t fo tat i aoiat eatca b u t woudo xc to d veb it oholo o makd pec egsd ispctv of ect, or oly wt mai of rked

spec, a lest no a a a omo In Russan, e val vr tat c b used ou opolocl ca oPrfctiv d rfecti; o oe lsd by For r foloi: vl comad, sja) a', azn excut',an woud', o g bit o', o b bo', b ' ,lu l nuber o vb of fog oi in (z)(r)O egakO tck', lon tho' T oly pxd fosoned ob ose ' , ic y be fl o spleb i te odn lag t s cooua Pfci ob)ad s i a cas Cuc Soc ipfeciisio fomtioof lci t-al - it - fo " d sslOa ivtt ,hc s imetis sux Oa ntst xl ofophooica nusato poided by eoia Mos oine av dstc ois ad Imfc i t at , ot b lck is distction, ing oy o fo wos mive t eag of the vebs) s ial tat of th Imerfctiof ot vs Yet moroogicl, s for a orit, . vavi I wa ' , v3n lt wa sl , vk as stt '

Mss d frqOe cirio o e toed o far i coc

tio ith ake d ac, lou i s n y d ojcti

critio o a, i fucy T raso for s is t feuy iscalld to stio vd ceio ecisly by t lua orwis provd o of h cre xple of rki co

I e Sc me o mkd oolo lo e y o

• 90 2-·3 og ( 9 82-)



64 e e

spc, y ss dd c yss fbh cso cs , o co h ccs h bh kds of sy h c s fc

h c ea ha h pfc ( co y,5 469 cs y, 57 45 ) d p of c h h s ec Ps bu o Pc h h s s h c o fu pc by c h o , wh u h dc h P s g Y s dsg o dsss fy s co udyg spc, w swh s o g s sus I h d f hs chp wsh b g so u kdss h y go so wywds pg h p dscpcy h su fo ppygh ucy c scssg spec d, s possbh uy y d ss b s c dg whcgs k sc h cy kd w g, cs phgc sege sc, wh h s o dc wh yhg s Cy h ch o spec s y cosyccd wh wh h sk ws o sy, h s h , fos, h ws og c f dsc of c, wb us f Ics gg k uss f w o g pc w fowg o dh ppoc f Pcs bh css, h o of us s h h oud c,spcy o og scs f x h h ppdc off Ic y w h fc h pk dws ky w xps hos gs sscd wh h c Asc E , ysg gugk ps, s fud h h Sp s s c pfc, s ds o cssy h d,bcus h bss f h uss d w wod xpc fo whpfc g o q h o h pfc

hg S Ps s ukd p o woud xpc hgh cg of h bou ud uss Ad w f occu w cy cdfqcy s gs h s g oe gges(such h I Ssh Pgss s- Eggess hs ss d c o s b k



Mkdss

65 adns nd on a, t as b tct ssd that i st s

as akess irece, th it will ls b th cas

hat th eb f th osit will nkd wvr, it sqa ss a i cai ccstcs b of ast b umak wh i th ccustacs t t ( the t es) b akd

b f hcl akess Russa r nstcis e clx th sggestd th eae scss thsa, as a aad b cla o t scussin f st 5 1 . 1 t m aset Rss a ass ftas m ma atl a t Imt te fctvs a Imfcti xato t vss ccih xat smatc mat bt th mbs f suc as f its d m t Itv b sxati), hil hs it se fct t as cal atal i t efect is m t tica a xd t bsxat) t d agua t s bsc f mh atal s ot ct th sst f usg thet s a ea aca (c as a fcve oaad ad akaa, t akaa o, sd s ustats a) e t mctv s eah cas th ad f t sm t b sm facts that seak i avu f a dta tratt akdss i te t ass Tus it as e tta te us f t mt s a aactua is ticl

t x vbs, ad ath lss co th m s tat t mct t sx that des the ma ct ila ia, te ft ist is atica co th ml Imt vbs, ie ts tt ntvd f ctve st.3 I i cocabl tat t otm th st f Russ lag, akss d corlatm cs wth mgca kss, tat tee w

Copar So 9 96 ody a oCoy 96 46, rby oolol oppoooo ol b s o o a od mbr a oo ola

oa 6 26) e evdence o la ay o d pr i

a a mor o in Ol a s ven by sics od n



6 Man and ont

mkd vrb om r sly prfiv i vr do pr u rfcv if i hd r . p chgdh mg o h vb or h jus spcy), wl pu

sul did oms oh d-Imprfcv Pfcv d dv Imprvs) r mrd, d prs ssb sd d osd Ifvs rco is lr suo o mr o posid oldr Slvocsys m s l b xsc i u : mos sm oprxd) vbs r mr d of v Prcv fors hpxs lss ool, suxs) som d vrbs fcv s ss d hv md Imprc m drivdby sxo wr i is ssy o gv ov ssi of imprfv mg T mor po o o s mkds vlus cg drocy, d psuby hr rmdisgs s dil or mpossbl o ssg mrdss, ls h ss s w

o l ss ps mopogcl comlxd o frqcy s o o o r mkds cor Imc u, h prprsic fom w buu d hiiv Ev r rs wich hv rv formd y prxo Ipv Fu o mor morhologcl rl rfv Fr d or r wr mprfciv formd fromh Prfciv y sio dirc or r ompar ubu f) d buu ubvat Ipfv.) sl kl ' . byh rlliy io ( r fcl mg s)

mprfcv is sl umrkd mmr of opposiio. , sclid mkdss vlus c cg dchroicy, so url o ssm ha som of usl cocomi furs rkdss sc o orpologc ml) y l rc rr g i dr rd vl from os pprg gv om.

