ESSENTIAL

modern

worldhistory

Ben Walsh

.Hodder Murray Are YOU in this?A MEMBER OF THE HODDER HEADLINE GROUP

Note: Some written sources have been adapted or abbreviated to make them accessibleto all students, while faithfully preserving the sense of the original.

Words printed in SMALL CAPITALS are defined in the Glossary on page 219.

© Ben Walsh 2002

First published in 2002by John Murray (Publishers) Ltd, a member of the Hodder Headline Group338 Euston RoadLondon NW1 3BH

Reprinted 2004, 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form(including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether ornot transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the writtenpermission of the publisher, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the CopyrightLicensing Agency.

Layouts by Fiona WebbIllustrations by Oxford Designers and IllustratorsCover deSign by John Townson/CreationPicture research by Liz MooreTypeset in Garamond by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and WearColour separations by Colourscript Digital Ltd, Mildenhall, SuffolkPrinted and bound in Spain by Bookprint, S. 1., Barcelona

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN-IO: 0719 57715 2

ISBN-13: 978 0 719 57715 4Teacher's Resource Book ISBN-lO: 0 719 577160ISBN-13: 978071957716 1

ContentsSECTION 1 The First World WarChapter 1 Britain and the Great War

1.1 Why did Europe go to war in 1914?

1.2 Why did all the military plans fail in 1914?

1.3 Atour through the trenches

1.4 How did they break the stalemate on the Western Front?

1.5 The Battle of the Somme

1.6 Should the Great War really be called aworld war?

Chapter 2 British depth study: Britain 1906-18Part A: The Liberal Party's welfare reforms 1907-11

2.1 Why did the Liberals introduce welfare reforms?

2.2 Did the Liberal welfare reforms work?

part B: Votes for women

2.3 Votes for women: for and against

2.4 The fight for the vote: Suffragists and Suffragettes

2.5 Why did some women get the vote in 1918?

Part C: Britain at war

2.6 How did DORA get Britain organised for the Great War?

2.7 How did women contribute to the war effort?

SECTION 2 Co-operation and conflict 1919-45Chapter 3 Making peace 1919-23

3.1 Prospects for peace

3.2 What did the Big Three want?

3.3 The Treaty of Versailles: winners and losers

3.4 Was the treaty to blame for Germany's problems?

3.5 Were the peacemakers 'very stupid men'?

Chapter 4 Keeping the peace in the 1920s4.1 Was the League of Nations a good idea?

4.2 Did the League work well in the 1920s?

2

8

12

1720

26

28

32

36

3844

48

54

58

60

62

66

68

70

74

7881

86

909498

100

Part B: From Weimar Republic to Nazi dictatorship5.4 How did Germans feel about the Nazis in the 1920s?5.5 How did Hitler become Chancellor in 1933?5.6 What was Hitler's vision for Germany?5.7 How did Hitler take control of Germany?

Chapter 5 Weimar and Nazi Germany 1918-45Part A: The Weimar Republic5.1 How did things look for the Weimar Republic in 1919?5.2 How well did the Weimar Republic do from 1919 to 1923?5.3 Was the Weimar Republic asuccess 1924-29?

-

Part C: Life in Nazi Germany5.8 How did the Nazis keep control in Germany?5.9 How did young people react to the Nazis?5.10 How did the Nazis treat women and families?5.11 Why did the Nazis persecute minorities?5.12 How did Nazi Germany cope with the demands of war?

102108112

115

118

Chapter 6 The road to war 1929-396.1 The road to the Second World War - a summary6.2 What were the effects of the Depression?6.3 Why did the League of Nations fail in the 1930s?

"I 6.4 Hitler's words, Hitler's actions6.5 Was appeasement a good idea?6.6 Shock horror! The Nazi-Soviet Pact 19396.7 Hitler's war?

120122124126128

132134

Chapter 7 Britain in the Second World WarPart A: Britain at war 1939-457.1 Why couldn't Britain stop Hitler 1939-40?7.2 How important were Dunkirk and the Battle of Britain?7.3 Why did the Battle of the Atlantic frighten Churchill?7.4 Britain and the bomber war against Germany7.5 The end of the war in Europe

Part B: The Home Front 1939-457.6 The Edwards family in the Second World War7.7 How did government action affect people?

136138142144146

148

152

SECTION 3 The Cold War~

Chapter 8 The coming of the Cold War 1945-49 ~8.1 Why did the USA and the USSR fall out after 1945? 160

~

~8.2 Why did the superpowers clash over Berlin 1948-49? 170

Chapter 9 Cold War - Hot War 1950-729.1 Atouch of Cold War madness 1729.2 Containment case study 1: the Korean War 1950-53 1779.3 Containment case study 2: the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 1809.4 Containment case study 3: the Vietnam War 1964-72 186

Chapter 10 Eastern Europe 1953-8910.1 How did Stalin and Khrushchev control Eastern Europe? 19610.2 Why did Khrushchev send tanks into Hungary in 1956? 19810.3 Why did Khrushchev build the Berlin Wall in 1961? 20310.4 Czechoslovakia 1968: a repeat of 1956? 20610.5 How important was Solidarity in Poland? 20910.6 Why did Communism collapse in 1989? 212

Glossary 219

Index 229

Acknowledgements 233

Britain and theGreat War

11 1.1 Why did Europe go to war in 1914?

SOURCE 1

Here is the bottom line forthis topic. Give four examplesof TENSION between countriesthat helped to lead to theGreat War.

alliance; arms race; colony; empire; tension

2

The uniform that Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of the Austrian empire, waswearing when he was assassinated in Sarajevo in 1914.

Look at Source 1. It is dramatic, maybe even a bit shocking,to be looking at the clothes that a man died in. The murderof Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 led to the deadliest war theworld had ever seen. We call it the First World War. It isalso often called the Great War.

But it was not just the murder of the Archduke thatcaused the war. To find out the real causes, you have tolook back many years.

RUSSIA

The Balkans ­Austria-Hungary,Russia and Turkeyall wanted to controlthis area.

/.. ~---'

GERMANY (./' .. '_._'" "\,

, ~~;T~~:~~~\t-·· .

'-'.' '--\,--------;{ --- ....-.~: \....-,.

, ,

Alsace-Lorraine - taken by ? gGermany in 1871 but France Istill wanted it back.

.. 0c0f0-!<:J

Tension between countries in Europe had been buildingfor years.

• There was tension over COLONIES. For the previous fiftyyears, European countries had been competing with eachother to build bigger EMPIRES, especially in Africa.

• There was an ARMS RACE going on. Most countries werebuilding up their armies. Britain and Germany werebuilding up their navies, too.

• Europe was divided into rival ALLIANCES (see Source 2).In an alliance, each member promises to help the othersif there is a war. France, Britain and Russia made analliance, called the 'Triple Entente', because they werescared of Germany. Germany felt that the Triple Ententewas an attempt to encircle it so it made an alliance,called the 'Dual Alliance', with Austria-Hungary!

ALGERIA(French)

SPAIN

MOROCCO(French)

The fuse is laid

ScaleoI

N

t

SOURCE 2Key

D The Dual Alliance

D The Triple Entente

D Neutral countries

~ The OttomanCd (Turkish) Empire

D Disputed areas

~ Flashpoint

EGYPT(British)

LIBYA(Italian)

Morocco - both Franceand Germany wantedcontrol here.

A map of Europe in 1914 showing the two alliances. 3

The tension buildsFrom time to time, these tensions brought countries close towar.

Our overseas trade is nearly asbig as yours. We need to protect

our ships. Why are you objecting toour navy?

D BritainD Germany

30_ 25OV>......Cii -so 20.o~

~ g 15c"O

ro ~ 10...... ~~o

5o-'----'--..L........J'--_-'---'---'-_------'----'-----'-_

Germany versus Britain:Dreadnoughts

Britain had the strongest navy in theworld. It needed a strong navy to controlits massive overseas empire. WhenGermany started to build up its navy,Britain was very suspicious that Germanymight try to take over some of itscolonies.

From 1906, the arms race entered anew phase. Germany and Britaincompeted to build new super battleshipscalled Dreadnoughts. They were the mostadvanced weapons of their time. Theywere faster, better armed and moreheavily armoured than any other ships.

What do you need that navy for?You don't have an overseas empire

to protect.

We've gotas much right

to be in Moroccoas they have.

They're getting far too arrogant.It's none of their business what we

do here in Morocco.

Germany versus France: Morocco

In 1905, then again in 1911, France triedto take over Morocco. Germany wantedto control Morocco as well, as it wastrying to build up its own African empireat this time. So it sent a warship to Agadir(in Morocco) to stop France. It lookedlike there might be a war but aconference was held and a compromisewas reached. France got Morocco, butGermany got some land in Central Africainstead.

~wordi ally; ethnic

4

1908 1911Year

1914

-

- r-

..--

o

What do you need that hugearmy for'?

To defend my country from yourhuge armies.

. ':If§-'I. fJ}(:\~ ~QO

.:<::-..;:)

The really big armies were in Germany,France and Russia. Germany felt verythreatened surrounded by two enormousarmies that belonged to a rival alliance.

Germany, France and Russia: massivearmies

With all this tension around, all the greatpowers built up their armies and navies.

oo

oo

0°They'll not get away with it

next time.

With Germany on our side wecan do what we want.

Austria~ungary versus Russia:the Balkans

The Balkans was a very unstable area.Different ETHNIC groups were mixedtogether, and they distrusted each other.

Russia and Austria-Hungary bothwanted to control this area so that theycould have access to the MediterraneanSea. In 1908, Austria-Hungaryunexpectedly took over Bosnia. Russia(and its close ALLY, Serbia) protested, butthen backed down when Germany madeit clear it would support Austria-Hungaryif they attacked. Russia did not want tofight Germany as well as Austria-Hungary.

From then on, Russia distrusted Austria­Hungary and began to build up its armyso that it could fight in the future.

5

Austria-HungaryGermanyWhy did Europe go to war in 1914?

1 Make your own copy of this table. France2 Fill out the blue shaded areas with examples I-R-u-s-si-a---+--------+-------1

of tension between those countries. You canget ideas from pages 2-5. BritainL- -L ----L _

6

Explain in less than twentywords why the shooting inSarajevo set off the FirstWorld War.

1 Historians often describe themurder in Sarajevo as a TRIGGER

rather than an actual cause ofthe war. Explain this.

, ,Ad:UHhJ

'---r-r-.J--"" Russia I:11 :11. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .

l-sT-ranre---'---T·'j../.................

1 Copy and complete thisdiagram to explain theSchlieffen Plan. Label thearrows to show:• how the plan dealt with

Russia• how the plan dealt with

France• how Belgium was involved• what would happen to

France when it wasdefeated.

2 Add to your chart anything thatyou think could go wrong withthis plan.

V$W word trigger

Plans for warMany people expected there to be a war in Europe at sometime. In fact, some people even wanted one. Britain,France, Germany and Russia all made plans in case warbroke out.

The most controversial plan was Germany's SchlieffenPlan. The idea was to keep a small army in the east to holdback Russia. Meanwhile, the rest of Germany's armieswould smash through Belgium, defeat France and Britainand knock them out of the war. Then Germany couldreturn east to defeat the Russians.

The fuse is lit: Sarajevo and the July CrisisThe atmosphere in Europe at this time has been comparedto a bonfire waiting to be lit or a bomb ready to be set off.All it needed was a single spark to set it alight.

On 28 June 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand ofAustria-Hungary visited Sarajevo in Bosnia. Some youngBosnian Serbs were waiting for him. They hated Austria andwanted to be part of Serbia.

This is what happened next:

FOCl«tMkWhy did Europe go to war in 1914?

On page 5 you completed a table to show some tensions that built up in Europe in the years before 1914.Unfortunately, you cannot draw a set of boxes in an exam! So, you are going to turn the information in thetable into a piece of writing. Use your own copy of this writing frame.

it>start with a clearintroduction that sums upwhat you are going to say. I am going to explain why there were tensions

between countries in Europe and why they led to

;t> war in 1914.For years before 1914, tension had been building

N~w write a paragraph in Europe. One cause of tension was overseasdescribing one cause of colonies. For example, Germany and France clashed

tension. Try this approach ... over ...

• State the cause of tension.• Add an example - and

explain why that examplecaused tension (who feltangry or worried aboutwhat).

Another cause of tension was ... For example ...

~O~ce you've done one

paragraph, it gets easier!Just repeat the above for adifferent cause of tension. ,'11leave you to choose whichcauses to use in the next two Yet another cause of tension was ... For

paragraphs. You could use example ...

the arms race or thealliances.

It>T~nsions make war possible, This tense situation made war likely, but it still

but they don't actually cause needed an event to trigger it off. This happened

a war. It needs a trigger. Now in ...it's time to explain thattrigger ...

This sparked off war because ...

7

1.2 Why did all the military plans fail in 1914?

Your teacher will (rightly) tellyou that you should learn allthis stuff. If it won't stay inyour head, concentrate onthree reasons why theSchlieffen Plan failed.

914' flan 17 fails2..5 August I, . e French troops today.We met up With so~ for them. ,heir flan 17It has not gone we harge against theinvolved a big INfANTRY c 0 ,hey were cut

d a few days ag .German bor er d SHELLfIRE beforeto bits by MACHINE GUNGS anman line - there

ot to the erthey even g Ities aYJYJarently.

200 000 casua r rwere '

19 August 1914: Russians attack earlyWe're still stuck here, but there's someinteresting news from the FRONT. 'heRussians invaded eastern Germanyyesterday. 'he Germans did not expect themto be ready so quickly. 'he Schlieffen Plan islooking a bit shaky.

artillery; barbed wire; barracks; bombardment;front; infantry; land mine; machine gun;outflank; recruitment; shellfire; stalemate;trenches; volunteers

24 August 1914: 'he battle at MonsWe nnally made it to France and were verysoon in action.

We gave the Germans a nasty shock atMons yesterday. Our rapid rifle nre really cutthem down. Even so, we could not stop themlike we planned to. We had to pull back. Therewere so many of them! I must admit I'm a bitworried.

4 August 1914: War feverWell, it looks like we're going to war: we werecalled back to our BARRACKS two days ago.On my way I passed hundreds of VOLUNTEERStrying to join up at the RECRUITMENT offices.I have heard it is like this in Russia, France,Germany and Austria.

Diary of Billy WilsonBilly Wilson is a captain in the Staffordshire Regiment. Hecomes from a soldiering family: his brother is a major inanother regiment; his father is a senior officer. Billy is a top­class officer and well respected by the men he commands.His family connections also mean that he knows a bit moreabout the events of 1914 than the average captain.

5 August 1914: ,he BE£. . g cam YJ in NOrfOlk·ld to a traln ln r h

We have move to be part of t eWe've been told that we are (BEF) led byBritish Expeditionary Force

I S· John French. .Genera Ir, kin forward to getting

I must say I m loo g d in the papersns I've just rea f

at the Germa .' d d Belgium. It's part 0

that they have Inva e knock us and Francetheir Schlieffen flan toout of the war quickly.

8

10 September 1914: The Battle of the MarneI am exhausted. We have been fighting the Germans at the River Marne forfive solid days now.

The Germans' original plan was to encircle Paris and cut off the city.Instead they turned straight towards it. They thought that we and theFrench were beaten. It was their first really big mistake. They got a nastyshock when we attacked them on 5 September.

The French were amazing. They pulled together their exhausted troops andsaved Paris! The government even took control of all the taxis in Paris to taketroops out to meet the German advance. We have wrecked the SchlieffenPlan. But what will happen now'?

---- -rh Battle of Ypres30 October '\9'\4: e d' the weather's

. have change .Lots of things t' the lovely town ofturning cold and we I;. the fighting is very

. now a wrecf...,Ypres IS ore digging anddifferent - we do m than face-to-face

, f m ARTILLERYsheltenng ro etting really heavy,fighting. Losses are g BARDMENiS. I have amainly because of BOM t get used to lifefeeling that we will have 0

in these WENCHES.

13 October 1914: The race to the seaFritz [the Germans] keeps trying to OUTFLANK

us. We try to do the same to him. Gradually weare moving towards the coast and the EnglishChannel. I think Fritz is trying to capture theports which bring our supplies andreinforcements. So it's a race to the sea.

At the moment we are near Ypres, alongsidean Indian regiment. The fighting is very heavy.

25 December 1914: ChristmasThey said it would all be over by now, but Ireckon we'll be here next Christmas, too. It'sstill STALEMATE in our part of the line. We get newtroops and supplies but so do the Germans.

The French tried to drive the Germans out ofArtois last week but they lost thousands.I am told that the trenches now run from hereall the way to Italy.

~ ...........12 November 191Both sides h 4: StalemateYpre aVe given Ut.

s. We can't h' p rYtng to t kthe's 1ft th G a e

Y Can t shift . e ermans btrenches, th u.s either. We att ' utfor th ey drIVe us ba k ' ack their

em. We Just ke ,c . It s the Sastronger t ep dIgging d me

WIRE barrie::nches. We have alsoeeper andand LAND up along the ent. put BARBED

MINEs. Ican't Ire trench lin, See how it IA,'II e,

vvl end.

Why did the Schlieffen Plan fail?

1 Read through Billy's diary entries. Try to find reasons why theSchlieffen Plan failed. List as many as you can. Once you have madea list, decide whether each reason was an example of:• factors that the Germans did not expect• mistakes by the Germans• the effectiveness of the Germans' opponents.

2 Add two more sentences to your work, explaining why the war wasat stalemate by the end of 1914.

9

A common exam question is'How RELIABLE is Source X?''Reliable' means you can trustthe source to tell you thetruth. Examiners usually wanta 'balanced' answer (lookingat both the strengths andweaknesses of the source).These two pages help youthink this through.