m o r o rhr mor coplicd s ysm o

lg, h r r o forml oppoo rciv vrsumpfiv d, h s Ts, ori r Imprc mysk or s usd csodig o h Rssi gr cul u pcv, h rsd soly sbsig w o gv oo . sr mprc orsg ua nk v ogdid y boo ' uggsh h ukd mbr o h v/mprc oposiio i



ede

rfctv Russa ud b of torfc oosito or a robaly ray oro lus ssm of akdss

b d fo Goa, t t Ifctv ost doubyuak d Prfct mfc dub kd So f, wv,w v b cod t o rva oosto saat, dw co o obi t i o cl o justi folow Vo ki t Irfv Ao t ls kd, Pfiv fc o k it Pfctv o d fv fc tdat cato For

lo oo of Bula ad Goia, t

o l fo csly Pfciv o fv prfc wil ot olt lwa cry o alo or Prfctv Ifc cay r b, w ftv or i Buga oft alcl i s of kd u lkBu ori i rfo uc mo olicad a ,y, R o o , rfv ova ss kd Prfv, Aois ovl l mkd Irfct; u coo f, prfcv s k Prfv wl oo w Ao, Prfcv lrk pfcv; lrly oo w t pfv rfc ls kd o, wl cobo t rv Aor r prf r rk vlu r lo c y vl of o clrr o, ddo o bld bsolur for t y wol

Aor wr of rd c r of o ur of l ocr roof c s o rf, r o r ov coy) I cou of book av od ub ofolio ts o i rfr d pfc

p o o o rfc v c o t or s cll io for stc o r lu r Prfcv for of vrb rr bc of do o o, s wlfv for r k to r; Idourowr w v v of rr pcl oppoo

V ( )



65 ans a on

bwn Pct (ost) ctv (P) ss, with hPciv nolly hvig s i nc, h pcivhvig sn i c n sctio 64 w od h in Ps

n in Rsin, h Pc is mo hn h pciv, v hough i ss ovll i h ci h su; Psn Ts cn oly b civ. u iombtion th s ts th is grlly in gug ndcyor ctv sc o b d, whil wih ps s hndcy s or ic sc o b urd. Th spclsyst o sin is itsig in lght h ov spcldinc i bwn Pcv wth no r nd n pcivwith h ohologcly, h, h s fo wold o b n, in h Ps s hi s in c o bth cs, corsodig o h gl ndcy o p o b prcioo, sll ub o b hich by hi ni would o fvou ci th n Pfctiv Asc in ctv ss oms oly, n y clly civ, gan o hv, so os o buan to b. h stT, om hs vbs, ll Psin b occr oly wit r .2 n Ps i wo b srng o p o hci oms in big d, sinc h o o in ctconr w ny oh sc vl, l lon big rlivo on Wh h ving bco n h odn lgg gnl of ctiv sc, i o log y bsolcoltion bn ohologcl dns (prc o ) n

ss wthin th spcul y, wh h pci isud win h Ps ns. s, o o n wihsu rcivs in Svoic gug h opoloic ob wins o li o h lgg, hn h r coig io g us n w fo w ccp n g l h Ronc lg d cin h oss mk is--s h c, n w by no com

it o glisg h ds ssign o oh ,id h bc o st fom wit rciv mni in sn vns us o doig so n cn , uho, it

Fo e ata cp. bo (1 957 : 16-17, 2-6, 1-51) e eqivet or o ca occ b e eer ve tl

meaig, ep�ialy n t ler er ve becoe coed e bcive e ve modl e ect ve



Mk

ould ot cay fo t Aot fctiv maig o itfos to uakd lativ to ti Pt ifctiv maigcotat

Thos Afica lagags ctio 5 h t ohologicaakd fo of stti v tk to e ifcti, t of aostti v to fcti, ggs a imila colatio tifti ad tati ad tw ftie ad otati

oth aicato of makd rlativ to cott oud toosi ht, fo t xio of a giv maig, o o otast t o uual I Ruia, fo istac, athoug o ca ait kvl If) bo o akl f) bo fo odosh , i itot ay ilicatio of ifctivity, it cold agud that od to s ti itatio th Pfct i t uakd fom, ie t fctiv il ala add om ecialuace, fo itac ga factua meai

6.6. Degees o medss thi to w hav coidd t makdakd

itictio stl as it chaacti actul ooitio ithi teatua t ole t a it a fuctio lativid toctai cotxt suc a otr aa va, t, tativty, eto cod). Fial, t ma otd tat te de of madof a aked fo d o ala te ame. Sh o tc,ot the mec h Pa v a ark r ravto t Sil ast, u h Pt rogs eve mr mak tat fct it ca e rlacd by t att imia, th SaisPogssi i mo ma rltiv to t orogiv thEgli Pogsiv, l e r progive pa

i i mor d a it t



D X

Lang uag e uid

Gni ls n dbe 6 ve gnec caco of e cied

n e pen boo, cung oe on enoed pn Soe e ebl eec oup (e. eee Url r)v o bn en no ccou.

Tb Genet£c lassicto of language dt

nd-E

nd-n

ndic Sns nd Ud nnin rsn

B-SvncB Lnn Lvn Lsvnc vc

S vni Od Cc Svnc Od Bgin,

Bgrin Mcnn, SCn Svnc RssnWs Snc Cc o U Son U

sn U WndsAnnnic ncn G, Mn Gc

nnc n Fn, Sn gs Roman

C s cs Gc, WsGc: Gc, Gn , Engs cnic

inn-Ugi

Ug ngn, Vg MFnn-ric Fnnis Esnin Cm Ma Zyan

Ki V Uddic Nns u Sm



Appx A

al 6. Gnc ccon o a c con)

Tkc Tsh Cacan (Kavean): eogan

e: Akaan, Aabo-ea aan) CeseNCono

ane KeeKwa ane (Aan) Yoba, IgoBanu wa , Shona, ChBema

As sss oC ndvd ngugs pupo o co o b o, umry

o blocal c, dcpo o vou c v dcud d p o book, o u c v omd bckbo of mrl d book T co o l d Slvoc ua ua du a m dad o c E aua fma o ll ad o ook, lvc u

v lyd moa o dvlopm of udy of ac ful dl, fc ould d o pop coof book, ad o o ld blo.

2 EEl o cul ooo vd o

of vbl y, ov vb o be d vb

fo in) d o-Pov b Pc (v o Pcl d ofc. W ov vb dc w o d oPov l bprov d oo . ov, fo oppo lo foud v vb, El, oppod o yor u m opo, d m dco uull polly cd Por

d poly ucd oov. c d ofc w pfc ofc , lou lufc d Fuuf lo dc r r ddo P ly E a pr b uly to; fo cbl by oHu quvl o-bul do o clud bu .



agug g

A ct a ag t Eglis spec ad ote vecteois om a pctcal t teotic vepoi Lec 7 ) wch cta a igap Rce ke oks i t evelo

et f t tud f ast i Es cude ), oo 4),Pm e 5), ad l ) Pticua atti s e tcdto te Possve, ich s aki ay of t ot ao uopalaguags Scp 74 it ume of ticles o t Posiv i Egis, vid o ycoicaly ad coic, ells oii essa y h to Scopf 74b) o ece ppoceo e aays of the Peive Elis ed co um of m a tces n spc, ad cs oigiayite i Egis ae eited iout ei tted it eaOtr s ag xcusivy o pma t osve atce 5) Nhs 7, d Scee 5)

.2.2 avn

.2 .2 . Russiae is apctual ppst btee Peecv ad

mpefectiv. e, sime ve mpefective isa ite ) ; pexe dvtivs o sm ve Pcie g.aa e a coy out ) ued deivtive oPefcive ves aa mpfctiv g syva cop u)

aspecu oppoo exsts i e Pt es ostt is istct i t mpfciv te Ps d uue,

t tter peiastic fmt usg b ith the tve. eis o oPa fecti , c usull as utu timefeec, a is taitily cal t Pfecie uu

u accou of sia pec aval ls is o 0) �igp os o ad ea sud so cosulsaeo 74) A cet te atv Russia aiti Boa 7) coiuto o devepe of

aysi Russi pect icue M 4 d kob ) Batca 74) i discuss of sm ec poace o pec iRusi d te ote Slavic aguags.

2.22 Buaih sectua yt of Bui s cosideb o

opex h at ussia. di o oppotio bee



nx

Pfct t fc g) d Imc i ifc ma n ci and ifci i s an sin in Ps Ts y n f

st h mfc hs fci nig d t Ais ct ig; sc cit s Pfc mc dfc s ssi nd i s cnis sgs f ci d ifc ng,, n th cs f h c Ais c s ps cmiatn f fcti ni wc Aist w syscd ni c Ifci ddi is stn tn Pfc d nnPfc, n s t Pfc nd mfcti sc. T is ns sncn Ps/Ps/u d c s s Pct n Ifci Pfc n Pfms

sdd dsct wk is s 1959). A y f maj ks s in t 1 97 98 s s i cn 198 19)

. Od c Snic Od c Sic wi n c y i

t tha ugi c f ss w dd Pfc/p stin, cssc tn i D 195 f c dscussn, s As-d n 197

. . RoanA sf itdcin sc Rnc gus is

n 197 cs i ipy

. cI tt c, is twy fm dsici

amg th ast tss: Ps t th ci g g

j I t ) mfct t fct ng g jvas as tg usd t it '), nd Pfct t c m g ttn ) T stin n Pst t dmc s sct t st ns, h th Pfct fs a tss Smtca th is y stin ut t ay ts fcfcti a ct/ ath t th Pfc t s ssn f



Lnuage gui

th fctmf smc stc. In sn rch,th s n s usd, d th fc ls cld Cus) s usd bh snss.

h s rmt f h ch bl fms s Imbs (60) rc thtc rt s P (960), hch ls cts r f rr o sc n rch n n (chr ;

s ls y (7, s (97)

A SshSsh hs th sm fm scs s h,

lhugh h snc dstnctn b S (crrsdgt h rc Pst t, g esb rt) d rfc (.g o n ) , n tculr, s smh r ul (6), rrridl (97 In ddn, Sns hs srrgrssv fs ( g esy esbieno m rtg ) h rgssg, hl h ul nrssv rm (g sco ) d n cu ss ng.