Billy Wilson's diaries: using historical sourceson the Great War

~wordi evidence; reliable; source

I hope you found Billy Wilson's diaries interesting anduseful. The aim was to help you to get an idea of the mainevents of 1914. However, it's confession time: I made upBilly Wilson. I thought the diary extracts would be aninteresting way to learn about the war. But I used a widerange of original SOURCES, textbooks and other materials tomake Billy's diaries realistic and also useful. Now it's time tothink about how I used the sources.

10

A,;oh·.~·~ •._--,1 Look at Sources 1-5 on page 11. These are some of the sources the

author used to create Billy Wilson's diaries (but they are not in theright order). Decide how the author made use of each source. Youcould use a table like this to help you.

Source Which diary extract Explain how you know theit was used for author used this source

1

2

3

4

5

2 All historians use sources. However, they don't~

\

usually create fictional characters. In pairs or Before you reject the diary entirely, thinksmall groups, work out your view on this question: about these questions:

The diary of Billy Wilson is fictional so it is • The diary is -Action - does that mean the

unreliable. Do you agree? information is wrong?

You could present your view in a class discussion• The diary is based on original sources -

would it have been more helpful if theor write a short paragraph to explain your view.

author had just given you the sources?Try to think in terms of 'balance'.

• The author has added Billy's thoughts andviews - do you think he has got EVIDENCE forthem or did he just make them up?

• Does the diary sound and feel right?How did you reach that decision?

"- - -- -

SOURCE 1

A volley ofbullets whistledpast our noses and cracked intothe trees behind. __ More firing, closer now and tearing intoour ranks _.. the 160 men that left the wood with me hadshrunk to less than 100.

We had to go back ... A bad defeat, there could be noarguing. In ourfirst battle we had been badly beaten, andby the English - by the English whom we had laughed at afew hours before.

From the diaries of Waiter Bloem, a young soldier in the German army in1914. Here he describes his first taste of action at Mons.

SOURCE 3

SOURCE 2

14 August 1914This has been a truly painfulweek waiting for orders tomove, getting troops trained,etc., etc. Rumour has it weare to be left in England asHome Defence, which wouldbe just awful.

From the diary of Billy Congreve,a young junior officer in the

British army.

Key

..British forces

... German forces

..French forces

• Fortress towns

o,

1 The Germans were slowed down bythe Belgian army and did not reachParis in the expected six weeks.

To Russia

2 The Russians moved morequickly than expected. TheGermans had to transfertroops to the east.

GERMANY

Verdun Alsace-Lorr i e

~""""~ 3 The French were

Toul • Nancy-./ beaten by the Germans:.., in Alsace-Lorraine but

Epinal. f:~' they held out at theC Battle of the Marne.

Belfort ~\: ,,,---..'''-__:~ "--'"

SOURCE 4

A map showing the movement of the British, French and German armies in 1914.

EnglishChannel

o 40kml--...J

Scale

Key..British forces..German forces..French forces

• Fortress towns-- Front line in early 1915

A map showing the race to the sea in 1914.

SOURCE 5

That French soldiers whohave retreatedfor ten days,sleeping on the ground andhalfdead with fatigue,should be able to take uptheir rifles when the buglesounds is a thing which wenever expected.

German army commander Generalvon Kluck commenting on the

actions of French soldiers at theBattle of the Marne. 11

11 1.3 Atour through the trenches

One important skill of anhistorian is to describe pastsituations accurately. Beforeyou turn over to the nextspread, try to memorise nveimportant things about thetrenches.

Allies; ammunition; bayonet; blast; censor;communications; duck boards; dugout;No Man's Land; 'over the top'; parapet;psychological; sewage; shell shock; shrapnel;sniper

From 1914 to 1917, the Great War was bogged down in astalemate. Neither side could defeat the other. Both theGermans and the ALLIES dug large, well-defended trenches.

COMMUNICATIONS trenches.Supplies, AMMUNITION andfresh troops came up thesetrenches. Telephone cablesalso ran along thecommunications trenches.

Machine-gun post.Machine guns weredeadly againstattacking forces.

DUGOUT. Soldierssheltered here forprotection againstartillery. Artillery killedmore soldiers thanany other weapon.

The trenches were crooked - this made themsafer. If a shell exploded in a trench, the BLASTwould be contained. Also, if enemies capturedone section, they could not shoot along thewhole trench.

Barbed-wire barricades up to 30 metreswide. These were almost impossible tocross unless you knew where the gapswere. Each side left gaps so that theirpatrols could get out.

PARAPETS. Piled up earthand sandbags to protectfrom SNIPER bulletsand SHRAPNEL.

No MAN'S LAND. The land between the opposing trenches. Sometimes it wasonly 100 metres wide. When soldiers went 'OVER THE TOP', they would have to crossNo Man's Land, facing a hail of machine-gun fire, and then try to capturethe enemy trenches.

12

These are typical British soldiers (calledTommies) in full kit.

• This kit weighed about 30 kilograms.French and German soldiers carried evenheavier loads.

• The BAYONET would be fixed when thesoldier attacked 'over the top'.

• Steel helmets were introduced in 1915.The first British troops to wear themwere shot at by other British troops whodidn't recognise them!

The soldiers' clothingwas usually infestedwith lice, or 'chats'as the soldiers calledthem.

This officer isspeaking toheadquarters on afield telephone.

Letters from homewere crucial tosoldiers' spirits.

One thing this picturecan't show you is thesmell, which wasawful, particularly insummer. There werethousands of horsesand thousands ofunwashed soldiers.At times, there wereunburied humancorpses. There wereno toilets - at best,soldiers had to use abucket which wasemptied wheneverpossible.

In winter, trenches flooded. Trench watercould be contaminated with sewage.Crates, pieces of wood or DUCK BOARDSwere laid down in the trenches to create asurface above the mud.

The bodies, SEWAGE andrubbish meant that thetrenches were infestedwith millions of rats.

_ This is a repairparty. Tommiesspent a lot oftime digging orrepairingtrenches.

The constantbombardmentof artillerycould causePSYCHOLOGICALproblems. Thiswas usuallycalled SHELLSHOCK. Soldierssuffering fromshell shockoften becametotally confusedor lost theirmemories.

This patrol iswaiting forcompletedarkness. Thenthey will go outinto No Man'sLand to look atand listen toenemytrenches.

Boredom was a big problem. Soldiers playedcard games and bingo. Some took upcourses to pass the time. Many took upsketching. Others, like Wilfred Owen, wrotepoetry about the horrors of war.

An imaginative reconstruction of a British trench at the time of the Battle of the Somme.

1 You are a young soldier in 1916. You volunteeredfor the army and have been in the trenches for afew months. Write a letter home explaining whattrench life is like. Write at least two sentencesabout each of these topics:• the physical features of a trench (for example,

the dugouts, the parapets)• living conditions in the trenches• the work you have to do• the dangers you face• how you pass the time.NB If you use a word-processor to do this task,question 2 will be easier.

2 All letters that soldiers sent home from thetrenches were censored. The CENSOR crossed outany information that might help the enemy, or anybad news that might discourage people backhome.

You are now the censor. You will be given oneletter from someone else in the class. Delete anydetails from it that you think you should. (If you areworking on a word-processor, make sure that yousave a copy of the original letter firstD

13

In this section, aim to:• list at least three reasons

why British soldiers wereable to stand the trenchconditions

• use at least two sourcesto support your reasons.

Why did the Tommies put up with it?

battalion; comradeship; court-martial; mutiny;patriotic; rations

Life in the British trenches was pretty tough. TheGermans, French, Russians, Italians (and, later, Americans)all suffered similar conditions. But there was no big MUTINY

at all in the British army during the war. Why did thesoldiers put up with the conditions?

One explanation is army discipline. Any soldier whodisobeyed orders, or tried to run away, would be COURT­

MARTlALLED, and could be executed. In fact, 3080 Britishsoldiers were condemned to death for cowardice andsimilar offences during the Great War and 346 actually hadthe sentence carried out.

But discipline is not the only reason. Historians havelooked at thousands of letters and diaries of ordinarysoldiers and have found that other, more positive factorswere just as important in keeping the Tommies motivated.This is what they have found out.

14

Factors that kept the Tommiesmotivated

1 Adventure

• Travel: most soldiers were ordinaryworking-class men. They had nottravelled much before the war. Thefighting took them to France andBelgium, the Middle East and Africa ­places they would not otherwise havevisited.

• Excitement: some men actuallyenjoyed the risk and the thrill of war.

• Challenge: most people like achallenge. War was the ultimatechallenge. In war-time, many soldiersachieved things they would never havedreamt possible. It may have been anact of bravery or simply putting upwith pain or hardship.

2 Comradeship

• Old friends: many BATTALIONS weremade up of close friends who all joinedthe army together. Soldiers relied oneach other totally. They did not want tolet each other down. After the war,many soldiers said they greatly missedthe sense of COMRADESHIP they hadexperienced during the war.

• New friends: Allied soldiers came fromall over the world. British soldiers metCanadian, Australian, South African,New Zealand, Indian, West African andCaribbean soldiers. They also met manyother British people.

3 Patriotism

The soldiers on all sides were generallyPATRIOTIC. Whatever the horrors of war,most believed they were there to do a jobfor their country and that the job wasworth doing well.

SOURCE 1

Four ofus were talking and laughing on theroad when a dozen bullets came within awhistle. We all dived for the nearest door,which happened to be a lav, and fell overeach other, yelling with laughter . .. I adorewar. It is like a picnic without thepointlessness ofa picnic. I have never beenso well or so happy. Nobody grumbles atbeing dirty.

Julian Grenfell, a British soldier serving in 1915,commenting on his experience of war.

1 Which of the factors 1-5 doSources 1 and 2 support? Writetwo sentences to explain youranswer.

4 Comforts

• RATIONS: for British troops, food rationswere generally good. Soldierscomplained about always having tinnedbeef and jam, but they knew they werebetter off than French soldiers, and evenFrench civilians, and they were muchbetter fed than the Germans.

• Letters: soldiers received regular lettersand parcels from home.

• Luxuries: they also received lots oflittle luxuries such as chocolate,cigarettes and alcohol.

5 Humour

Finally, we should not underestimate theimportance of humour in keeping upmorale! For example, 'Old Bill' was acartoon soldier created by Captain BruceBairnsfather (see page 16). Old Billgrumbled and complained, but then got onwith the job. He was very popular withsoldiers. He helped them to laugh at theirsituation and therefore to rise above it.

SOURCE 2

My dear father and motherShould this letter reach you, you will knowthat I have made the greatest sacrifice thatit is possible for a lad to makefor hiscountry in her time ofneed, and in thestruggle to free the world ofits greatestcurse - German militarism [militaryaggression).

I do not begrudge [resent} for a momentthe price which has been demanded ofme,as to serve in the greatest cause is indeedworthwhile. I hope you will not grudge theoffering which this means you will make.

Part of a letter written by Private George Marriott inJuly 1915. The author volunteered for service .. He was

killed in action soon after he wrote thiS letter.

FDautaskThe Trench Top Ten

Once you have read page 16, look back over all ofyour work on pages 12-16. You could also do someextra research of your own for this task.

1 Make a list of the top ten facts you think are mostimportant about life in the trenches.

2 Put a star next to any of your top ten facts thatonly the soldiers would know about (because ofthe censors).

3 Underline facts that you think are negative aboutlife in the trenches.

4 Highlight facts that show positive aspects oftrench life.

5 Finally, as a class, decide what are the five thingsevery GCSE student should know about thetrenches.

15

16

• •AI"1:LIftt1J

The trench experience

SOURCE 3

In and Out (I)Th.u b ..t hllf·hour he fore .. ,;oill~ in" to lhe "aIDe lrcnchc'l for Ihe 200lh lime

In and Out (ll)Tb~1 fir... balf-bour .her Of coming out" or those same lrcncbc

Cartoons by Bruce Bairnsfather.

Source 4 (below) gives the viewof one serving soldier onBairnsfather's cartoons inSource 3.

1 Explain why the lieutenant inSource 4 felt that the cartoonswere so accurate. (Mention atleast three details in thecartoons that fit with yourknowledge of trench life.)

2 The cartoons do not showevery aspect of life in thetrenches. What is not shown inthe cartoons? (Mention at leasttwo things you have comeacross that are not shown inthe cartoons.)

SOURCE 4

You may have seenCaptain BruceBairnsfather's two picturesshowing the hour beforegoing into the trenchesand the hour after comingout. Well, they areabsolutely it. Lord, how welaughed over them in thefront line . .. Take it fromme, he is one of the peoplewho by supplying roars oflaughter and joy to thetroops are helping to winthe war.

A letter to The Outlook magazinefrom a lieutenant in the

British army.

_ 1.4 How did they break the stalemateon the Western Front?

17

camouflage; commander; Hindenburg Line;offensive; poison gas; tank

• Both sides used new weapons. The Germans first usedPOISON GAS in April 1915. The British used TANKS in 1916.

• Both sides used CAMOUFLAGE to disguise soldiers andguns.

• Both sides used aeroplanes.• Artillery became more and more accurate.

Unfortunately, none of these ideas could break thestalemate.

Gas could only be used in the right weather conditions.Soldiers on both sides were soon issued with effective gasmasks.

Tanks could make advances but they could not hold acaptured trench. Anyway, they often broke down andbecame easy targets for German gunners.

Why was there a stalemate?From late 1914 until March 1918, there was stalemate onthe Western Front. Why?

The biggest problem was that trenches were easy todefend. That is why they were dug in the first place! Forboth sides, the main method of attack was an artillerybombardment followed by an infantry attack (soldiers onfoot). But immediately a bombardment finished, defenderswould race to set up their machine guns. One machine guncould mow down hundreds of advancing soldiers.

Sometimes an attack did succeed and infantry wouldcapture enemy frontline trenches. However, they found italmost impossible to hold on to them.

New techniques and ideasMany people, both now and at the time, criticise themilitary COMMANDERS. They say that their tactics were uselessand they did not care about soldiers' lives.

However, that is not quite fair. Throughout the war, newideas were tried.

N

f

RANeE

...... _.'._._\.....;.,j

':BELGIUM

"

"..............-',

'""; (7.,.- .......... :....

I,.......-.

'.-.

The main battles on the WesternFrant 1915-17. The H1NDENBURG

liNE was a heavily defended line offorts, dugouts and trenches.

Your main aim on this page isto remember the majorreason why there was astalemate.

ScaleoI

-- Line of trenches

-- Hindenburg Line

-. Main Allied attacks

-. Main German attacks

Key

SOURCE 1

No one could break through so the~ war became a war of ATIRITION.

Attrition means trying to win bykilling enemy soldiers. At the Battleof Verdun (February-July 1916), theGermans caused 542,000 French

~ casualties. They suffered 434,000 oftheir own. The slaughter continuedat the Battle of the Somme,July-November 1916. French andBritish losses were over 600,000.German losses were 500,000.

(:."........"'\:1.. ;.;.IIiIiIi~~\' ..'~':"'IIii Germany lost many of its bestsoldiers at Verdun and the Somme.

,~~ You can find out more about theIIJ . Somme on pages 20-25.

Kev WfJYM armoured car; attrition; blockade;breakthrough; general; Hundred Days;parachute; revolution; storm troopers;submarine

1916: The war of Attrition

• Aim to give one reason whyeach of the following wasimportant: Verdun; theSomme; the HUNDRED DAYS.

• If you're on good form, tryto remember two examplesof important technology.

1 Write your own definition of theterm 'war of attrition'.

18

2 Explain why some historianscall 1917 the year of crisis.

1917: Russia out, the USA inThe giant battles and the hugelosses continued into 1917. Butthen other factors came into play.

In February, Russia collapsed inREVOLUTION and soon pulled out ofthe war. This freed up a lot ofGerman soldiers to fight on theWestern Front.

German SUBMARI ES sankhundreds of ships carrying suppliesfrom the USA to Britain. Theseattacks were very effective. At onestage in 1917, Britain was down tojust six weeks' supply of food.However, the attacks had anunwelcome effect on Germanyitself. The German submarines

destroyed so many American ships that the USA enteredthe war against Germany in April 1917.

March 1918: the German breakthroughand the end of the stalemateThe Germans decided to try to win the warbefore American soldiers could arrive in largenumbers. They moved troops from the EasternFront to the Western Front and they trainedspecial STORM TROOPERS to break through enemydefences. The Germans attacked in March 1918very successfully. They broke through Britishlines in many places and the most successfulattackers almost reached Paris. However, theystretched themselves too far. They wereshort of supplies because of the British navalBLOCKADE. Even if they had supplies, theirsoldiers had advanced so far it was difficult toget supplies to them.

Key

- Frontline

)Paris.

FRANCE

3 Why did the German offensivefail?

August 1918: the Hundred DaysThe Allies held their line and began to drivethe Germans back. The British army took onthe main role. The period August toNovember 1918 is known as the HundredDays. In that time, Sir Douglas Haig led theBritish army brilliantly. It used accurateartillery barrages to destroy the heavilyfortified Hindenburg Line. It captured nearly190,000 enemy troops and 2800 guns. TheBritish army used aircraft, ARMOURED CARS,

tanks and radio communications. It droppedsupplies to troops by PARACHUTE. It even usedthe lifejackets from cross-channel ferries tohelp soldiers cross the Saint Quentin canal!The Hundred Days was a period ofoutstanding victories.

The stalemate 1914-18

Prepare a short leT presentation for a museumexhibit about the Great War.

Your presentation should have three 'pages'.

1 Why a stalemate developed (key words: defence,machine gun, artillery).

2 How the GENERALS tried to break the stalemate butfailed (key words: gas, tanks, attrition).

Key

- Frontline

)

FRANCE

4 Why were the Allies successfulin the Hundred Days?

3 How the stalemate was finally broken (key words:BREAKTHROUGH, Hundred Days).

For each 'page', you should write at least two bulletpoints and choose one picture from pages 17-19 oryour own research. In your bullet points, make sureyou use each of the key words.

19

11 1.5 The Battle of the Somme

20

During your course, you willhave to use original sources.The two main aims in doingthis are to show that youcan:

• pick out relevantinformation from thesources

• give reasons why historianscannot always accepteverything that a sourcesays and support this withexamples from the source.

These pages give you anopportunity to practise theseskills.

barrage; cavalry; division; landmark;objective

What went wrong on the first day of theSomme?The Battle of the Somme was a LANDMARK event in Britain'shistory. Most people have heard of it, even if they don'tknow anything about it. The battle began on 1 July 1916.

The plan

• For one week, British guns would bombard German-heldtrenches with heavy artillery.

• The British bombardment would destroy the Germantrenches and blast the German barbed wire to pieces.

• German troops would be shell-shocked and wouldsurrender.

• At 7.30a.m. the BARRAGE would stop and British soldierswould walk into No Man's Land. Some would carryheavy packs full of equipment to rebuild the Germantrenches as they captured them.

• When a suitable gap opened up, CAVALRY (soldiers onhorseback) would be used to gain ground.

The troops who put this plan into action were commandedby General Haig. Most of the soldiers were young recruitswith very little experience so the general kept his orderssimple and said that they were to be obeyed strictly.

This is what happened

At 7.30a.m. on 1 July the attack began exactly as ordered.But, within minutes, it was clear that the German positionswere not deserted. The slaughter was horrendous - theworst casualties of any single attack by a British army ever.By the end of the day, 20,000 soldiers were dead and40,000 were wounded. Very few of the first day OBJECTIVES

had been achieved. It was a military disaster. What wentwrong?

The inquest

The army soon began an investigation. Page 21 gives yousome of the evidence that would have been available to thearmy on or soon after 1 July 1916. See if you can work outwhat went wrong. The task on pages 22-23 will help you toanalyse these sources.

SOURCE 1

I . .. joined this battalion on 13June 1916.Previous to this attack [1 July] I had onlybeen in the trenches for two days - I am 18years ofage.From evidence given to the army inquiry by an officer,2nd Lieutenant G.H. Ball, most of whose platoon were

killed on the first day of the Somme.

SOURCE 3

General Rees says that our barrage wasaccurate and severe. Despite our heavy fire,he saw the Germans, standing up above theparapet, fire very rapidly at our advancinginfantry. He was amazed at the bravery ofthose Germans ...The result of this was that hardly any ofourmen were able to reach the German frontline trenches. He saw lines which advancedaccording to their orders melting awayunder the fire. Yet not a man wavered, brokethe ranks, or attempted to come back.

An account of a report from Brigadier General Rees,1 July 1916, on events at Serre.

SOURCE 5

• Reports up to 8a.m. seemed mostsatisfactory. Our troops had everywherecrossed the enemy'sfront trenches.

• By 9a. m. I heard that our troops in manyplaces had reached the 1.20 line [theplace they were supposed to reach afterone hour, twenty minutesJ. The 29thDivision was held up just south ofHawthorne Ridge, but the 31st Divisionwas moving into Serre village. This wasafterwards proved to be incorrect.

• Hard fighting continued all day on frontofFourth Army. On a sixteen-mile front ofattack varying fortunes must be expected!It is difficult to summarise all that wasreported.Extracts from the diary of General Sir Douglas Haig

for 1 July 1916. He wrote up his diaries after thebattle and added extra details as they became clear.

SOURCE 2

The first wave of troops went over the parapetwalking as they had been ordered. The oneswho went over later were more canny. Theydid not stand up and get shot, they rolledover on their sides. Machine-gun fire caughta lot ofmen as they climbed over the parapetand some ofthem fell shot at ourfeet.

From the memoirs of a soldier from the Fermanaghand Donegal Volunteers, the 36th Ulster DIVISION.

SOURCE 4

IL!E IN: BED A~~~ THI~~ ?

A sketch of the German dugouts by Private JimMaultsaid of the 36th Ulster Division. The 36th was

one of two units to make major advances on the firstday of the Somme. This was partly because their

commander did not follow orders. He sent his meninto No Man's Land early. This allowed them to reach

the German trenches before the Germans couldemerge from their deep dugouts. 21

FDa«tMkWhat went wrong on 1 July 1916?

When you use sources in an enquiry, work in four steps.

Use a table like this to record your findings.

b!$i word inference

Reasons to accept or becareful with this source

EvaluationConnection (and inference)

This might have made thingsgo wrong on 1 July 1916because ...

What does the sourcetell me?

ComprehensionSource

Step 1 Comprehension: look at or read each source to understandwhat it is saying.

Step 2 Connection: connect the source to your enquiry question. Inthis case your enquiry question is 'What went wrong on 1 July 1916?'Sometimes this connection might be obvious. Sometimes you will needto 'read between the lines' (INFERENCE). For example, you might readSources 1-5 and think to yourself:

r Looks like communications were very poor - that

~ would lead to problems.

The volunteer soldiers were very inexper~~nced. jMaybe they were not up to the jOV

The orders were very strict. The people whosurvived best were those who did not follow orders.

The leaders underestimated the German defences. The bombardment does not seem to have worked Ivery well. ~

Which of Sources 1-5 might support each of these inferences (thingssuggested by the source)?

22

Step 3 Evaluation: sources are your friends! Usually you can acceptwhat they say. However, you should still check each source. It's alwaysworth asking some questions about the source in this order:

• 'Does tne source sounaor fool(trustwortny? (Common sense)

• 'Does tne source fit witn wnat I

a[reac£y I(now? (Knowledge)

• 'Does it fit witn or c[asn witn any oftne otner sources? (Cross reference)

I.

Here is how you might fill out your table for Source 1.

• 'Does tne fanguage or [ool(of the sourceseem suspicious (jor e;r..amp{eJ aoes ittry to justify or criticise sometning orsomeone)? (Tone)

• Wno nas proaucea tne source anawny? (provenance)

• Was tne person in agooaposition toI(now wnat was nappening?(Provenance)

Source Comprehension

This officer had only been in

the trenches for two days.

He was only eighteen years

old.

Connection (and inference)

You ng, inexperienced officers

might make bad decisions

that lead to high casualties.

Evaluation

Accept source: From my

background knowledge, I

know that soldiers were

mainly young volunteers

without much experience.

Careful with source: Only

one officer in one unit­

his evidence might not be

typical of all officers.

Step 4 Cross referencing:when you have finished your table,think about cross referencing. Usea coloured pen to draw linesbetween points that back eachother up. Use a different colouredpen to draw lines between pointsthat contradict each other.

Step 5 Writing up your conclusions: now it is time to use yourcompleted chart to help you to write a balanced answer to the enquiryquestion.

To test you a little we are not going to ask you simply to describewhat went wrong on 1 July 1916. Instead we want you to consider thisquestion, which is more like what you may face in the exam. (In an examyou are usually given a one-sided statement to agree or disagree with.)'The first day at the Somme was a disaster for the British army becausethe generals were ineffective. How far do the sources agree with thisview?'

To produce a balanced answer, you should use your table to help you:• choose two sources that support the view

- explain how they support the view- explain whether they are reliable sources

• choose two sources that do not support the view- explain what view these sources support- explain whether they are reliable sources.

23

Your aim here is to:

• remember at least twointerpretations of theSomme

• explain why each one hasat least some evidence tosupport it.

Was the Battle of the Somme a disaster?

~word hindsight

Was the Battle of the Somme a disaster? This might soundlike a pretty strange question after what you have found outabout 1 July 1916. After five months of battle, the Allies hadwon a strip of land just 25 km long and 6km wide. It hadcost 420,000 British casualties (and 200,000 Frenchcasualties) .

However, there are plenty of historians who argue that ifyou look at the bigger picture, the Somme was not amilitary disaster.

There are two claims to balance against each other.

~

".'I' ", .,

I • ,I • ,, . ,. . ~

... but Haig did make expensive mistakes• Haig had too much faith that the artillery

would destroy German dugouts.• Too many shells were duds.• Early reports from the battle were over-optimistic

so people had unrealistic hopes.

•" ,I • ,I • ,

I • '" . "The main aim was achi~ed .~• The aim at the Somme was to save

the French at Verdun. This was achieved.• Haig always warned that casualties

would be heavy but politicians didn'tlisten.

24

Look at the planning mistakes mentioned on pages20-25 then discuss these questions.

1 Which of these errors can only be seen with thebenefit of HINDSIGHT? Which could be seen at thetime?

2 Which of these mistakes were things under Haig'scontrol and which were not?

3 Read Source 6 on page 25. Who is L10yd Georgeblaming for the casualties at the Somme ­himself or Haig?

4 Study Sources 6-10 on page 25. On which sideof the scales should each one go?

The Somme changed British attitudes to thewar. Until this battle, the British public stillhoped that some glorious victory wouldachieve a breakthrough and win the war.The Somme brought home to many peoplewhat kind of war this was - a long, grimwar of attrition.

The battle also shook confidence in thearmy. Haig was criticised after the battle byhis own soldiers, by politicians and in thenewspapers. He gained the unwanted titleof 'The Butcher of the Somme'. Therelationship between Haig and the BritishPrime Minister David Lloyd George wasparticularly poor.

SOURCE 6 SOURCE 7

Should I have resigned ratherthan agree to this slaughterofbrave men [at the Somme}?I have always felt there aresolid grounds for criticism ofme in that respect. My solejustification is that Haigpromised not to press theattack if it became clear thathe could not attain hisobjectives.

From the war memoirs ofDavid L10yd George, the BritishPrime Minister during the war.

SOURCE 8 An aerial view of German trenches under British bombardment in the days

By 1918, the best of the oldbefore the attack.

German army lay dead on SOURCE 9the battlefields of Verdun Rf1. No. RSc11c. N(lmco.. O~1f. {)f

and the Somme ... As time DU1fL

passed, [casualties} were 12(288 Pt~. B.an:,hawt \Vmiam lj7/16

replaced by young fellows of12(289 )', Ba" ,Y, J,,~e:ph tll116J2(291 ~~ Rarlow, Wilfr.ro 16/5 t6

the very best will, but without 12(294 ,t &tley. Edw.nrd 1/7JI6sufficient knowledge. 12{296

C~1.Bay ]i:s~ Lawre:rtt:e 1/7/16

12{301 BrAnl\mt Goorge 1!7/~6

AGerman opinion on the German 12/310 Poc. B'Mmbarnt Ge~e 1JI] Oll8army of 1918. 1:2;"31·1 CS.M. Brfghtt Artlntr WjJ~y 12/·.,18

12/318 Ptt. Brookfield t Fredk+ ["1~rold 1/7,'1612(59t .. :&dford1' Norm~n 1i7/1612/593 ,~ &niston, Aubrey 1/7/1612/59i L{Cpl. Blenkun. WilIiam 10,/9) 1612/600 Pte.. Bow!!!!, Frank 111/16

SOURCE 1012/604 H Bratl!!~, Cliffard William 1114/18!2(606 pt Brind e:y, Charles W. 14/3/t 7

We all admired him [Haig} 12i607 ~~ Brown, Ar.hLJ.li , In/16121608 tt Bro,...,n. Sarm.u:l 6(12l11

tremendously, you know. In 12(611 ,. B\lslieM. H.u,y Cr'.~¥en 1S) 5/17my opinion, whatever Lloyd 12(862 LlCpl. Barn:lle:y~ Ft;!lttk 1//16

12(865 PtE:. B;jI.rroHt roll n Henry 1.7l16George and all those other 12f867 t:t B8.ftont Jobn Atthur 1/7/16people said about him, if it 12{810 ~, !3e:OI1,ett. J~eph Arnold 1{7/16hadn't been for Dougie we 12~811 L/Cpl. Bl:nde:T~ Walter Bertram 1;7l16

12,874 " Bland, ErO~!l<t . I{7/16shouldn't have won the war. 12~879 Pte. Brammer. l\rdJ]e 1/7/16

A comment about Sir Douglas Haig 12882 " Brown. St.!ln[~Xm 1{7116

from Reginald Haine, a soldier in12/887 ButtEirv. John ~ .' old 1,;7l] 6

the battle and winner of the A page from the list of dead and wounded suffered by the Sheffield PalsVictoria Cross, the highest award Battalion on the first day of the Somme. The Sheffield Pals suffered 548

for bravery. casualties on the first day of the battle. 25

11 1.6 Should the Great War reallybe called a world war?

At the end of this section,you should be able to:

• list three areas wherenghting took place apartfrom the Western Front

• explain two reasons whythe Great War can becalled a world war.

~wordi airship; loan; U-boat

AfricaThere was fighting betweenBritish and German forces inthe German colonies of

A German East Africa andGerman South West Africa.South African forces foughtagainst German forces inSouth West Africa. Most ofthe soldiers on each sidewere Africans.

The BalkansBritain and France sent largeforces to Greece to helpSerbia against the Austrians.However, the Greeks decidedthey wanted no part in the war.The forces were tied up herefor much of the war.

04•

The Western FrontThe main area of the war(see page 171.

.•Q, .."~

ItalyThe Italians joined the Allies

:. in 1915. They were hoping~ '. to take territory from

<::)6 Austria. They suffered amajor defeat in Austria in1917. However, like theRussians, they tied up manyAustrian and German forces.In the autumn of 1918, theywon an important victory innorth-east Italy.

In the airo This was the first war to use~\) the bombing of civilians as a

~~ D~t':3 war tactic. German AIRSHIPS

Ut8

<J r? and aircraft dropped bombson London and towns on the

_____ .---..,_0 east coast. Both sides usedaeroplanes to spy behindenemy lines and to help todirect artillery towardstargets.

N

t

CanadaCanada contributedthousands of troops and tonsof vital supplies to the wareffort. Canadian forces werefully paid for by the Canadiangovernment.

USAThe USA joined the Allied sidein April 1917. It had alreadymade a vital contribution insupplying weapons, food andLOANS to Britain. Its armedforces were relatively smallin number but would havemade a large contribution ifthe war had gone on longer.

o 1000kmI !

Scale

26

FO","tMkShould the Great War really be called a world war?

The Great War is now more often called the First World War. Do youthink this is an accurate name for it?

Write each of the fourteen titles from the map on a separate piece ofcard. Work with a partner to put each of these fourteen cards into oneof the following categories:

• places where there was fighting• places that supplied troops• places that were affected in some other way.

Then write a paragraph to explain whether the Great War was really aworld war.

27

You have been commissioned toproduce a new TV series on theGreat War. It will consist of twoprogrammes of 50 minutes each.That makes a total of 100minutes. You have to decide howmuch time should be spent oneach of the following topics.

• The origins of the war• Why the war became a

stalemate• Conditions in the trenches• The Battle of the Somme• How the stalemate was

broken.

You could summarise your ideasas a pie chart using ICT. Enterthe number of minutes persection on a spreadsheet and thespreadsheet will draw the chartfor you.

Throughout this book, there arelittle yellow notes at thebeginning of each section. Thenotes contain advice and ideasabout important issues in eachsection. At the end of eachchapter in the book, work in smallgroups to prepare a class quizbased on these notes. Yourteacher can give you a sheet tohelp you.

JapanJapan did not take part inthe fighting. However, it didhave an agreement toprotect British lands in theFar East while the Royal Navywas caught up in the war.

Australia and New ZealandAustralia and New Zealandsupplied thousands of troops tofight in the Middle East, Gallipoliand on the Western Front.

oCl,,~

.P~

~~t~~ .

The Middle EastBritish, ANZAC and Indiantroops worked with localArab tribes against theTurks. The main campaignswere in Mesopotamia(modern Iraq) and Palestine.

Eastern EuropeHere the Russians fought against Austrian andGerman forces. The Russian invasion of easternGermany in August 1914 was very important.It stopped Germany conquering France. In 1916,another Russian attack (the Brusilov Offensive)badly damaged the Austrian army. However,the war on the Eastern Front mostly went badlyfor the Russians. It cost them millions ofcasualties, which increased discontent at homeand helped lead to the Russian Revolution in1917. Russia then made peace with Germany.

TurkeyTurkey was one of Germany'sallies in the war. In 1915, alarge force of British, ANZAC(Australian and New ZealandArmy Corps) and Indian troopsattacked Gallipoli. Thecampaign failed due to badplanning and fierce resistancefrom the Turks. There were over250,000 Allied casualties.

IndiaIndia supplied the Britishempire's forces with rawmaterials and 850,000 troops.Indian troops fought in mostcampaigns in the Great War.

British depth study:Britain 1906-18

Part A The Liberal Party's welfare reforms 1907-11

11 2. 1 Why did the Liberals introducewelfare reforms?

By the end of the next page,aim to be able to list threemain problems faced by thepoor around 1906.

bA¥Y wor{ii shillings; tuberculosis

People and poverty

This is George Meredith. You may notrealise it, but he was pretty important in1906. George, and people like him,inspired Britain's government tobring in a range of new ideas andpolicies. Of course, Georgedidn't know much about thiseither. He was too busygetting on with his life. Andhis life was pretty tough.

George is a builder'slabourer in York. Hegenerally carries bricks andmixes mortar for bricklayers.The bricklayers get about38 SHILLINGS a week.George receives less thanhalf that sum.

George faces other problems,too. If he is ill or has an accident,he doesn't get any money. If the workdries up, he gets nothing. If the weather istoo bad to work, guess what George gets?That's right, nothing! He sometimes walksfor ages to try to find other work, but it's

28 pure luck whether he is successful.

George lives with his wife, their fourchildren and his parents. His mum and dad

are both over 70 and are too old toearn any money. An old and damp

little terraced house is allGeorge can afford. The rent

costs one-third of his wages.George's dad has chest

problems. The family don'tknow what is wrong withhim. George thinks thedamp house doesn't help.The kids get a lot of colds.A doctor could tell Georgethat his dad has

TUBERCULOSIS, but George'sfamily can't afford to see a

doctor. Even if they could,they wouldn't be able to afford

any medicine. George and hisfamily are at great risk.