. ee

A nc n tn t th s btn Prc (g !a

h osd d nnfc, cn r hs, thn h nfc frs, stn b rs (g . Z sd ) dnonrs (g mrf n s sg, I usd t s )

th nc , h rst s ssnly s Ts, d hstcur scul dstncn ds nt s h h tnss nh r s nd n no fs, th dscn n s nnost s urly scu (rfc vsus mrfc

d dsctn h c vrl rs sn (88) r m rcn scuss, s 9), s

96 1 1 1-, nd rrch ( 7)

A n rn r hs fctct sn

rng huh tss, s, t fs I t,h h c, s c frs. th fs h s, s S 9)



A A

2.5. Chs aas s of v w sp, o

od sptua d pol, vu, fo s ossv -zh

fiv l (t ltt oi pftiv i d ltiv ps f o o s ptils, Jotov 9 . oos wo do o d uss, o 98, ou otd owd ol distitios t t i so vs lidtios of t is of t vo ss

2.6. t laggs follow ould lso of st, v o d o

fli wi ls dsid, fo vwpoit of t loy of sp

ltou us o dsssd i dtl ts oo, t liu o sp ukis, t o oso 9, wi lopy o opso of spt ivo d i s, s osid 15

B l wi t is s of ts ad spt opposio s o b B, dsid i iv 7 : pt 4ply pp 749 d .



P P B

Rece aroace o aec

T bsc s bk s bn idc d cnc f sg w ps gky b nd s c bby nfi s ch s b sysc dscb u c s sbsd cs b spc n d sc c ac fd d cisd i s cs dd d ds insd c w uy w cd ns svs O dc smis suss kd m c f ccd b y cnn c i f g svn s sd my d-c scsT cs cd nyss y ecnc b ndy s T s n h cs hy c sd b uddab e bcd n gscs edg sc d n b T cs s vy d h nd w give d g c cs d b und n c wk

B Lls f spIn sc d n d

n b m ucus sd xs ci i nd s usd xss gss e gyc bss s d m bsins

o c oh do (197 d Ho (96) e ovd h ov ok o gve gm, t oheedlly dt moeov ehe cat to o te lysoss gtve eok



n B

des (7) se cs heo o s eeb oesse g s eeseed mca am ca cnsuc, e h mn ng te mn n t o

o h n n ( 7) Ts a o o a ocs oc uae heeb vaous aae oocv coco reeseed cas ems deso ue f rasbeee ad asecua cosuco wd age of gu(hough e d n dsuss he dscace foud y ohese ues, s d sec bov) u des o gve eaed aas on agage he ms Suc a aas oRuss s oded b e 7) o eses Imefecesec as beg uon, e h Percv se s oba cas eese, c combes o uan bg he sun, d fo e uo Ts cesds cse ou dscuss sc ad ss, hee he meecve desced as veng suo fo sde, eeas he eecees f ousde, ou dscmag begg mdde dd Tee e dcacy beee desos ad e use oca eeseas: deso cams ha be suahaaeses essea gsve eg, h exs bdhs e eee meg geea ben secda ee e be suo cceses mec mea he Seaa, ud e h e' aoach eadeque hu h f aesm beee gess dae seems be much commer h ha beee meec

d ae acss h aguge o h od, ao odes uhe dscuss, e om (7a)

Fur nssh use o em efecv, fecve, soo

eds dsus he fa ha ecu y o agua ous e dsce ee, ec y dsc o eac ohe o

bu ahe e o osos o cy v oosoeee Peecve d Imeecv ussa sae, hee hd em Russa Suc a o ca be eeseed ems ba eaue e eece haaesed b feue vue [+ Ieees h au au [ ] Sce hs as h Imeee s h maed mbe o oso, e ca chcese



Rn aoa to a

h Ic as u PRFTVE t Pfctv a PERF] ,

wh mans unad and ans ad, and ha u to tlus hat PEECTV] - ERFECTVE] whnc t ost ad

ns u m PFECVE] , s [ + PRFECTVE , n hs casS a th us o atu hs sn as bn tt m tn aaun h a sin , hw, atonsbn th a stns s c thn wh h Pc sn n ussn h us aus can h s n t aus s In nnt , nsan t nn s h Indcaiv Mod a h AosIt snt nd utu h aons mng th ms ahat h and Ict a b ast nss, h th Psnt andFu a n an h nonas tnss t Futu is a ut tns,h th Psnt s nt Th sctua dsnc ctc as xss h Aos bng ct, Ict and Psntng h uu s ascua nuta ih had h bna au ± PST] , [ ± FUURE and [ ± PFEVE]th u s an b chaacsd as ws hus bngng ot ans tha hd aon th s but nt ncssai n otssn n h hg