George feels bad because he cannot lookafter his parents and family properly - butwhat can he do? He has nightmares aboutthe future. Will he be a burden on hischildren when he gets too old to work?

AlLl.UUY

1 The diagram below shows some of George's problems.Make your own copy of the diagram.

Poor housing

Irregular work

George Meredith's problems

Illness andaccidents

Low wages

2 Add notes to explain why each issue is a problem for George.3 With a partner discuss how one problem can make other problems

worse - for example, housing and illness.4 Add your conclusions to your chart.5 Discuss the following questions with your partner.

• Do the problems facing George still exist today?• If they don't, why don't they?• If they do, are they as bad today?

6 How would you advise the government in 1906 to help George withhis problems? List all the ideas you can think of. Then choose thethree that you think are the most important. Later, you will see ifyou came up with the same ideas as the government.

7 Do you think your ideas would work? Write a few sentences abouteach of your important measures:My first/second/third measure would be ...I think this might work because ...On the other hand, it might not work because ...

Old age

29

Boer War; economic; insurance; Labour;labour exchanges; Liberal; pension; povertyline; reform; welfare

Why?

The social reformersSocial reformers studied the livesof poor people in Britain. One ofthem, Seebohm Rowntree, foundthat 30 per cent of people in Yorkwere living below the POVERTY UN. ~E"TYI(see Source 1). He also produce Ievidence that people likeGeorge Meredith were notpoor because they drank --.- I

too much or gambled- they were poorbecause of thingsthey could notcontrol, like theeconomy's upsand downs.

IdealismLike many Liberals DavidL10yd George thought therich had a duty to helpthe poor. He felt it wasright to tax the richto raise money tolook after thepoor. He wasable to persuadeother people ofhis point ofview.

Labourerpast work

Children

marry1andleavehome

Childrenbeginto earn

Marries1

Now make it your goal toexplain two reasons why theLIBERAL governmentintroduced WELFARE REFORMS.

SOURCE 1

The Liberals won a huge victory in the 1906 generalelection. Soon after they took power, they started helpingpoor people.

• 1907: The Liberals introduced the first steps to improvechildren's health and education.

• 1909: They brought in old age PENSIO S for over-70s.• 1909: They started LABOUR EXCHANGES to help workers

find work.• 1911: They started a National I SURA CE scheme to help

workers get by when they were out of work or ill.

These are known as their 'welfare reforms'.In their election campaign, the Liberals had not made

any big promises to introduce these welfare reforms, sowhy did they do it? Here are some of the reasons.

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70Age

Seebohm Rowntree's poverty line.Rowntree was a member of the

famous chocolate-making family.

30

31

4 Choose any box that contains more than one cardand write a paragraph to explain how these cardsare connected.

The Labour PartyMillions of men like

George Meredith werenot just workers - theywere also voters. TheLiberals were worried

about the small (but growing)LABOUR Party. If Labour promisedbetter welfare reforms, then menlike George would support Labour

rather than the Liberals.

The armyBetween 1899 and 1902, Britain

had fought the BOER WAR. Inone big city (Manchester),

only ten per cent of thearmy's recruits were

found to be fit enoughto be in the army. Men

like George Meredithwould never be fit

enough to fight in Britain's armyor navy.

IndustryBritain had lost its place as

the world's top ECONOMICpower. The USA was

already ahead andGermany was catching upfast. Germany had good

welfare schemes for workers andGerman workers were healthier and

better educated than Britishworkers. Britain would lag behind

unless it did something about it now.

These peoplecan vote

now.

If there is anotherwar. Britain will

need these peopleto be soldiers.

Britain needshealthyworkers.

oo

oo

00

o

Why did the Liberals bring in welfare reforms?

The diagram below gives five reasons why theLiberals brought in welfare reforms.

1 Write each reason on a separate piece of card.2 Add to the card your own one-sentence

explanation of why this led them to bring inwelfare reforms. Add at least one example orpiece of evidence that supports your explanation.

3 These five reasons are connected. Which of thecards would you put in each of the boxes here?Some cards could go in more than one box.

o

o

2.2 Did the Liberal welfare reforms work?

FDcurtMk Use a table like this to record your answers:

On pages 32-35, you are going to find out about the Sources Basic My comments Place onmain measures the Liberals passed. After each point(s) on source the realitymeasure there is a source or two reacting to it. being scaleThese sources make some kind of claim about the made (-5 to +5)measure. You have to decide where the claim fits onthis REALITY scale: Children-5 0 5

I I I I I I I I I I IOld people

Over the top Reasonable Over the top Unemployed- negative - positive and workers

~~~~~~ ~

To help you decide where to put the source on thescale, see how it stands up to the source tests thatyou first used in step 3 on page 23.

Most people at the time felt that families were responsiblefor children. Churches and local COUNCILS provided schoolsand looked after orphans, but that was about it.

• In 1906, the Liberals passed an Education Act. Thisallowed local councils to provide free school meals (but itdid notforce them) The idea was that if schools providedmeals then poor children would do better at school.

• In 1907, councils wereforced to provide school medicalservices. They had to provide check-ups but nottreatment. After 1912, they were supposed to providetreatment too, but they were notforced to do so.

• In 1908, the Liberals passed the Children and YoungPersons Act which made children 'protected persons'.Parents could be prosecuted (taken to court) for ill­treating children. There were also other measures such asregulations on children working.

Children

The Liberal Party's welfare reforms have caused lots ofarguments. Some people talk about the reforms as if theyhelped change the world. Others say that the reforms wereuseful, but were really just a drop in the ocean in solvingpoor people's problems.

As you find out what the Liberals did, see what youthink.

b4¥Y wordf council; reality; workhouseSet yourself some new goals.Aim to:• explain at least one

success the Liberals had inhelping children and theelderly

• explain at least two waysin which the measures wereweak or unsuccessful.

SOURCE 1

The Children's Act makesparents responsible forfinding food and clothingand other necessaries forchildren. We find that theAct has not to any largeextent been enforced by theLondon county council, orby most local authoritiesoutside London.

An extract from a petition sent tothe government in 1911 by the

Charity Organisation Society.

1 Fill in the first row of your tableto judge Source 1. Source 2should help you decide howrealistic it is.

SOURCE 2~

~Ul 15 <:)

E-0 ~ro..... (l)

~0.0 E.2 :::J

5g 12 (J)(l)

+-'.....

..c0.0 ~'w s.:~(J) 9 Q

-c::~(l) -0..... (l) ....,

32 -0E ':;

~ ~u 6 e,~ Cl. Cl

~+-' ::J(l) (J) 0 Q0.0 .....c:: -.= ::c

~ro 0:::..c 3 UJu~

~(l)

~0.0ro :::>..... C/)(l)

>«March April May June July August

Agraph drawn from government figures showing children's weight atdifferent times of the year.

SOURCE 3 Old peopleMost poor people dreaded old age. They did not earnenough to save for a pension. When they were old, most ofthem depended on their families. Many others had to live ina WORKHOUSE.

• In 1909, the Liberals brought in the Old Age PensionsAct.

• Anyone over 70 who had no other income was given fiveshillings per week.

• A married couple received 7s 6d per week.

It was not exactly a fortune and you had to live to 70 to getit. On the other hand, think what kind of difference thispension might have made to a family like GeorgeMeredith's.

33

When the old age pensions began, life was transformed ...They [the old people) were relieved ofanxiety. They weresuddenly rich.! Independent for life.! As they first went to thePost Office to draw theirpension tears ofgratitude wouldrun down the faces ofsome . .. There were flowers andapples from their gardens for the girl who simply handedthem their money.

From Lark Rise to Candleford by Flora Thompson. In 1909, she ran apost office where she had to give out pensions.

Old age pensioners greeting David SOURCE 4L10yd George at Morriston near

Swansea in Wales.

2 Fill in the second row of yourtable to judge Source 4.Source 3 should help youdecide how realistic it is.

------e------

From these two pages,identify:• one success the Liberals

had in helping workers• at least one way in which

the measure was weak orunsuccessful.

NATlDNAL INSUIL4NCB

~wordi benefit; short term; unemployment

The unemployedRemember George Meredith? Do you remember theproblems he had if he was ill, or his work dried up? TheLiberals certainly did not forget people like George.

In 1909, they introduced labour exchanges. These were abit like modern job centres.

• If George found himself short of work, he could go to alabour exchange and sign on.

• If a business needed workers, it told the labourexchange. The exchange then told George about anyavailable jobs.

• By 1913, the exchanges were finding jobs for 3000..workers every day. However, many of the jobs wereSHORT TERM and low paid.

WorkersIn 1911, the Liberals passed the National Insurance Act.• Part I aimed to protect workers against illness.• Part 11 tried to help workers cope with U EMPLOYME T.

------e------Part 11

34

Part I

• Workers had to pay 4d out of their WDekly wages tothe gOVDl'IUDent (IllI. 1/11/ /Viii 1'1111 /iillll/(l- JI !IJIJiI • m -1IIIIIfJ IfiIIJItJIIIJI /II'II'IJJIJIIIIIIritJf 1114'1 111I 1/IJIII). Employers had to pay 3d and

the govel'lUDent added Id. This built up afund.- __e__-

• If workers were off work because of illDus, the fundgave them money to live on and provided medical care

for thirteen weeks.

------e------

• Workers, employers IIld the government all putiD I!dper Wlek (/Illl'f /IllD'! DIlt DI

'''rt''s P'! p,ci,t!)---e---

• If workers WIre out of work, they gotUIlemployment 11IIFI'f. This was 7s Id

for fifteen Wleks.--_e _

• The benefit was paid for fifteen weeks ollly,because the govel'lllllent did not mt the

UIlemployed to become too comfortable!------e------

Despite all this action, the Liberals did not do much aboutGeorge's other problems, such as his low wages or hisdamp and expensive house. Even the leading Liberal MP,Lloyd George, admitted in 1911 that they had a long way togo (see Source 6).

SOURCE 5

Mr. LLOYD GEORGE'S National Health Insurance Bill provides lor the insurance01 the Worker In case 01 Sickness.

Support the Liberal Governmentin their policy of

SOCIAL REFORM.

A poster produced by the Liberal Party for the 1911general election.

A ~-' 'L I •

;w"c,v-..y

You work in the press department of the LiberalParty. You have to feed good news about thewelfare reforms to the newspapers. Remember thatthe papers will be read by people like GeorgeMeredith who want to know exactly how themeasures will help them.

Work in groups of five. One of you write a pressrelease for each of the following years: 1906,1907,1908,1909 and 1911.

You will need to:a) work out from pages 32-35 what the Liberals

did in that yearb) summarise in three or four bullet points how this

will help George Meredith's family.

SOURCE 6

I never said that the National Insurance Billwas the final solution. I am not putting itforward as a complete remedy. It is one ofaseries. We are advancing on the road, and itis an essentialpart ofthe journey.

From a speech by senior Liberal MP David L10ydGeorge. He was Chancellor of the Exchequer and one

of the most important figures in getting the LiberalParty to pass welfare measures.

1 Fill in the thirs row of your tableto judge Sources 5 and 6.

~;- .

Most source-based exampapers end with a questionlike the one in the Focus Task.The trick is to use sourcesand your own knowledge to

.1

produce a balanced answer.Look back at pages 22-23for advice.

FocurtMk'In the early 19005, the Liberals failed toimprove life for the poor.'

Use Sources 1-6 and your own knowledge to writea balanced view of this statement. You will need todivide your answer into sections.

1 A section that disagrees with the statement• Explain at least two ways in which the Liberals

improved life for workers, the elderly orchildren.

• Make sure you use at least one source and onepiece of factual knowledge.

2 A section that agrees with the statement• Explain two ways in which Liberal reforms did

not really solve the main problems of workers,the elderly or children.

• Make sure you use at least one source and onepiece of factual knowledge.

35

11 2.3 Votes for women: for and against

Part B Votes for women

As you read this information,aim to be able to:

• list two arguments forwomen's SUFFRAGE whichwere put forward at thetime

• list two argumentsagainst women's suffragewhich were put forward atthe time.

FOR

~wordi campaigner; election; suffrage

BackgroundIn 1906, most (but not all) men could vote in generalELECTIONS to elect Members of Parliament (MPs). However,no women could vote in general elections. Between 1906and 1918, women's suffrage (the right to vote) became oneof the most important issues in British polities. It was not asimple issue:

• Some women were opposed to women getting the vote.• Many women CAMPAIG ERS for the vote wanted only some

(wealthy and respectable) women to get the vote.• Lots of ordinary working women did not care whether

they got the vote or not.• Most men were opposed to women getting the vote.• Some men tried to get women the vote.• Some men thought it was the right idea but they thought

that giving women the vote needed to be done slowly.

The arguments for and against women'ssuffrage

AGAINST

36

Parliament'sdecisions affectmen and women.So women should

._ -\ be allowed to

---------- Xvote for theW l11 el1 (i~11 . MPs who passo ",:! I/ote 111 the laws.

~\re~ \e(itiOI1~

\O~~~i~ ~hDO~:\~ (i~11 v

the':! "withtrl.1~"Ve "Ve'

the I/Oo-

.._~.\ ....--1 _

How did each side try to win support?

SOURCE 1~__

SOURCE 2

'WHAT'S TIlE DISfURBANCE IN TIlE MARKEr PLACE?'

'IT'S A MASS MEETING OF TIlE WOMEN WHO'VE CHANGED THEIR MINDS

SINCE TIlE MORNING AND WANT TO ALlER THEIR VOTING-PAPERS.'

37

A cartoon from Punch magazine published in 1918.Some women gained the vote in 1918. This cartoon

suggested what would happen when women werefinally allowed to vote in elections.

A postcard published by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) in the early 1900s.The NUWSS was the largest organisation that campaigned for women's suffrage.

1 Look closely at Source 1.a) What impression is the artist trying to give of

women? Explain your answer by mentioningdetails such as facial expression, clothes,actions and objects in the cartoon.

b) What impression is the artist trying to give ofmen? Explain your answer by mentioningdetails such as the men chosen, expressions,actions, etc.

c) Write a sentence to sum up the main argumentof Source 1. Does this argument appear in thelist of arguments for women's suffrage onpage 36?

2 Now look closely at Source 2.a) What impression is the artist trying to give of

women? Explain your answer by mentioningdetails such as facial expression, clothes,actions and objects in the cartoon.

b) What impression of women do we get from thecaption?

c) What impression is the artist trying to give ofmen?

d) Write a sentence to sum up the main argumentof Source 2. Does this argument appear in thelist of arguments against women's suffrage onpage 36?

11 2.4 The fight for the vote:Suffragists and Suffragettes

On these pages, you willpractise the skill of gettinginformation from sources.

QuestionsIs this all they did?

InferencesUsed peaceful methods.

Information

b4#' wordi Suffragettes; Suffragists

There were two groups campaigning for the vote between1900 and 1914 - the SUFFRAGISTS and the SUFFRAGETTES. Whatcan you work out about them from these two sources?

The Suffragists

38

Supported by both men and women.

SOURCE 1

Suffragists begin their Pilgrimage to London, 18 June 1913.For six weeks, Suffragists from all over the country marched to London.

The Pilgrimage ended in Hyde Park with a meeting of around50,000 men and women supporters of women's suffrage.

The SuffragettesSOURCE 2

Membership card of the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU)from 1909.

Imagine that Sources 1 and 2are the only pieces of evidencethat exist about the Suffragistsand Suffragettes. Get your owncopies of these sources fromyour teacher and paste them inthe centre of a sheet like Source1. For each source follow thesesteps.

• Make a list of all the things youcan definitely tell from thesource. Write those in theinner rectangle.

• Make a list of all the things youcan probably tell from thesource - your inferences.Write these in the middlerectangle.

• Make a list of all the questionsyou would like to ask aboutthis source. Write these in theouter rectangle.

Some labels have been added toSource 1 to get you started.

39

A map from the magazine Votes for Women showingthe groups involved in the Suffragist march to

London, July-August 1913.

ENc;.ll$H ~~"NNE.L.

The Suffragists - moderatesIn the 1800s, various groups supported women's suffrage.In 1897, they joined to form the National Union of Women'sSuffrage Societies CNUWSS). They were usually called the

Suffragists. Their leader was a determinedcampaigner called Millicent Fawcett.

The NUWSS was an impressiveorganisation. It had over 500 local branchesaround the country. It organised rallies andmarches, which were often reported in thenewspapers. The rallies were orderly andwell organised. Even people who disagreedwith the Suffragists admired theirorganisation and discipline. In 1913, theNUWSS ran a campaign of over 400meetings around the country.

Millicent Fawcett and other Suffragistswrote thousands of letters to MPs. Theywent to meetings of all the political partiesand asked questions about women'ssuffrage. Everybody in Parliament knew whoFawcett was and what her movementwanted. MPs were constantly under pressurefrom Fawcett and her supporters. When theLiberals came to power in 1906, about 400MPs Ca big majority) supported the idea ofgiving the vote to some women.

~wordi militant; moderateAs you read these pages, tryto remember one thing theSuffragists and Suffragettesagreed about and one thingthey disagreed about.

SOURCE 3

40

1 Look at Source 4. What does ittell you about the• aims• motives• methodsof the Suffragists?Explain your answer byreferring to the source.

SOURCE 4

I was deeply interested in the work ofthe National Union ofWomen's Suffrage Societies and so I decided to take a jobwith the organisation. I became editor of the NUWSS'snewspaper, The Women's Franchise, and I learned byexperience how to select, produce and edit material ... I alsoorganisedpetitions, deputations fa group ofpeople acting onbehalfofothers} andprocessions.

The memories of Suffragist, Margery Corbett Ashby. She joined theNUWSS while she was a student at Cambridge University.

Fawcett believed that her MODERATE methods worked. Themovement, she felt, was like a glacier - it was huge andunstoppable. One day women would succeed - they wouldget the vote. But, like a glacier, the movement was alsovery slow. Far too slow for some ...

41

2 'We should not blame theSuffragettes for the violence in1913. We should blame thepoliticians for not giving womenthe vote.' Do you agree?

3 Look back at the Activity onpage 39. How many of yourquestions can you answer now?

4 On the last four pages we havegiven the same amount ofspace to the Suffragettes as tothe Suffragists. Do you thinkthis is right?

I OTHERH

A newspaper poster from the West Midlands. Thechurch was burned down by Suffragettes, on 18 June1913, as a protest against Parliament refusing to give

votes to women.

• They disrupted political meetings,especially when government ministerswere speaking. In 1908, EmmelinePankhurst and her daughter Christabeleven tried to barge into the House ofCommons.

• Many Suffragettes were arrested. This wasa deliberate tactic. Getting arrested gotmaximum publicity and also embarrassedthe government.

• Once in prison, the Suffragettes went onhunger strike and were force fed.

Between 1906 and 1913, new laws to givewomen the vote were put forward six times.Each time they failed. With each defeat, theSuffragettes became more violent. The worstyear of violence was 1913 (see Source 5 foran example). Suffragettes attackedgovernment property and propertybelonging to opponents of women'ssuffrage. Suffragettes themselves were oftenattacked by crowds who opposed them. They got littleprotection from the police. Indeed, some were violentlymistreated by police.

Perhaps the most extreme event of all came in June 1913at the Derby horse race. The Suffragette Emily Davison triedto pin a banner on the King's horse as it thundered by. Thehorse was brought down and Emily was killed. There wasenormous publicity for this sensational event.To start with, all the publicity was hostile but, later, the factthat Davison was (apparently) prepared to die for herbeliefs made a real impact. So, too, did the orderly andimpressive procession at Emily Davison's funeral.

The Suffragettes - militantsProgress was certainly too slow for SOURCE 5Emmeline Pankhurst. In 1903, she formed a

~~~:~IT~~~~a~~~o~a~~~;~~.~~~~~~I;~~~~ SUFFRAGETTES'called its members 'the Suffragettes' and thename stuck. Pankhurst and her daughtersbelieved that the campaign for votes forwomen should be MILITANT.

42

Back to the sources! On page40 you used just one sourceto answer a question. Yourmain aim now is to use morethan one source to answer aquestion.

SOURCE 6

The procession was animpressive pageant [parade).It was watched by densecrowds ... Nearly jivethousand members from allover the country marched inundisturbed quiet andorderliness behind the coffin.

Description of Emily Davison'sfuneral in the Manchester Guardian,

16 June 1913. The Suffragettesplanned this event carefully. They

organised two funerals - one inMorpeth and one in London.

SOURCE 8

A deed ofthis kind, we needhardly say, is not likely toincrease the popularity ofany cause with the ordinarypublic. Reckless fanaticism[thoughtless enthusiasm} isnot regarded by them as aqualification for thefranchise [vote} ... Personswho destroy property andendanger innocent livesmust be either desperatelywicked or entirelyunbalanced.

From The Times, 6 June 1913,following the death of Emily

Davison at the Derby horse race.

Were the Suffragettes effectivecampaigners?The Pankhursts believed militancy worked. They got hugepublicity - much more than the Suffragists. Parliamentseemed to take the issue more seriously once the violentactions started. However, violence also made thegovernment very stubborn. They did not want to give in toviolence from women. They feared that, if they did, othergroups would use violence to get their way. Some peoplesaid that once the campaign turned violent, there was nochance of women being given the vote.

SOURCE 7

THE SHRIEKING SISTER.THE SESSIBLE WOllAS. "YOU HELP OUR CAUSE? WHY, YOU 'RE ITS WORST ENEMY!"

A cartoon from Punch magazine, 1906, by the artist Bernard Partridge,who opposed women's suffrage. The title, 'The Shrieking Sister', refers to

the woman on the right, who is a Suffragette.

SOURCE 9

TREATMENT orPOLITICAL

PRISONERSUNDER A

LIBERALOVERNMENT.

A Suffragette poster criticising the force feeding of Suffragettes inprison. Force feeding created sympathy for the Suffragettes. As a result,

the government allowed Suffragettes on hunger strike to go home andthen come back to prison when they had recovered. Suffragettes called

this the Cat and Mouse Act.

SOURCE 12

On Saturday the pilgrimage ofthe law-abiding advocates[supporters} ofvotes for women ended in a great gathering inHyde Park attended by some 50,000 persons. Proceedingswere quite orderly ... and were as much a demonstrationagainst militancy as one in favour ofwomen's suffrage.Many bitter things were said ofmilitant women.

From a report in The Times, 26 July 1913, commenting on theSuffragist Pilgrimage to Londonlsee Sourc_e 1 on p~ge 38).

Explain all your answers fully with reference to the sources.

1 Sources 6 and 8 have different attitudes towards the Suffragettes.Is this just because they come from different newspapers?

2 Is the artist of Source 7 keener on the Suffragettes or theSuffragists?

3 Explain how the artist in Source 9 tries to:a) gain sympathy for the womanb) show the government as cruel and inhumane.

4 Does the evidence of Sources 7 and 9 suggest that the Suffragetteswere effective campaigners?

5 Do Sources 10, 11 and 12 agree or disagree about militancy?6 Using all the sources and your knowledge from earlier pages, explain

how far you agree or disagree with this statement: 'The Suffragetteswere more effective campaigners than the Suffragists.'

SOURCE 10

Haven't the Suffragettes thesense to see that the veryworst kind ofcampaigningfor the vote is to try toblackmail or intimidate aman into giving them whathe would otherwise gladlygive?

Liberal politician David L10ydGeo~ge speaki'!g ~1913.

SOURCE 11

The formation ofthe NUWSS[Suffragists} gave thewomen's movement morefocus but the militant tacticsof the WSPU [Suffragettes}gained much greaterpublicity. In the ten yearsbefore the First World Warthe 'woman issue' was rarelyout ofthe headlines.Historians, like people at thetime, have debated ever sincewhether militancy did moreto advance the cause or holdit back.

University historian ProfessorEric Evans, writing in an A level

textbook in 1997.

Look carefully at Source 7.Is this a fair picture of theSuffragettes and Suffragists inthe early 1900s? Produce someextended writing to tackle thisquestion. Your teacher can giveyou a writing frame to help you.

43

11 2.5 Why did some women get the votein 1918?

In 1918, Mrs Fawcett's glacier finally reached its destination.The REPRESE TATION of the People Act gave the vote toaround nine million women:

householder; munitions; representation

• all women over the age of 30• women over 21 who were HOUSEHOLDERS or married to

householders.

Why, after all the disappointments of the previous twentyyears, did women get the vote in 1918? You might think itwas because of the war. And you would not be wrong, butit is not quite that simple.

You need to be able to:

• explain at least one way inwhich the war changedattitudes to women

• explain at least tworeasons why women gotthe vote in 1918.

Stage 1: 1914-15 -women support the war effort

When war broke out in 1914, the campaign for women'ssuffrage was interrupted. Differences between Suffragistsand Suffragettes were forgotten. Both Suffragettes andSuffragists supported the war effort. Their members set uporganisations to help find homes for refugees who lost theirhomes in the fighting. They also raised money for womenwho were left behind when their men went off to fight. ThePankhursts encouraged young men to volunteer for thearmy.

As hundreds of thousands of young men went off tofight, hundreds of thousands of working women foundthemselves with new opportunities. The Pankhurstscampaigned for women to work in the factories. From 1914to 1918, an increasing number of women started work inoffices, MU ITIO S factories, the armed forces and in medicalservices. Many took over jobs that were traditionally doneby men. You can read more about this on pages 54-56. Thereally important thing is that women in these jobs showedthat they were responsible, competent and vital to the wareffort. Many of the sexist arguments against women'ssuffrage melted away in the face of such evidence.

The campaign by the Suffragists and Suffragettes did notend altogether, but there was no more Suffragette violenceafter August 1914. They kept up the pressure for the vote ­but in a subtle way.

44

Price Id. Weekl, (""""*""-)

ePnCIAL eRGAN OP THE UNI'J'ED SUPFaAGIIT.

VOL. IX. (Thir<I8erieI), 110. <03. FRIDAY•. ~OVEMBER .8. 191~.

SOURCE 1

VOTES FOR '."HEROfNES AS WELL AS HEROES

The War Paper for Women

VOTES FORWOMEN

1 The caption at the bottom ofSource 1 says - The Anti­Suffragists used to allege, asone reason for refusing womenthe protection of the vote, thatwomen were already protectedby men's chivalry - as in ashipwreck, when the womenare always saved first. Whenthe hospital ship Anglia wentdown, last week, the womennurses refused life belts,saying, Wounded men first'.Is the claim for women's votesbased just on the sinking of theAnglia?

CBlVALRY: "Mep and WODllln protect ODe Anolher in tbe hour or death. With the addlllon orthe woman's YDle. the)' wollld be able 10 protect one another In lire a. well:'

~';.::.t::::.-:.. :~j;'l::a":.d:. ::.::.~ I;: :::'~·'«:7t':' ~;'7...-VAM~~~~A;: =:':='~.:::;' ~~_ell ......r.. rVar.-l life w{t., u,i." .. If'ollAlitll __ ;i,M., "

SOURCE 2The front cover of the magazine Votes for Women,

November 1915.

Former opponents are nowdeclaring themselves on ourside, or at any ratewithdrawing theiropposition. The change oftone in the press is mostmarked. The view has beenWidely expressed in [themedial that the continuedexclusion ofwomen fromrepresentation will be animpossibility after the war.

From an article by the Suffragistleader Millicent Fawcett in the

magazine, Common Cause, 1916.

2 What two events in 1916helped the women's cause?

Stage 2: 1916 -an opportunity arises

In 1916, the government decided that a new voting law wasneeded. Millions of ordinary men were serving their countryin the trenches. Under the current law, they did not havethe right to vote. That seemed very unjust. The governmentdrafted a new Representation of the People Act that allowedall men to vote. The women campaigners saw their chance.They argued that the act should also be changed to givewomen the vote.

In December 1916, David Lloyd George became the newPrime Minister. He was less hostile to women's suffragethan the former Prime Minister, Asquith, but he had beenvery put off by Suffragette violence before the war (seeSource 10 on page 43). Women had to campaign hard toconvince him. The leader of the Northern Federation forWomen's Suffrage wrote to Lloyd George in 1916. She saidthat if the government failed to give women the vote in anew law then they were worse than the Germans! 45

1 Explain why Mrs Fawcett wasprepared to accept that not allwomen would get the vote.

Stage 3: 1917 -the House ofCommons agrees

By June 1917, most members of the government seem tohave accepted that some women would get the vote in thenew act. However, there was a lot of argument over thedetail. Some women were upset by the plan that not allwomen would get the vote. However, Suffragist leaderMillicent Fawcett decided to accept the restrictions becauseit would be an important first step. She also thought that ifthe Suffragists made a fuss, it would turn opinion againstthem.

Mrs Fawcett and her supporters sat tensely in the Houseof Commons in June 1917 as MPs debated the new law. Inthe end, it was passed easily by 385 votes to 55.

SOURCE 3

Some years ago I used the expression 'Let the women workout their salvation '. Well they have worked it out dUring thewar. When the war is over the question will arise aboutwomen's role in society. I wouldfind it impossible to opposethem getting the vote.Former Prime Minister Asquith speaking in 1917. Before the war, he was

opposed to votes for women.

Stage 4: 1918 -the House ofLords agrees (just!)

There was one last obstacle. In January 1918, the act had tobe passed by the House of Lords. Before the war, theHouse of Lords had been even more fiercely opposed tofemale suffrage than the House of Commons. Even in 1918,there was much opposition. Lord Curzon, President of theAnti-suffrage League, said that the 'act will be the ruin ofthe country; women are politically worthless and the wholewomen's movement is disastrous and wrong'. Despite theopposition, the bill was finally passed by 134 votes to 71.

The Representation of the People Act finally became lawin February 1918. Women voted in their first elections inDecember 1918. Ten years later, the vote was extended toall women over 21. Of course, not everyone was convinced,even then ...

SOURCE 4

I am against the vote for all women. I shall always beagainst it. It was in 1918 that the disaster took place. Had itnot been for the war we could have resisted votes for womensuccessfully for ever.

Conservative politician, Lord Birkenhead, speaking in 1928.

2 Choose three words todescribe the general tone ofSource 5 from the following:relief, triumph, celebration, joy,worthiness, sorrow, humour.

3 Explain which parts of thecartoon show the words youchose.

SOURCE 5 _

PUNon. on Tnl~ fJ ~DON !JJTARI\·.\n1.-J.\~t·,nv 23. l!lJM.

AT. LAST!

Cartoon from Punch magazine, 1918, celebrating women~eing given the vote.

Lord Birkenhead

Women got the vote as a resultof 50 years of campaigning. War

work was just the last piece of thejigsaw to -At into place.

Why did some women get thevote in 1918?

Here are two views on thisquestion:

Had it not been for the war wecould have resisted votes for

women for ever.

Which view do you support?Work in stages:1 Write each of the following

factors on a separate piece ofpaper or card:• Suffragist campaigning• Suffragette campaigning• War work.

2 On each card, write your ownnotes explaining how the factorhelped to achieve the vote forwomen.

3 Take one card away. Explainwhether women could have gotthe vote with just the remainingtwo factors.

Millicent Fawcett47

Part C Britain at war

11 2.6 How did DORA get Britain organised forthe Great War?

censorship; exempt; propaganda; trade union

Controlling industryThe war created huge demands on industry.The government had to make sure that thedemands were met, especially formunitions. That was where DORA came in.

In some industries the governmentcontrolled prices. In others, the governmentdistributed materials. The government evenended up negotiating with TRADE UNIONS

over pay and conditions, and bringing overone million women into the workforce (seepages 54-56).

If you have a picture in your head of a little old lady calledDora fighting on the Western Front, then forget it! DORAstands for Defence of the Realm Act. Its aim was to organiseBritain for war. In this section, we will look at the terms ofthe act and how it, and the war, affected Britain.

Test your understanding bytrying to:

• sum up the aims of DORAin one sentence

• name two ways in whichDORA was used to controlindustry.

CONTROLLING INDUSTRY

Challenges to be met Examples of government Results or impactaction under DORA

Industry needed huge amounts The government took overof coal and steel. Britain's coal mines.

7 Munitions minister David L10ydGeorge (later to be Prime Minister)took charge of munitions production.He even set up government-runmunitions factories.

Industry needed workers to 7

replace the men joining the army.

Industry needed skilled workers. Government made some workersEXEMPT from army service. It evenbrought some miners back fromthe front.

DORAThe Defence of the Realm Act was passedon 8 August 1914. It was extended severaltimes during the war to give thegovernment more powers. It meant that:

• the government could take control ofland, buildings and even whole industries

• the government controlled foodproduction and food consumption

• the government controlled informationthrough PROPAGANDA and CENSORSHIP.

1 Look carefully at Source 1.Explain what it says about:• the cartoonist's attitude

towards strikers during the1914-18 war

• the public's attitude towardsstrikers in the 1914-18 war

• industrial relations during thewar.

2 Look again at your answers toquestion 1 and discuss:• whether you based your

answers on the details of thecartoon

• whether you based youranswers on the informationprovided in the sourcecaption

• if one was more useful thanthe other.

SOURCE 1

How well did DORA work? Part 1

1 Make your own copy of the 'Controlling industry' chart on page 48.Use the information on pages 48-49 to help you:a) fill in the two boxes marked with a question markb) add details to the third column to show the achievements

of DORAc) add other rows to the chart.

Of course, not everything ran smoothly. Munitions factorieswere often unsafe. For example, there was a hugeexplosion at Silvertown munitions factory in the East Endof London in January 1917. There were also rather morestrikes than the government liked to admit (see Source 1).The government sometimes clashed with employers as well.However, industry did deliver the goods. Most historiansagree that Britain's war economy performed better thanGermany's.

SOURCE 2

:FOR SEUYICES RENDERED.A GEn~[AS DP...oonATION Fon DRITlSn STRIKERS.

A cartoon from Punch magazine, 1917, called 'ForServices Rendered'. The cross is the German medal,the Iron Cross. The man with the pipe is an industrial

worker who has gone on strike. Workers resented thiskind of image. They felt that they had the right to

make good wages out of the war because so manybusinessmen made vast profits from war contracts.

Munitions production, 1915-17. Achievements likethese meant that the government had co-ordinatedthe raw materials (like coal and steel), the workers,

the employers and the transport industries to deliverthe equipment the army needed.

49

50

Aim to remember two ways inwhich DORA controlledBritain's food supply.

FDaM task BHow well did DORA work?Part 2

1 Look back at your chart fromFocus task A on page 49.

2 Read through the next twosections on controlling foodand controlling information.Make two more charts, one forfood and one for information,to summarise what thegovernment did in these areas.Use the same three columnheadings.

CONTROLLING ...

Challenges Examples Resultsto be met ofgovern- or

ment impactactionunderDORA

~

"V

allotment; rationing; Trades Union Congress

Controlling foodObviously, it was essential to feed people during the war.From 1914 to the end of 1916, the food supply was not amajor concern. However, by April 1917, U-boat attacks onBritain's supplies led to a crisis. At one point, Britain hadonly six weeks' food left. Workers went on strike becausefood prices rose rapidly.

In May 1917, the government took charge. It increasedwages for workers. It also introduced voluntary RATIONING.