AoristImpefecPreente

[ + PERFCVE, + PAST - FUR] PERCTIV + P, - U[ PERECIV T - UE[ ST + UR]

H th us atu ds nt s cauat th fastns but ss t hw th nonal atns ht hdang th aus s

u dg o abstaon is intdcd i h fau snc cua tn fmwo c do nta hat h aon bt fm nd manc ctgo snssa nn o as onn n intctv p of s

aac s gn in af 6 c n t atnbwn aus santc faus and t Pfctmpcivstn n ussan oma poitin i twn t was Pv nd Imcv bu in t antc cca

i elevt te eet ge ete tee teted b ile e t eet/tte

2 e Hl 96) l ebe (1 970) d W (1 97 lc i c



Appdx B

io of i oppoiion Haltf u i fa, cldi, foic, [EVE] , [VE . D coio of arld o dir coic e ic d forl cati, o ta

r o pl corrlaio aic d foral catri,r o r iat o cmpl e of ul atcfaur ypiclly rad iccll, o ta i rc fbot iat ad inad fatr i i doii i dcisiv

B 3 Mod-hori si

e dl-teretc apac o anic p o ood aalyi f ma in of ic pnion,ic aic reptio lv fol ojc a,ricly a, a i ed of iepeao2 Modl-oicsmatic ls a ufuctial elas tn smic rr

etais f stecs fr istac, d t stec ecessarily avt rut-vlu is e o tu eve tr is tu adfal vr i false), ds stc csar ilya u ifp ie q te ve p s tu q u b u, uif p i fals n q ma t tu or alse), tc

oty 97) a ml-oretc emacs aalysi aspc i li, i uld od a d no aly r pc dcty ay articula fol sios f Els,bu ratr o uc ditici a t ini v dutio f tt d comlion vrsu t irfctiv durai f a ct '

oe model oec eeco em oemic ee eeedy eeo (92) o i e ewe eec ecio deemied eel y e ee [ ± AIVITY]d IME] (e e eg eev oy w [+CIVITJ o le dvge ged om vg d em d omlegoi Moeov e mode dic o evle ce e ogve o dee ie o e gme o ee le Seee o ( 4) Come ( )

J o e modeleoe o lig emic ee o ce ee ( 92)

ecey e ce e elev oo ' y olewod e j ' o wold e e ce Jn n Pa d Jn apita o ra v mevle (ee o e e o o e le olee e o e e c ce e cpl oce wee o be moved o me oe y e e wo eece wodve dee vle



Re se

(p A -trtc ys u c/pt pp s y pl (94 pr t ppct s yss t spc i wic i

urst ts tt t pctu ppt r tnujct rr t bct, t ncsiy d rnc tu-u, uss t pks tut dci s cu c rprstt



R F R N C S

0) 'kd d kiobildg bei le Zeiwoe

e d d dorme verbi d r edefkte', Uieit it, w eie V 2

l 1 66) Te b yte of ret-day Aa Elih e geoo

d o ( 1 974) h mei o t t er for Old ChrhSi ex Siei yi ty e Hge Moo

o 197) ey eig t e e ood L [= de 1 938 Kteie zaziw oj barkiej

k ok kdei ioi

o O 1 47) Swii mmr. eod ed odo Lod A 72) it ie et it om ti ode b

o o B) (1974) dg d ebek d ol ikoge i r Zeitht fr lawii 4758

ix L d do 15 Graa d la la gar Seod d dde

odko 1 7 1 V a koo lol e otrb oo

oeo F d R F ( 1 971 R yta: aet o oer Rix d by od d Oxod ledo

B W E ( 1 963 ) T, e d h vr : a ty thortl ad ligiti, with ti attetio o aih Uverit o l o blito i i

o Y R 968) amar of oke Che erkeey d Lo Uiveri o ioi re

oky N (1971) ee e re re d ei reIn D b d L Jkobov ed a. Cbide bdgeveri e 183-21.

ok N d H ( 1 68 h ou aer o lh New Yok Herd Row

oe (195) Revew o dero 197) Lua 7 89o ( 1 95b) Rew o eo ( 197) Moer Lge iw 0, 47

DabGa, L 1959) rb i L Li oie , 253-62

Li o oro Poi 8 (196), 1 eio N 197) h artt Fh Ale di i Fe

eie B 18



Rns

Dl A 195) ie vvm sm v aoslv!i age SNDy D R (92) Stes n he lic vb asect time eeence n Ensh

Sd i Lg pae Lg, Uvy ea at a S (9) cel amma es ssa ate J Hk

eFeel, 1953) e ape bt d te ii e eiati

eeiv e epay leay a , 3626, (0) ama o asec ae n eaig i the Russin erb a

bidge: Cabdge Uvy F, 92) e ae d devee e aea iti n e

R veb Slav a Eas Eoean Rew 0 (1 21 ) 9506Fdi, (19) O a tey ad H Inenaon ournal

Amca Ls 0 a 2Gae (95 'ebal pe e, aguag 91

Gdeeeve ad dge G 1 895 ) ain gmmr id e ala

Giv, (92) ie ChBemb nd au grm tie n rcn igc eet 3

Gd W W ( 8) a o he oos nd tene of the Geek ve Ld Maa

Gd, W. W ( 9) A eek mar Ne ed d alaGebg, H (1966 aag vls, wh ec referc to eur herches.

e age

Gie, . (95) 'Lgic ad veai I Cl n Mga edSeeh s Sx d Sa Ne k adei e 18

a, B (e Ba, B) (196) Die Aekt de de e e ee d dbve Mdellieg Zeh awik 7353

a, 196) ' eae de Aeteteieg i eRe Pble r ktueen Grm atk ud Semantik iig : alM Uiv 13350

al (19) evie ee 973 ) Zetcht f lawik 10-16

, B ad Sbe, (0) ' a Caakeeg de eai Re d e, Lisise Abesbechte 3-52Ha M (9) e vbal ye a a nc rcon o he

hilical ey 6290ai W. ( 96) h eesson o h v voc tuie n th d sian

le Cabidge Cabdg Uiveit PeHate A G 1 95 1 ) 'e geiv n n ac

Lae 7 2580avek, (1939) 'Ae et te d vebe e e Mln de

lisqe erts Chae Ba Geeva Ge P 23-0Heea, J. 19) eegi n t ant te an ats

hereica Liis 15880lt, J 193) e sect Aca Jtaia 152Ib P 960) emlo e temp eb rni oerne esa d rmmre

ecive a kkIa�ek, (1962) De russiche pche der Gegenwrt, Forelehr l

(Se) NeIvava K (19) Nini na llo svie v vremen lark zik a

N



Jakobso, R 932). ur Skur des ssch Vrbums I ri· GMh Pragu: Cerl Lngusiue d rague. P. 74-84.

oo S. E. (1957). Kgoria gago f kak . Lgrd zdvoLngradskogo uivers.

esprse, O. 19) Th piloophy of grr. ndo: Gorge A d Uinohanso, L (1971) Ak im Trkich. Sud Turcc Upsaies oos, M. (16) T Egh rb : r mig. diso lukee :

Uvrsy of Wiscos esssseso, H. H (1953. Te wor ou d freue y o grica

gore of Sdard Lierary u. Di Waye Univei PressKeenan, E. L (197 On semaicaly bsed gammar', Ligii Iuir , 4 1 3-6 .Kein, H G . ( 17 Temp Apk, Akioar. Tbige : NiemeyerKosmiede, E (15. as ishe Vebu und dr savsch Vrbalapk' In

hr Bre zur Sud, Fb r P Di Much: IsVrlag

37-49.Kuoc, J (196. Th i gr o d-Europ Hedlb: Carl

WinrKurwic, J (17 eba aspec n Semiic' n Geb o Apprch h

dy of h Ai Near Ea Oiena fasccules 1-2 P -20ao, G. (1966). Saie adives d verbs n ngis'. NSF-r 17

Compuaiona Laboaoy, aad Uvambo . S. (197). Pr Gr. orreced d ambridge mbdg

Uniesiy ess.

anceo, C ad Arnaud, A (1660). Gir g raio. ars: Pirr leei.

eech, G N (97 Meg h Egh rb Londo : Logmanng, (7). ' roivoposavl orsiskogo pefekog za�eni u

russkog glgoa', Scadovic 1 103-10Lewis, G. L (967) Turih grar Oord : edo Lyons, J. 963 Srcur emaic Oxord Basil Backll, or h Plologca

Soeyyons, J. 168) Iroduo horic guic. rg: Cambdg Ui

veiy rss.yki, I nd Timu§e, D . (1961). rki o�r gak om zyk' Iomruk ar. Moscow: S Pp 3723

Mcawley, J D (1971). Tes ad ie refer glish I lor dD T Lagedoe, eds, Sudi ii . N Yr o, Rehaad Winso Pp. 961 3

ajinskaa, 199) Vk . Gr brzioscow: zdvo A SSSR

Marchand, (1955) O uesio of as oprso be h rogressvfo Eglsh ad of Iaia and Spash' Su iguii 9 4-2.

Maso Ju. S 5 agonj d someno bogasom ieaurnom jazka�e uoreblenie' n S. B. Be!j, d., Vp gri bgoruogzyk oscow: dvo SSSR. p 7-12.

Maso Ju. S 6a d. Vpr ggogo bi Mosco : Idoosroj erau.