The royal family tried to set an example by following therations. The government put an extra 2.5 million acres ofland into agricultural production. Ordinary people usedtheir own gardens or started up ALLOTME TS or evenploughed up playing fields to grow food. Many womenjoined the new Women's Land Army to take the place offarm workers who were in the army.

Despite these measures, food still ran short, and the poorsuffered most. In January 1918, the government introducedcompulsory rationing of all the main foods. This meant aweekly ration of meat, butter, margarine, cheese and sugar.Rationing generally solved the problems of shortages. Evenso, the government still had to clamp down on people whoabused the system (see Source 3).

SOURCE 3

DEFENCE OF T:HE RE.A.LlVI. LP•••

MINISTRY OF FOOD.

BREACHES OF THE RATIONING ORDERThe undermentioned convictions have been recently obtained:-

Co.,", Date N.ture of ODel\ce ReauJt

HENDON . 29th Aug., 1918 Unlawfully obtaining aud using ration books 3 MOIloths' ImprilODDltD.t

WEST HAM - 29th Ang., 1918 BeIDII a retaUer & faUIDg 10 detat" proper D_1Ier of eoDpoas Fiatd £20

SMETHWICK - 22nd July, 1918 Obtaining meat in excess quautities . Fia04 £50 " £5 5~ ,osts

OLD STREET- 4th Sept., 1918 Being a retailer selling to unregistered customer Fin.d £72 " £5 5~ costs

OLD STREET· 4th Sept., 1918 Not detaching sufficient coupous tor meat sold . FiDtd £25 & £2 25. costs

CHESTER-LE- 4th Sept., 1918 Belug a retaUer retDrlllug DD.ller of reglslered tnSlomersFiatd £50 " £3 3~ costs

STREET ID exeess of eoDDlerfollB deposited • - - -

IDGHWYCOMBE 7th Sept., 1918 Maldall false state.eDI OD applic:atlOD for &Dd usiug IatlODFintd E40 " £6 4~ costsBoo.... DDlswf.Uy -

aat_eat BraaoJa. Looa1 Aa1.borlU.. DI"I.IOD.,m••an'!' o. POO»'.. , ••_

_______A go~ernment notice published~nd~DORA in 1918.

A still from a government propaganda film about theBattle of the Somme.

.. fri~ Ifri~Iare thOle British munition workers newt' going to take a hoIidayl fl

A government poster urging women in munitions__factories_not to take their holidays. 51

SOURCE 6

NO HOLIDAYS

Controlling information: propaganda andcensorshipThe government, newspapers and even private individualsproduced propaganda publications and films. In the earlystages of the war, these tried to get men to join the army.Propaganda posters tried to make war seem exciting (seeSource 4). They also tried to get the nation to pull together.As the war went on, propaganda became more serious.The government film The Battle of the Somme was grim andfairly realistic (although some scenes were staged). By late1916, people knew that the war would be a long, hardstruggle. Government propaganda reflected this.

It is impossible to say for sure whether governmentpropaganda was effective. In 1915 and 1916 the TRADESUNION CONGRESS (TUC) responded to appeals for workersnot to take their holidays (see Source 6). We know thatsupport for the war stayed firm despite the casualties. Salesof newspapers went up during the war, and millionsflocked to see films like The Battle of the Somme.

Government censors checked books, newspaper articlesand even advertisements in case they contained informationthat might help the enemy. In 1917, the censors told oneManchester engineering firm to scrap an advertisement forthis reason. All they were advertising was spark plugs!

Are YOU in this?A government poster.

1 Look at Sources 4, 5 and 6.One is from early 1915, theother two are from the secondhalf of 1916. Which one iswhich?

2 Explain how you knew theanswer to question 1. Explainhow these things helped you:• the content and style of the

source• background knowledge.

SOURCE 5

SOURCE 4

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

conscientious objector; conscription;minister; Socialist

-

- Key r-

- o 1914o 1915- Kitchener's estimate

of numbers needed -

(152,000 per month)

e-

- e-

- e- - r-e- -

- r- e-

n nI I I I I I I I I I I I

Numbers volunteering for the armed forces in 1914 and 1915.

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

o

SOURCE 8

How did they get enough soldiers?

A volunteer army

The British army needed millions of soldiers. Before thewar, Britain was the only major European power that reliedsolely on volunteers to join the army. In 1914 and 1915, itstill did. Lord Kitchener, the government MINISTER for war,organised the campaign to get men to volunteer (see Source7). To start with, it was very successful.

Arecruitment poster from 1914showing the face of Lord

Kitchener.

GOD SAVE THE KING

Aim to recall one argument infavour of CONSCRIPTION and oneargument against. As anadded bonus, you could lookat the sources onconscription and think aboutwhy they might be useful tohistorians.

~prod\Ked br pef'mltMon of LONDON Ot'INION

SOURCE 7

52

1 Look at Source 7. Explainwhether you think it is useful tohistorians in terms of:a) methods used by the

government to recruitsoldiers

b) how successful thegovernment was inrecruiting soldiers.

2 Look at Source 8. Explain whythis source is useful forhistorians investigating whyconscription was introduced.

Was voluntary recruitment working?

By the end of 1915, the number of volunteers was worryingthe government (see Source 8). Falling numbers of recruitswas not the only problem. There was a strong feeling thatnot all men were doing their share. Essex farm workers, forexample, complained that they were working all hours togrow food for everyone yet they were also being delugedwith recruiting posters making them feel guilty for notvolunteering for the war.

Many people wrote to the government saying thatconscription would be much fairer. It would cover all men,whether they were rich or poor, in or out of work,according to what the country needed.

SOURCE 9

A cartoon from the Socialistnewspaper, The Workers'

Dreadnought, 1916.

3 Study Source 9 carefully. It is abiased view of conscription.a) Explain why and how it is

biased (mention at least twodetails from the source).

b) Does its bias mean it is ofno use in studying howpeople felt aboutconscription? Explain youranswer.

Conscription

So, in January 1916, the government introducedconscription. All men aged 18-40 had to register for warwork and could be called up to fight or do any other jobthe government wanted them to do.

Of course, some people opposed conscription. InCanada, it was not introduced until 1917, after a very closereferendum (people's vote). In Australia, there were twovotes. It was rejected narrowly both times. In Britain, somepolitical groups, such as the SOCIALISTS, opposed it. They feltthat the war only helped the rich. They said it was unfairthat working men should fight this 'rich man's war' (seeSource 9).

The most notable opponents of conscription were theCONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTORS (conchies). These men refused tofight because of strong moral or religious views. Manyserved in the trenches as stretcher-bearers or did war workin Britain. Some were sentenced to hard labour. Conchieswere generally seen as cowards (see Source 10) and treatedvery harshly. Some conchies were probably looking for away out, but many were prepared to suffer for their beliefsand bravely faced the punishments they were given.

How well did DORA work? Part 3

1 Look back at your chart from Focus task A on page 49.2 Make a final chart to sum up the information about recruitment and

conscription on pages 52-53.3 Below are four men who lived through the First World War (you will

look at women on the next page). What might each one say abouthow DORA has changed his life?Choose one character and write two speech bubbles for him ­one for 1915 and one for 1917.

SOURCE 10

SirWhat right have'conscientious objectors' tolive in this country whosesafety is only protected by thefighting men ofour Armyand Navy?G. Moor, 3 Silverfields,Harrogate

A letter written to the Daily Mail,10 January 1916.

Essex farmworker

Lancashireminer

Londonjournalist

Midlandspublican

53

Women on the front line

Before the Great War, the majority of women worked ashousewives (often taking in additional work like washing),or in DOMESTIC SERVICE (as maids, cooks, etc.).

For many women the war changed all that.

Although women did not fight in the trenches, womenworked close to the front line.

When you've nnished thissection, check that you can:

11 2.7 How did women contributeto the war effort?

~worM domestic service

• list two ways womencontributed to the wareffort

• give examples of each typeof contribution

• explain the importance ofat least one type ofcontribution.

SOURCE 1

I suddenly saw my job indomestic service as a uselessone - doing things for lazypeople that they could quitewell do for themselves ...There was talk of 'jobs ofnational importance' forwomen as well as men.

Winnifred Griffiths talking in aninterview about her feelings during

the Great War.

• Thousands of women served in the Women's AuxiliaryArmy Corps (WAAC). It was formed in 1918. Its memberswere mainly drivers, secretaries or officials.

• Many women served in women's hospital units. By theend of the war there were many of these in France,Serbia and Russia.

• Thousands of women worked in voluntary organisationsnear the front line. The Salvation Army organisedkitchens, many of which were run by women.

• When the Germans invaded Belgium and northernFrance in 1914, civilians there faced chaos. The suffragemovements turned themselves into organisations to feed,house and reunite people with their families.

SOURCE 2

54

Nurses working on their ambulance in 1917. These women had tomaintain the ambulance as well as do their jobs as nurses.

Women on the home frontWomen played a key role in recruitingsoldiers for the army. The Active ServiceLeague encouraged young men to enlist.The Mothers' Union published posterscriticising mothers who stopped their sonsjoining up. The government also made useof women in their propaganda posters (seeSource 3).

In many towns there were Womens'Patrol Movements. These volunteerspatrolled the streets, dealing with minorissues such as lost children or litter. Thisfreed up the police for more importantwork.

SOURCE 3

TO THE

YOUNCWOMEIOF LONDON

Is your "Best Boy" wearingKhaki? If not don't YOUTHINK he should be? -If he does not think that youand your country are worthrIghting for-do you think beis WORTHY of you?Don't pity the girl who Isalone-her young man isprobably a soldier-lightingfor her and her country­and for YOU.U yOUI' young man negledS his duly 10 bIsKing and Country, the UlDe may eome wheDbe will NEGLECT YOU.

TbInk it over-tben ask him to

SOURCE 4 JOIN THE ARMY TO-DIY

Women workers in the Great War.

Type of industry

55

As the war went on, the governmentneeded more men to fight. This meant thatwomen took over many important jobs.Government departments employed 200,000women during the war.

There was a bit more resistance towomen workers in industry. However, bythe end of the war, hundreds of thousandsof women were working in traditionally'male' jobs. For example, 800,000 womenworked in engineering by 1918. Around260,000 women worked on Britain's farmsin the Women's Land Army. Women evenkept some of the works' football teamsgoing during the war!

A poster issued in 1915 by the government'sj>arliamentary Recruiting Committee.

Women in industry

Key

• 1914D 1918

100,000

600,000

500,000

....Cl)

E 200,000::J

Z

(/)....Cl)

-g 400,0005:cCl)

E~ 300,000

-o

oMetals Food and Transport

. drink.Chemicals Timber Govern-

ment

56

Aim to explain one advantageand one disadvantage forwomen working in munitionsfactories.

~word munitionettes

Women making weaponsThousands of women worked in private and government­owned munitions factories. Many women enjoyed the statusand the wages the work gave. Official war paintingsprovided a romantic view of these 'MU ITIO ETIES'. On theother hand, it was dangerous work. There were several badaccidents and many women suffered ill health because ofchemicals in the explosives.

SOURCE 5

Somewhere in FranceJune 1917My dear Miss Chapman,

Pardon mefor taking the liberty ofwriting again, butit may interest you to know that some ofthe 'MillsGrenades', which I presume you helped make, were usedwith good effect in the last push in April.

Probably you may rememberputting your name on theinside ofa base plug ofone of these bombs which I hadthe pleasure ofusing.

It may give you a hint to keep making these bombs asthey are very useful pals at all times and Fritz [Germany}wishes to inform you that he don't like them at all.(Excuse mistakes here as I am very sleepy and must tryandfind a place soon for a few winks.)

Probably you willfind time (after hours) to drop me aline in answer to this andplease keep sending out thosebombs.

It may interest you to know that your grenades wereused driving Fritz backfrom Arras.

Now I must not get too intimate all at once so I willhave to stop writing. Wishing you and yourpals everysuccess in your work and waiting patiently on your reply.

I remainYours sincerelyWaiter P. Miles

P.S. A hundred kisses to be distributed among themunition girls.

A letter from a soldier in the BEF to a munitions worker in 1917.

SOURCE 6

A memorial outside St George's Hall in the centre of Liverpool.

Look closely at Source 6. It is part of a memorial to the men ofLiverpool who fought and fell in the Great War. Many villages, townsand cities have similar memorials.

Your task is to design a memorial to commemorate the contributionof women to the Great War.

It could be:

• a monument like Source 6• an object such as a medal or coin• a poem or song• a combination of these, or another idea.

Your memorial should cover the main ways in which women contributedto the war. You could research the work done by women in your localarea and add that to your memorial.

Design the memorial by sketching it by hand or on computer, or writea plan of the monument. You may be able to use ICT to make apresentation explaining what your memorial will be like and how itshows the contribution of women.

It is now time to prepare yourclass quiz, based on the yellownotes at the beginning of eachsection. Your teacher can giveyou a sheet to help you.

57

Making peace1919-23

11 3. 1 Prospects for peace

French civilians

Germany must becrippled or we will never

feel safe again.

This war wasGermany's fault. They

must be punished.

We may have won thewar, but we are nearly

bankrupt. We mustrebuild trade and

prosperity.

armistice; ceasefire; democratic; humiliated;Kaiser; League of Nations; PresidentThe key thing to grasp is that

the end of the war did notend the hatred. Try toremember at least two majorproblems that concernedpeople at the end of the war.

It's time for the USA to make theworld a better place. I want to end

rivalry between nations. I want smallnations to rule themselves. I want a

LEAGUE OF NATIONS to help to keep peace. PRESIDENT Wilson of the USA

The cost of the Great War

* Troops killed: 8 million.* Troops wounded: 21 million. British civilians* Casualties for selected :=====================~

countries: Germany - 2 million;Russia - 1.75 million; Britishempire - 3.2 million.

* France lost 250,000 buildingsand 8000 square miles ofagricultural land. Around 60per cent of France's youngmen were either killed orwounded.

* Britain spent around £9 billionon the war.* Germany, Russia and the British Prime Minister, L10yd George

Austrian empire all collapsed inrevolution.

* To make matters worse, a fluepidemic spread throughEurope in the winter of1918-19. It killed around 20million people.

58

Germanyshould giveback all theland it took

from Russia.

Fighting ended on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day ofthe eleventh month in 1918, with an ARMISTICE or CEASEFIRE.

The Great War was the bloodiest, costliest war that theworld had ever known. The Factfile on page 55 gives yousome of the raw details. What do you think people aroundEurope would be thinking after such an awful war?

You are one of President Wilson'spolitical advisers. Write him ashort memo beginning:

Dear Mr PresidentYou have said you intend to

make the world a better place.This may be more difficult thanyou think. You need to know

what people in Europe arethinking at the moment. For

example ...

An armistice'? I don't believeit. We should be flghting on!

Germany will never be beaten.Those weak politicians at home

have let us down.

The KAISER has leftGermany. We run the

country now, but it's inruins. People are starving.

They feel HUMILIATED bydefeat. They are already

blaming us for theirproblems, but what can we

do about it'?

Parts of our countryare a wasteland. The

Germans must pay forwhat they have done.

A young corporal from the German army

The old Austrian empire isflnished. Now we can build

new nations, and ruleourselves. But how can we

decide where the borders ofthese new countries will be'?

Peoples of Eastern Europe (Serbs, Croats,Czechs)

59

_ 3.2 What did the Big Three want?

Your most important aimshould be to name each ofthe Big Three and at leastone priority for each of themat the peace talks. Addedbonus: list two issues thatthey disagreed about.

Key worM compensation; conference; ideal; justice; longterm; reparations; security; self-determination;treaty

Welcome to Paris. Actually, you are just outside Paris, at thePalace of Versailles. The leaders of the winning countries inthe Great War are here. They are discussing how to put theworld back together again.

The Germans are here, but they will have no say in anyof the talks. They will be told to sign a peace TREATY oncethe Big Three have worked out the details. Germany is inno state to restart the war so it has to accept what the BigThree say.

Who are the Big Three? Have a look!

60

David L10yd George, BritainBackground:• Poor Welsh boy made good.• Brilliant lawyer and clever talker.• Known for being sneaky at times.

Relationship with people back home:• People back home are saying things

like: 'Squeeze Germany like a lemon.'They will only be happy with a treatythat punishes Germany.

Relationship with other two:• He is annoyed with Wilson for saying

that Britain should give freedom toits colonies.

• Clemenceau has already tried to hit him!

Priorities:• Peace and trade: he wants peace in

Europe that will last. This will allowBritain to rebuild its trade.

• The British empire: he will take someof Germany's colonies if he getsthe chance.

• But he has to keep people at homehappy, too.

Woodrow Wilson, the USABackground:• Brilliant scholar from highly respectable American family.

Relationship with people back home:• He wants the USA to get involved in world politics as a force for good.

But casualties in the war have horrified Americans. They want to be freeof Europe's problems.

• His political enemies back home will take any chance to get him.

Relationship with other two:• He thinks L10yd George and Clemenceau are too selfish.

They are just trying to get a good deal for their own countries.• He, on the other hand, is trying to make the world a safer place.

Priorities:• A peace treaty that will be fair. He thinks Germany should be punished

but not humiliated.• He set out his aims in January 1918 in his 'Fourteen Points', a mixture

of IDEALS and practical measures. These included:- SELF-DETERMINATION - peoples in Austro-Hungarian empire to rulethemselves in their own countries; people in colonies to have a say intheir own government.- League of Nations - a sort of international police force to helpcountries to sort out disputes without going to war.

FOCl«task

Who wanted what at the Paris PeaceCONFERENCE?

1 On the right is a list of statements that might havebeen made by one of the Big Three. Read themcarefully. Then read about the Big Three below.

2 Decide which of the Big Three could have saidwhich statements. You may think that somestatements could have been said by more thanone leader.