Maso Ju. S 6b . oosy agonogo ida soemenom zabomaykzan n Masov 6, . 7-32

Maes, H (1974). orphoo: h w. ve Pr



Rcs

Man A. (1914) Emplos des aspec du vebe se. Prs: ChmponMle (1972). ors a nrtve emantic ccoun o aset n Russin

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Kkya.almr R. (96. A lngsc st of he Englsh veb odon Lonmanttrsson T. (972. n Rs peates a heory of case and apec Stocom

Almvt n isl.Po\ak (1960). n zu erbaapek m Franzschen. rreish

admi isht tratise 5Qrk R. Grnbm S e G. and Svrtvk J (1972. A gmmar of coem

oa Englsh. ono: onmn

Rsudova P ( 968 Upoteene vdov agola v russom ae. osco zdoosoog ivrsitta.

Rods C (969. ec ose Yorba Lndon: nglh UverstPr

Rika . (970 Die Brie "rmati nd "rmalo ndire rwendg n er enratven Tnsormationsgrammati. n K Hiolp M. Biric e ores lngscs. e He: oon. Pp2608

Sche J (975 Te pogesse n nsh. mstrdm Not olld.

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fns

, H (1973) i , Mod d kmik d i fo i d od uic ic, Ztcht aw; 1898212

, W 1 973 Afca agg tct k iv f Ci

i (1898 A mma o the ag z d d , vd W d M J d G Cmd Cmd Uiv P



INDEX

aou a e a aolccom pihmn nchivm n 4 Ak e Faadian 78.a kionar nAlann, IonAnen G e Gee nenaori(i) e pa, pr and

inivl anguagsArabi 9 I8n 7 - 81, 82

mooog 95 98 I aspe denon o, Iai 4 44 8

Bai 88 89 9 3 94 e oLin Lihania

Baolavoni 8 88 92 94 Ba Savonc

Ba 28 CBeb, on,wahil

bac nn Bb e ChiBblr 7 ' 5

ot m prt · I

ad II9 Pr 7 pam

Ci 9 9 ao nvalae

Chrmi on ChiBem 28 Chee (Mandarin) 59 8 94 0

2 28 - 2 I9 . 58 8I

82 448 59 64 ona II II8 2 onx in o 2 45 9

8 8

oi s e a onintonnuou 2 5 4 8 Iumlaidiriuv 24nC 67 70, 07 8

limaiv 2iribuiv 24 raiv 4 44 pam 48 Duh 99 iao 3 4 5 48

e

En I 4 2 aial 25 7 ai 72, oi orm 9. S Pr 2I am, efe and i e rer S4 60 Prn iho pr m

rr 8 73 77

Prorv IS 44 amProrv orm 9 87 9 or d II

2 ror Pr 6 Por ad 49nprop 4 6 pna l 42 te 8 am vral parl 8 93 94

Eonian 8. IOve 0 47. 5 x rfct ee rfc xpriniaxpinial ere e pre xpr

enia

e 57 y 29 2 Finh 8 8 Ionfoma eeson -I 4 7I;

h



Fench, 60, 68f., 73, 78, 06, Iz6fmefct, ad st Dte, 1,3,4,

3, 7,ZI,Z, 6,, 34, 4Z, 45,6

mperect ad Past Dete, forms,

95,96,98 erfet (Copou Past), 53, 61, 107,

08 perastic ogressive, n, 33, 87,

99, 03, 2Zrequec,IJJ, J6f, J8 utu,, 8, 22, 64£, 66 , 73, 92 utre erfct, 8, 5, 56, 8

Gaelc, ee s, Scots Gaec

geeral actal,ee constaegeera meanig, , 38 Georgan, f., IZ

Aorst a erfect, 12,2, 32, 4,I5,I6, 20

Prfect, 62, 08, 09, 10 erectv a mpeectve, 6 32,

6, 70f., 74 erfective n mperectve,oms,

88, 92, 94, 9

German, 8, 53, 60, 86n, 107, 3In.rbal prees, 46., 89, 91., 9,4 Gemac, 8, 90, 99, 07; ee alo

ival agegesmtbedetng, ee genera meanngGthc, 90, 94 gamatcalisaton, 6 - 10 Geek, Anciet, 4,6, 95 , Z7, 31

os erfect, 2., 72 a 50, 95 7, 98, 14, 2If.

Pefect, 53, 57, 6zGreek,Moder, 26, 6I, 6, 95 , 98,

I7 gunebutng, ee basc ang

habitual, 25f, 26 - 32, 50 , 7f., 82., 03 ad ther sectual alus, 3., 69.,

76,120 Hnd, 85., 0Z, 0.hstoric preset, ee resent, arratvettite,83

Hngaria, 43, 66, 93, 94, 12

Icelandic, 32, 35, 37n., 9 gbo, 82, 10, 106, 120, Iipeect, ee hat, rctve,

past,an nvl imeectve, , 3, 4,I6, 4 6

locatve, 98 " 10, an statve, 5 I, 8 4, 122 n tec, 46

iplicate, 28 - 30 inchoatve, ee gessvendetperect, ee perfct,expeentandoEopen, - ai 83, 84,

97, 4, 20; ee ao invia

aie an laageoraia, 83, 85, ee alo divda

laageifeental, 08 - 0 igessive, 9,0, I3zteral stctre o station, ee te

ora csttcy,inteash, 84, 103f, 06

Prgressive,3Z, 39, 99f, 10 talan,1,3, 53, 6, 07, 5

Prgressve, 32, 33, 36, 73, 102, z,I,I5,J7 ieativ, 27f., 30,3If., 4z- 4 am 3

Ko, e anKpelle, 57, 59, 0

atn, 46f, 4n, 89, 2 Pfect and rct, 1, 53, 7, 83,

07nLaian (Letis, 9, lon.

ialisto, 6, n.ithuaan,z5f, 7, 9, 94, 19 ocals teoy, 9octv exressons, 98 - 06, Z9Lsata, Upe, ee orian, Upe

Maconian, 88, 0 a, ee VguMa, ee heremsaeess,ZI, 6n, 63, 1I 2Zeang, ee sntcs

ihet, 7n,, Z3f, 4 - 5 oelthoretc sematics, ee seatics,

modlteoreticMode Gre, ee Gree, emorpholog y, 7n, 9, 46f ., 53

idividal laguages, 9n, z3, 62878

a makednss, J4f,II6, , If.

uul,z4n

arrae se, ee rset, narrtiveneg, ee subsa meagNenets, eutao, 55, I16 o costuctions, z, 39f, 55 ostav,7, IZ, 34 - 9, 41, 51, 72

ad tsss laggs, 8 12Z; eealo dnac stat



O Cr lavc, , 8, 0, 5n126

pst, 55f., 58, 82 - 4, 8; se eectd habitual, 25f., 28 30, 72f

d perfei, , 12, 1, 22£., 71 3recet 5�., 60f,se aso pefet o

recet stprduriv, 22n.perfet, S., 2, 52 64, 8, 4 106 - 10

xprintil, 54, 58f., 62 o persisten siuion, 60, 2 of recent ast 60f., 2, 0 of result, - 8, , 10

perfecte, 1- 5 passim, 2 13 1624, 30

d tera tempral costiec 21, nd iterati ve, 2, 31, 2 nd erect u 2 - 4 passmnd sta vi, 1f., 50f., 72, 2 - 4, 122 and tese , 6 71, 78 - 2

ersin, 6, 8, 14, 21 pase 48onolo II I6. J7, 8n.luerect, 8n, 53, 5, 8, 108

os 66, 70, 08 ruguese, 23, 34, 3, 2, 102, 04.reset f., 0, 671, 2, 82f. see as

perfectarratie sorc) 38

proes, 3, 3f, 4f, , 72 pogessie, 2, 15,20,2 - 40, . ,

3,7

forms, , 8, 8 - 10 f.d maredness, 112 11 d other spes, JJ, 22f, 2f,30,

62 rsectiv, 64., 106 pnual,7f., 2,41 - 4, 97., S, Pjabi, 02,0

rct t e ast recenrelatie m referee se tme reer

arestie, 20; se as erfect o rest

teicomaceu6

mefet d ime ast I, 74, 4, 121

ef I, 53, 61, 107: se ls n d vidual language

Romaia , 61 Rssa 125, 0 2 13

sct d lotie 10, 10 foms, 88, 8, 7,10 H, 2, 8, 2f, 1,72

f i 6

iteral moracosite , 8 ,22, 2f., 4f., S

iteative, 27, maredness 2n ,IS 22 pnopast, 6 7 ass Sf

perect mean 5, 8, , 4., 0,108

erectie I, 4, 7 - 24 passe c ad ompeeness, , 20f,

46,48 posp 65 ta 43

sit, 8 cots G , f., 102,03f., 106

setis, J, 8 3 pssm, 4J, 122, 1312 see basicmai al mig subsiay mai

model-teortic u 2semelftie, 2, 42, mi se l s adan, ArabcerboCrotin 66 70 si m 75n,

88 hoa 02

simp doai ee cosaisitato 1 se e as his fsi tuaton

aoic I, 14, 16, 4, 8 , 2, iee eaing, 7., 42, 4 edess, 2, J2 I4 , 4

passm, 8 20 Peft, 10, 108 vel rees, 8 91 see as n-

langageslvoi, as se as Rsslaoc ot 6, 4: s aso

va lagagoic West 66 see as divua

anagesorba Uer 3n., 88 pash 04f., , 122, 127

mpefet ad impe at I, 3, 7, ,12, 1 25, 71,I

ect 6, 3, 4, 61, 107

ogessve, ., 2, 32 - ass 73OZ, 112, 11

stte 1 zf. , 48 51, 7f., 72 asle, 104.get, 8, 4., 1035

se, f 82f., 8, 103, 132 idiida ast 1,20,

4,f., 6z, 22 sr eanin 11,8 wi

8 f



Index

c 8emo osecy r ,

1, , , 81 emo eso . , , 8

s ao e oge

ese , , 3 8 9, 98, IlS, 13 ; s a ua t

esess gges 7, 8, emolo 1, 1, 7e eece , 8,79,788,10

dvb , n, 79v , 9, , 8 798

Tkc In. s a TksTks 08 8

Udm Vot

e ob s edshs ob

0, 07

Vg

oce 8 97 Vy

es 0 1, 8 +vbl noun , , 9, 9

Weds Ue s orb Ue

Yoba 8, 8, 0 0 Yk oed Ne

y 1



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