3 Finally, decide:• which statements the leader would have made

in open discussions (and in front of journalists)• which statements would have been private

thoughts, or voiced only at secret meetingsbehind the scenes.

Georges Clemenceau,FranceBackground:• Journalist and politician since

the 1870s.

Relationship with people backhome:• Under a lot of pressure to make

France safe from German attacksin the future. For most Frenchpeople, this means cripplingGermany.

Relationship with other two:• He thinks Wilson is too idealistic.

He does not trust lIoyd George.• He thinks neither of them really

cares about France.

Priorities:• Future SECURITY for France from

any German attack.• COMPENSATION from Germany

(REPARATIONS) for the damagecaused by the war.

StatementsA Germany was our number two trading partner

before the war. Rebuilding Germany means jobs forour workers.

B How can I talk to a man who thinks he is the firstperson for 2000 years who knows anything aboutpeace'?

C I demand JUSTICE for the harm done to us. Germanymust pay very large reparations.

D I want a fair peace. I do not wish to crush Germanyor expand our empire.

E I want no German armed forces on my border.

F I want to see Germany broken up into smallerstates.

G I want to see Germany's armed forces reduced tothe very minimum.

H It is right that Germany should pay somereparations for the damage it has done.

I L10yd George is more interested in trade thanFrance's security.

J The French have only one thought. If we are tooharsh, Germany will want revenge one day.

K The Germans will never be able to pay thereparations we are asking. But I have to demandreparations because people at home expect me to.

L We are all using words like 'right' and Justice'. Dowe really mean what we say'?

M We cannot compete with Germany in the LONG TERM,

but we can weaken it for many years.

N We must have a peace without winners and losers.Otherwise, the losers will want revenge one day.

o We should all reduce our armies and navies.

P We should be as harsh on Germany as it was onRussia last year - it took 40 per cent of Russia'sbest land.

SOURCE 1

The excitement was tense in the extreme, as, with tremblinghand, the German minister . .. took the pen and placed hissignature to paper. Everyone felt the tremendous significance[importance} ofthe moment. Not a word was spoken, and thefall ofa pin could be heard in the famous gallery. There wasjust the rustle ofshutters ofthe cameras ofthe pressphotographers.

From the BritiSh newspaper, the People, 29 June 1919.

POLAND

HUNGARY

~ 0 ESTONIA \\_.,

SWEDEN! /l X"~~;~'<:"Danzig (free city) run r_._ ~'_'_'_'~'_'_", ./

by.League of .Nations..~'-' LITHUANIA \_.~._.-.<.._._._ ..This was to give f

Poland a sea port. .::-J To Lith~ania Ib '_.._> _ ,.

....., i........./

UNION forbidden between ,......, "__~_L_Ge_r_m_an-=.y_a--,n,--d_A_us_tr_ia_,~/~'-'---" __ '~ __ '-'-'-'I-'-'-'-'-'_:'-'-'_/

\. /_.., .iAUSTRIA )-. ./

:- .... .-1

'.I

SOURCE 2

.ORWAyr/ ­~

Germany signs the treatyAfter months of disputes, a treaty was finalised. On 28 June1919, the Germans signed the Treaty of Versailles.

N

t

No Germantroops allowed inthe Rhineland.

Scaleo 500km,-,---------',

North Sea

Key

The more you know about theTreaty of Versailles, the moreit will help you. Aim toremember at least three keyterms of the treaty.

Land taken awayfrom Germany

D No Germantroops allowed

D Independentstates

11 3.3 The Treaty of Versailles:winners and losers

bA¥f wordi mark; Polish corridor; union

62How the Treaty of Versailles changed German territory.

Why did the Big Three not get the treatythey wanted?The Big Three had conflicting aims so they could not allget what they wanted. But, in fact, none of them waspleased with the treaty.

• Clemenceau wanted the treaty to be much harsher. Forexample, he wanted Germany broken up into smallerstates. Wilson stopped this from happening.

• Wilson thought that the treaty was far too harsh and thatone day Germany would seek revenge. He said that if hewere a German he would not have signed it.

• Lloyd George had most reason to be pleased. He camehome to a hero's welcome, but he later said that thetreaty was a great pity and he predicted that it wouldcause another war.

Read the terms of the Treatyof Versailles and make a table torecord the main points.• In column 1, show some of the

aims of the Big Three.• In column 2, write examples

from the treaty that seemdesigned to achieve this aim.

• In column 3, note down whichof the Big Three would approveof this aim. It might be morethan one of them.

TERMS OF THE TREATY

From these two pages, workout which term upset theGermans the most.

SOURCE 3

PARIS GOESWILD WITH JOY

Paris went wild with joylast night when news of

the Germans'unconditional climb-downarrived, and expressed itsfeelings in the traditionalway - flags, processions,gun firing, illuminations

[lights], cheering.

Reactions to the treatyLet's do a quick tour of Europe to see the reactions to thetreaty. Remember that the war was not technically over untilthe treaty was signed.

France

The treaty was greeted with enthusiasm and there werecelebrations on the streets of Paris. The war was nowdefinitely over. France had won. It looked as though thethreat from Germany had ended.

Britain

Most people in Britain supported the treaty. They felt thatGermany had got what it deserved. They saw Lloyd Georgeas a hero. The King went to meet him at the train stationwhen he returned from Paris!

However, some British people were worried. They askedwhether this treaty would bring peace, and they worriedabout Germany's reaction to it. But most people thought theGermans were just complaining. They would soon get overit, wouldn't they?

From the British newspaper, SOURCE 5the Star, 24 June 1919.

SOURCE 4 PEACE WITH VIGILANCE

THE PEACE THATIS NO PEACE

From the British newspaper, theDaily Herald, 8 May 1919.

... though we have paralysed Germany on land, at sea andin the air, we have not destroyed totally her power for evil.

Germany is still a menace.

From the British newspaper, the Daily Mail, 30 June 1919.

SOURCE 6

LONDON'S JOYThere were great scenes outside Buckingham Palace,where all day Londoners flocked in their thousands tocheer the King and Queen ... The West-End wasnaturally the objective of all who felt the need of releasingpent-up feelings of enthusiasm, and there were carnivalscenes everywhere, but no rowdiness, only boisterousmerriment and noise.

From the British newspaper, the Daily Chronicle, 30 June 1919.

A cartoon in the German magazine Simplicissimus,1919.

SOURCE 7

THE TREATY IS ONLYASCRAP OF PAPERI

From the German newspaper, Deutsche Zeitung(German News), 30 June 1919.

We will seek vengeancefor the shame of 1919.

FOcurtMkWhy did Germans object so bitterly to the Treaty of Versailles?

1 Draw up your own version of this diagram.2 From pages 62-65 note any features of the treaty

that you think would upset the Germans. Write eachone in one of the empty 'clouds'.

3 In small groups, discuss why each feature wouldupset them and then add the reason to your diagram.

4 As a group, discuss which term you think wouldupset them the most. There are no right answers tothis question!

5 Now choose two German complaints. Make up arhyme or word that will help you remember them (likeGARGLe on page 63). Try more than two complaintsif you can.

GermanyYou will not be surprised to learn that theGermans were not happy about the treaty.They lost:

• 10 per cent of their land• 12.5 per cent of their population.

Other things upset them as well.

• War guilt: they did not feel that they hadstarted the war on their own.

• The limits on the army were humiliating.• They had no say in the treaty. They were

just told to sign it.• Millions of Germans were now ruled by

foreigners.• East Prussia was cut off from the rest of

Germany by the 'Polish corridor'.• The German government that had to sign

the treaty was not the same governmentthat took Germany into the war. Thetreaty punished the wrong people.

SOURCE 8

11 3.4 Was the treaty to blame forGermany's problems?

Your aim here is to remember:

• at least one problemGermany faced in theperiod 1919-23

• why Germans blamed theTreaty of Versailles forthat problem.

Communist; crisis; hyperinflation;instalment; Nazi

The Germans hated the Treaty of Versailles. During theyears 1919-23, the country faced one CRISIS after another.Germans blamed the treaty for these crises. The story stripon these pages shows how Germans felt during thesetroubled years.

The government told thefactory workers to strikeso that there was nothingfor the French to take. *

* But that also meant thatthe rest of Germanysuffered.

French troops bulliedGerman civilians

I don't likesigning this, but I

have no choice.

The government stopped paying_;:JHelga's war pension. They blamed the

=::1::.::..;....-.--1 Treaty. *May 1919: the Treaty of Versaillesblamed Germany for the war, took away ~ But the main reason it. had no moneysome of Its land and ordered it to pay IS because It had spent It all on thecompensation to other countries. war.

r1TrL:h=ey~t~h::-;-:in::;:k:-:;:t~h-:'ey-:--r----------Jcan do whatever theywant because of that I~'".I.!~~

treaty.

ask yourself three questions.

a) What is Germany's bigproblem at this point?

b) What has this got to do withthe Treaty of Versailles?

c) What other factor(s) arecausing the problem?

Record your answers in a table.Once you have completed yourtable, write a paragraph toexplain whether you think theGermans were right to blame theTreaty of Versailles for all theirproblems.

Germans blamed all their post­war problems on the Treaty ofVersailles, but there were otherfactors as well. As you readthrough the story strip,whenever you reach a

66

THE HELGA EITLING STORY

67

Helga blamed France and the treaty forGermany's problems. So did a youngNAZI called Adolf Hitler. ** You'll find out more about him later.

That caused HYPERINFLATION. Prices wentout of control. ** And Helga Eitling's savings of a fewthousand marks were worthless.

yea rs. I can earn a 6:r-::r..~::::::::-;2:;:;~

little extra bysewing.

I .After the war, food was so expensive

Helga's brothers died in the war, and her that Helga had to sell her mother'smother died in the flu epidemic of 1919. precious jewellery just to eat.

Soon everyone was running out ofmoney. Instead of trying to talk to theFrench, the government printed moremoney.

11 3.5 Were the peacemakers 'very stupid men'?

The key point here is thatpeople disagreed about thetreaty in 1919 and they stilldo! Aim to remember:

• three points arguing thatthe treaty was unfair

• three points arguing thatthe treaty was fair.

SOURCE 1

The historian, with everyjustification, will come to theconclusion that we were verystupid men. We arriveddetermined to get a peace ofjustice and wisdom. We leftfeeling that the terms weimposed on our enemieswere neither just nor wise.

Sir Harold Nicolson, writing in hisdiary, 1919.

~WOrM public opinion

Sir Harold Nicolson, a top British diplomat, was at most ofthe Paris Peace Conference. Source 1 gives his view of thetreaty at the time.

Some historians agree with him. They say that thepeacemakers made some big mistakes. The treaty was notjust (fair) or wise. It stored up big problems for the future.Other historians disagree. They say that the treaty was thefairest that could have been made at the time and that thepeacemakers had an impossible job. The chart below showssome of the arguments each side uses.

Historians will never agree about this. Our view of thetreaty is affected by hindsight - by what we knowhappened next. We know that the treaty helped Hitlerbecome leader of Germany and that, in turn, helped to leadto the Second World War.

However, try to forget that for a while. Just by looking atthe period up to 1923 - from that evidence alone - is itright to call the makers of the treaty 'very stupid men'?

68

Against the treaty• The treaty punished the wrong people.

The German government that was forcedto sign the treaty was not the samegovernment that took Germany into thewar. The treaty should have tried to buildup the fragile, newly elected government.Instead, the treaty knocked it back beforeit even got started.

• The treaty should not have blamedGermany. Germany was not the onlycountry to blame for the war.

• The treaty damaged Germany enough tocause resentment, but left Germanystrong enough to seek revenge. It shouldhave been either less harsh or moreharsh.

For the treaty• The treaty was much less harsh on

Germany than PUBLIC OPINION in thewinning countries demanded. In fact,the peacemakers held back.

• The treaty was much less harsh than theGermans would have been if they had won.The Germans had been very hard on theRussians in 1918. Germany had alwaysplanned to pay its war debts by winningthe war and making other states payreparations.

• The treaty did not cause Germany'sproblems - bad government did. Germanycould easily have paid the reparations if ithad wanted to. As soon as a good leadertook charge after 1923, Germany sortedout its problems very quickly.

SOURCE 3

69

Supports theview that thetreaty wasnot wisebecause ...

Supports theview that thepeacemakershad a veryhard jobbecause ...

Supports theview that thetreaty wasfairbecause ...

Supports theview that thetreaty wasnot justbecause ...

Point/pieceof evidence

Point/pieceof evidence

4 Now write a paragraph saying which view of thetreaty you hold.

Part 1: the case against the Treaty of Versailles

1 Look back at all your work in this chapter. Collect allthe evidence that supports the view that the treatywas not just or wise.

You could look at:• the terms of the treaty

(page 63)• the reactions to the treaty (pages 64-65)• the problems Germany faced because of the

treaty, 1919-23 (pages 66-67),Remember you are only looking for evidence againstthe treaty just now.

2 Choose four key points from your evidence and writethem into a table like the one above.Some points could provide evidence for bothcolumns 2 and 3.

Part 2: the case for the Treaty of Versailles

3 Now look at the arguments for the treaty on thescales on page 68. Look for evidence in this chapterto support each point. Write it in a table like this.

It is now time to prepare your class quiz, based on theyellow notes at the beginning of each section. Yourteacher can give you a sheet to help you.

A British cartoon from 1920.

GnU.ulT. "HELP I HELP I i DROWN ,. THROW ME THE LIFE·BELT I"

Ma. LI.oTD G&Ono~:.l '''TRY ST~o\·NDING- 'UP ON YOUR FEET."M. BnuND •.. T .

PEACE AND FUTURE CANNON FODDER

If

SOURCE 2

A British cartoon from 1920. The '1940 class', inthe form of a weeping child, represents the children

born in the 1920s who might die in a future war.'The Tiger' was the nickname for Clemenceau.

11 4. 1 Was the League of Nations a good idea?collective security; co-operate; covenant;disarmament; international

Q1: What waf; the League of Nationf;?

A: The League was an INTERNATIONAL organisation. It was set upas part of the Treaty of Versailles. It was the idea of USPresident Wood row Wilson - he thought the League would helpto stop future wars. There were 42 countries in the Leaguewhen it began in 1919.

Q2: What were the aimf; of the League of Nationf;?

A: The aims were set out in the COVENANT of the League ofNations. This document was like a 'rule book' for the League(see Source 1). The aims were:

• to be united and strong enough to discourage any nationfrom using force as a way to solve disputes

• to provide a place to discuss international disputes andwork them out peacefully

• to encourage countries to CO-OPERATE, especially in businessand trade

• to encourage DISARMAMENT by nations• to improve living and working conditions for people around

the world.

By sticking together, the nations of the world would haveprotection and help from each other - this was calledCOLLECTIVE SECURITY.

Questions and answers about the Leagueof Nations

Keeping the peacein the 19205

Your priority on this spreadis to explain two aims of theLeague of Nations.

SOURCE 1

mE PARTIES [those takingpart}, in order to promoteinternational co-operationand to achieve internationalpeace and security, agree tothis Covenant ofthe LeagueofNations

• by promising not to goto war

• by agreeing to open, justand honourable relationsbetween nations

• by agreeing thatgovernments should actaccording to internationallaw

• by maintaining justiceand respect for all treatyobligations.

The first words of the Covenant ofthe League of Nations.

All members of the Leaguesigned this covenant.

SOURCE 2

The survivorsWomen welcome their menback from war. One womanstands astride two silent gunsholding her baby - a symbol ofhope for the future.

Some of the guns are still firingbut, one by one, men andwomen are pushing them off aprecipice where they will breakup and be unusable. TheLeague tried to persuadecountries to disarm.

Hand in handThe five giants represent thefive continents of the Earth. Thegiants are standing firmtogether.

At the giants' feet, leaders of all thenations are working, reading and talkingtogether. The League's members comefrom all five continents. The Leaguebelieved that strength came from unity.

l~Wall paintings by the famous Spanish artist, Jose Maria Sert that decorate the

Assembly Chamber in the League's Headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.They were designed to show the aims and values of the League.

Prepare a headphone commentary about thepaintings in Source 2 to be used by a visitor. Makesure you point the viewer to the important detailswhich show the aims of the League.

71

• economic SANCTIONS ­

cutting off importantsupplies like oil

Q4: How could the League make a countrydo what it wanted?

A: It had three main powers. It could use:

• MORAL CONDEMNATION ­

criticising the actions ofthe aggressor (the nationwhich was attackinganother nation)

isolationism; moral condemnation; sanctionsYour main aim on this page isto explain the differencebetween the League's Counciland its Assembly.

Q8: How wa5 the League organi5ed?

A: Britain and France wanted the League tobe a sort of informal club. In a crisis, the bignations would get together. There wassomething like this already. It was called theCouncil of Ambassadors. However, PresidentWilson did not agree. He insisted that theLeague should work like a kind of internationalgovernment. He got his way (see Source 3).

How the League of Nations was organised.

• armed force - using forceagainst the aggressor.

t The League had a number of

The League was run by a commissions, or committees,... to tackle international problemspermanent Secretariat ~

such as helping refugees or(staff of office workers). improving health.

The Council met five times a year or when therewas an emergency. It had some temporarymembers elected by the Assembly and fourpermanent members - Britain, France, Italy andJapan. The real power in the League lay withthese four. Each permanent member could veto(stop) any action by the League. In any crisis, theCouncil took all the important decisions.

The Court of International Justice helped tosettle disputes between countries. The courtwould listen to both sides and then make adecision, just like an ordinary court of law.

The Assembly was the League'sparliament. It met once a year. Itvoted on issues such as the budget(spending) of the League, or letting .....in new members. Decisions had tobe unanimous (every member hadto agree).

., 7':' n c..r;, ~}! ..-~'~~I

IINI

A young secretary is arriving for his first day at theLeague of Nations Secretariat in the 1920s.

Prepare a bullet point briefing for him about theLeague. Explain the difference between the Counciland the Assembly. You could also include a diagramin your briefing.

SOURCE 3

QB: Who belonged to the League?

A: The League began with 42 nations. By1939, there were over 50 members. But somepowerful nations left the League or neverjoined.

Q6: What about the USA?

A: The USA never joined! The League mayhave been President Wilson's big idea, but hecould not get the rest of the USA to agreewith him. The US Congress (Parliament) didnot want the USA to get involved in sortingout problems in the rest of the world. Thisview became known as ISOLATIONISM.

This was a real setback for the League.Everybody knew that the League needed theUSA's money and troops so that it couldwork effectively.

Your aims on this page are to:• explain why it was such a blow

that the USA did not join theLeague

• explain the attitudes of Britainand France to the League.

Q7: So waf; the League powerful?

A: This is a tricky question. Over the next fewchapters, you will decide this for yourself!

Most people and most governments wantedthe League to succeed. However, the Leaguehad some weaknesses right from the start.• Its way of working - for example, the Assembly

met only once a year and every vote had to beunanimous. This meant that reachingdecisions could be a very slow process.

• Its membership - the USA did not join;Germany and the USSR only joined muchlater; Britain and France were bothweakened by the First World War.

• Britain and France had their own priorities:- Britain wanted to protect its empire- France worried about another attack

from Germany.They often put these concerns ahead of theLeague's priorities.

FDcurtMkWas the League of Nations strong?

When the League was set up in 1919, people could see both its goodand bad points.

Use a table like the one below to sum up the information onpages 70-73.

Key issue Positive view Negative view

Membership of the League Major powers, like Britain andFrance, were in the League.

How decisions were madein the League

Powers of the League'sorganisations

Attitude of Britain and Francetowards the League

73

11 4.2 Did the League work well in the 1920s?

/-- ~-"

"

SYRIAFrenchandatel

USSR

TURKEY

League's Internationalcourt settled dispute overThe River Danube, 1927

League's Refugee'sCommission solved Bulgarian

refugee problem, 1926

FINLAND

facilities; interpret; plebiscite

FocurtarkMany historians have studied the League in the 1920s. They haveINTERPRETED events very differently. You will now look at four casestudies of the League in action in the 1920s and come up with yourown interpretation.

For each case study, decide:• why you might criticise the League's actions• why you might think the League's actions were justified or reasonable• where you will put this event on a success scale of 0-5, where 0 is a

total failure and 5 is a total success.The two professors should help you. They have already done some ofthe work for case study I!

-, ,--

,"

SPAIN

N

tAtlanticOcean

Your core aims over thesenext four pages are to:

• describe one success ofthe League and explain whyit was a success f

• describe one failure of theLeague and explain why itwas a failure.

Bonus: explain how one eventwas a partial success or,failure.

During the 1920s there weremany disputes and problemsin which the League playeda role. The map aboveoutlines some cases wherethe League helped or triedto help. On the next threepages you will look at fourof them in a bit more detailand decide which werefailures and which weresuccesses.

(?

MediterrQ/)(?LJ

, ~~o 400 km : ~

I Scale I /'TUNISIA'-------- ,

Professor 1

I would put the Leagueon 0 on the scale. It wasuseless here. It could notenforce its own rules. TheFrench looked after their

own interests. TheBritish showed how weak

they were.

How do you thinkProfessor 1 wouldcriticise the League?

Case study 1: Vilna 1920

Vilna was the capital of Lithuania, one ofthe new states created by peace treatiesafter the war. Vilna was on the border withPoland. Most of its population was Polish.In 1920, Polish troops simply moved in andtook over Vilna. Lithuania asked theLeague of Nations for help. It was obviousthat Poland had broken the League'sCovenant - it was the aggressor. However,that did not make things simple.

• Most of the population of Vilna wasPolish - didn't that mean the Poles had acase for moving in?

• France wanted to stay friendly withPoland. It saw Poland as a possible allyagainst Germany.

• Britain didn't see how it could sendtroops across Europe to force the Polesout of Vilna. Not many British peoplecared enough about Vilna to supportthat kind of action.

The League did nothing in the end. ThePoles kept control of Vilna.

Where would you put this event on the scale?

Case study 2: Upper Silesia 1921

Upper Silesia was on the border betweenPoland and Germany. Poles and Germanslived there. The area also contained avaluable steel industry. Germany andPoland both wanted to control the area.The League organised a PLEBISCITE. Britishand French troops kept order during thevoting. The vote was divided, so theLeague divided Upper Silesia betweenGermany and Poland. The League alsomade sure that the division did not disruptrailway lines, power supplies or otherFACILITIES. Germany and Poland bothaccepted the League's decision.

Where would you put this eventon the success scale from page 74?

Professor 2

Now be fair. I wouldput the League on atleast 3 on the scale.They were right to do

nothing. Vilna was veryPolish so the Poles hada point. Also, how could

Britain and Francemarch troops across

Europe'?

How do you thinkProfessor 2 woulddefend the League?

How do you think thisprofessor woulddefend the League?

boundary; Refugees Commission; trafficking

Case study 3: Corfu 1923

This started off as another BOUNDARY

dispute. In 1923, an Italian army unit wasmapping the border between Greece andAlbania. The soldiers were attacked, but itwas not clear who attacked them. TheItalian general, Tellini, was killed. Italy'sleader, Benito Mussolini, blamed theGreeks. He demanded that the Greekshand over the murderers. He alsodemanded compensation. In August 1923,he invaded the Greek island of Corfu.

The Greeks appealed to the League.Early in September, the League condemnedMussolini's actions. It was clear that he hadbroken the League's Covenant. However,Mussolini got to work behind the scenes.He put pressure on the members of theLeague's Council to support Italy instead ofGreece. By the end of September, thingshad turned around. The Council began toput pressure on the Greeks. The Greekshad to apologise to Mussolini and paycompensation for the murder of Tellini.

Where would you put this event on the success scale?

How do you think thisprofessor wouldcriticise the League?

How do you think thisprofessor wouldcriticise the League?

Case study 4: Bulgaria 1925

In October 1925, Greek and Bulgarianforces clashed on the border between thetwo states. Bulgaria claimed that Greecewas to blame. Greece appealed to theLeague. The League decided that theGreeks were at fault. They had to pull backtheir troops and pay compensation toBulgaria. The Greeks obeyed the League'sorders. However, they also complained thatthe League had not treated Italy in thesame way as it had treated Greece (seecase study 3). Did the power of the Leagueonly apply to small states like Greece?

Where would you put this event on the success scale?

How do you think thisprofessor woulddefend the League?

Other developments in the 1920sThe League's commissions did some tremendous work. Forexample, the REFUGEES COMMISSION helped 400,000 prisonersof war to return home after the Great War. The HealthCommittee helped to fight deadly diseases such as malariaand leprosy. The League also fought against drugTRAFFICKING and slavery. It freed 200,000 slaves in SierraLeone.

The League also helped its members to agree someimportant treaties. In 1925, Germany signed the LocarnoTreaty. This meant it accepted the borders of Germany setout in the Treaty of Versailles. In 1928, 65 states signed theKellogg-Briand Pact. They promised not to use force tosettle disputes.

There were still problems, of course. And one big failurewas that the League failed to make any progress ondisarmament. evertheless, by early 1929, the world wasmore peaceful and stable than it had been for many years.

It is now time to prepare yourclass quiz, based on the yellownotes at the beginning of eachsection. Your teacher can giveyou a sheet to help you.

Fo(;U,f tMkEnd of decade report on the League of Nations

It is the end of the 1920s. You have to write a report on the League.This will be a bit like a school report. You have to grade the League

on the areas in the table below and add a comment on its progress,achievements and weaknesses. The section on disarmament has beenfilled in to give you an example of how to complete the report.

Area of performance I Overall grade for I Comments (including examples of1920s (A-E) achievements or weaknesses)

To be united and strong enoughto discourage any nation fromusing force as a way to solvedisputes.

To provide a place to discussinternational disputes and workthem out peacefully.

To encourage countries toco-operate, especially inbusiness and trade.

To encourage nations E I'm afraid the League has made littleto disarm. progress in disarmament in this decade.

The League needs to work harder in theyears to come.

To improve living and workingconditions for people

Iaround the world.77

abdicate; economy; industrialist; malnutrition;republic; scarce

Weimar and NaziGermany ·1918-45

Before the First World War, Germany had been a proudcountry with a strong army, an overseas empire andpowerful industry.

The war destroyed that old Germany. There was arevolution in 1918. The Kaiser ABDICATED and fled thecountry. In January 1919, the Germans elected a newpresident, Friedrich Ebert. He faced a big challenge.

Imagine you are Ebert at the start of your term asPresident.

• remember two problemsfacing the Weimar Republicin 1919

• explain why these issueswere important.

The next three pages give youbackground information tohelp you understand whathappened to Germany afterthe Great War. Aim to:

Here's THE GOOD NEWS foryou

• Germany is now a democraticREPUBLIC. You have wanted thisfor your entire political career.

• You lead the Socialist Party.Yours is now the single mostpopular party in Germany. Themajority of German peoplesupport you - they want you tosucceed.

• You are the President of the newrepublic. That's not bad for anordinary working man, the sonof a saddle-maker.

Part A The Weimar Republic

11 S. 1 How did things look for the WeimarRepublic in 19197

r, FDf:,U;f tMk'F=====

Outlook for the Weimar Republic

I Look at the six pieces of bad news for Ebert. Which do you think is theworst? Work in pairs or small groups to tackle this task.

1 Summarise each problem on a separate card.2 Put the cards in order according to how serious the problem is.3 Write a sentence for each problem card to explain its rank.4 Add two or three sentences to explain how some of the problems are

connected to each other.SAdd a final sentence to explain whether you think Ebert's new

government will last. You could give a percentage chance of survivalwith a short explanation of your decision - 0 per cent chance wouldmean no chance of surviving; 100 per cent would mean that it wassure to survive.

Now here's THE BAD NEWS!

• Germany lost the war, but the German people don'tbelieve this. The Kaiser and the army never told bad newsto the people. You will have to break the news to theGerman people that they really lost the war. You need tomake clear that Germany cannot restart the war and win.

• Germany's ECONOMY is a disaster. The state has debts of150 billion marks because of the war. You can't even affordto pay war pensions to 600,000 families whose fathers orsons have been killed in the war.

• People are starving. Food is SCARCE and expensive.Possibly 300,000 Germans have suffered the effects of MAL UTRITION.

• Germany is more divided than ever.Some wealthy INDUSTRIALISTS got rich fromthe war while poor families had to sell theirpossessions just to buy food.• Most Germans don't know howdemocracy works. Germany has neverbeen a democracy. In the old days, theKaiser made decisions with his top ministers.So no-one today knows what it is like to askordinary Germans how they want theircountry to be run.• Berlin is dangerous - some Germansdon't want democracy. Armed gangs offormer soldiers are fighting in the streetswith police, troops and each other. Many ofthese gangs are totally opposed todemocracy. Berlin (the capital city) is sodangerous that your new government has tomeet in the small town of Weimar instead.

Run along. We'll take theimportant decisions. We know

what's best for Germany.

,What might Ebert bethinking? Write a thoughtbubble explaining his thoughtsin each cartoon.

The democratic politicians had been given power at justthe time when things were going badly wrong.

11 5.2 How well did the Weimar Republic do from1919 to 1923?

. . All men and women overtwenty can vote in elections.

.Every person's vote countsbecause ofPROPOR TlONAL

REPRESENTATION (PR). lfa partywins twenty per cent ofthe

votes in an election itgetstwenty per cent ofthe seats in

the REICHSTACT.

. Day-to-daygovernment will bethejob ofthe CHANCELLOR. He is

the leader ofthe biggest singleparty.

. The head ofstate is the President.He is elected but is supposed to

stery out ofday-to-derygovernment;except in a CRISIS. Article 48 says

that in an emergency he could run.the country himselffor a short time.

Chancellor; constitution; proportionalrepresentation; Reichstag

CIlALLENGE 1 SeUing up a democraticgovernment

Germany got a new system of government. The rules for itwere set out ina CONSTITUTION.

There is a lot going on in thenext nve pages. Set yourselfthe target of being able todescribe:

• one challenge the Republichandled successfully (and

why)

• one challenge the Republicdid not handle well (andwhy).

Civil servants, judges, military leaders, university professorsand owners of big industries.

It was a very democraticconstitution but these peopledid not like it. They did notthink democracy was theright system for Germany.They longed for the goodold days when the Kaiserruled Germany. They didtheir best to hold on topower and to stop the newgovernment from doingwell. 81

Freikorps troops in action.

extremist; Freikorps;putsch; revolt

SOURCE 2

In the middle - Ebert On the right wing -Freikorps

FREIKORPS were ex-soldierswho wanted Germany to be

run by the army, as it was inthe old days. They hated the

Communists, but they did notlike democracy either.

German Communists in 1919.

ClIA:LJ.DfG1B ~ Dealing with extremists

SOURCE 1

On the left wing ­CommunistsCommunists wantedGermany to have aCommunist revolution likeRussia. They wanted workersto take over factories, farmsand the government.

Ebert faced EXTREMISTS on both sides.

Copy and complete a chart like the one below. Fill out the first two rowsfor the first two challenges you have looked at on pages 81-83. You canget a 'statement bank' from your teacher to help you.

Focurtask

D~n't get hung up too muchabout the exact aims of theCommunists and theFreikorps. The importantpoint is that both left-wingand right-wing groups dislikedthe idea of democracy. Theyalso hated each other.

How effective do youthink the governmentwas on a scale of1 (success) to 5 (failure)?

In January 1919, the Communists started a REVOLT.

This is known as the Spartacist revolt. Ebert asked hisopponents on the right to deal with his opponents on theleft. The army and the Freikorps arrested and killed theCommunist leaders. The revolt was soon over. TheGerman people were shocked by the violence. However,people accepted Ebert's actions because many Germans,were very afraid of Communism.

In March 1920, it was the turn of the Freikorps. Freikorpleader Wolfgang Kapp tried to take over Berlin. This isknown as Kapp's PUTSCH. This time, Ebert appealed to theordinary people of Berlin for help. They went on strike toshow their opposition to Kapp. Berlin's roads, railways,power, water and sewage services were all brought to astandstill. Kapp gave up and fled the country.

How did the government Who supported and whotry to deal with this opposed the action?challenge?

4:

3:

2: Dealing withextremists

1: Setting upa democraticgovernment

Challenge

1 Look closely at Sources 1 and2 on page 82. Make four shortlists:• What the sources definitely

tell you about theCommunists

• What the sources definitelytell you about the Freikorps

• What the sources suggestabout the Communists

• What the sources suggestabout the Freikorps.

......

84

SOURCE 3

FOcurtMkHow well did the WeimarRepublic do?

Look back at your table frompage 83. Fill out the next rowsfor challenges 3 and 4. You canalso use Chapter 3 to help you.

~WtJrdi inherited; passive resistance

CHALLENGE 3 Copinlf with the Treaty ofVersailles

Germans were outraged by the Treaty of Versailles.Germany had to accept blame for starting the war. It lost10 per cent of its land and 12.5 per cent of its population.It also lost most of its army. Germany had to pay£6.6 million of reparations.

Germans demonstrating against the Treaty of Versailles.

Ebert was not involved in drawing up the treaty. In fact, noGermans were. Some Germans said that Ebert should haverefused to sign such an unfair treaty. Ebert felt he had nochoice. If he had not signed, the Allies would have restartedthe war and Germany would have been badly defeated. Allthe work that had been done to set up a new republicwould have been destroyed.

But, from then on, Germans blamed Ebert and theWeimar Republic for the treaty. When opponents wanted toharm Ebert's government, all they had to say was, 'look atthat treaty he signed - he is weak and useless', and manyGermans would instantly agree.

SOURCE 4

CHALLENGE 4: Sorting out the money problems

1 Look at Source 4. The captionhas seven words. Write a morehelpful caption to explain thepicture to a GCSE student. Aimto write about 30 words.

You could mention:• who is in the picture• what they are doing• when the picture was taken• why it was taken• what the background

suggests about the people.

FOCUftMkHere are two interpretations of the achievements ofthe Weimar Republic 1919-23:a) The events of 1919-23 show that the Weimar

Republic was doomed. It faced powerful threatsand the German people did not support it.

b) The events of 1919-23 show that the WeimarRepublic was strong. It overcame some majorchallenges and people supported it.

Use your completed table to write three paragraphsto explain:• Paragraph 1: what evidence suggests view a) is

right.• Paragraph 2: what evidence suggests view b) is

right.• Paragraph 3: which view you think is right!Children playing with bundles of worthless banknotes.

The Weimar Republic INHERITED war debts of 150 billionmarks. These were the Kaiser's debts but the WeimarRepublic had to deal with them. Added to that, the Treatyof Versailles forced Germany to pay reparations ofsix billion marks.

In January 1923, Ebert's government refused to payreparations. French troops moved in to take what was owed(see page 66). Ebert called for PASSIVE RESISTANCE. Theworkers supported the President. They went on strike andrefused to co-operate with the French. Over one hundredGerman workers were killed in demonstrations.

To help to solve the reparations problem, Ebert'sgovernment simply printed more money. It paid off billionsof marks' worth of war debts by doing this. But this causedhyperinflation. The price of everything went sky high. In1921, one pound was worth 500 marks. In November 1923,one pound was worth 14 billion marks! Middle-classGermans who had savings lost everything. Many of themblamed Ebert and his government for the economic chaos.

In early 1924, Germany got a new Chancellor, GustavStresemann. He persuaded Ebert to use his emergencypowers. Ebert and Stresemann scrapped the worthless markand introduced new money called the rentenmark. At thispoint, the USA also came to Germany's rescue with moneyto pay its debts and to get its industry going again.

11 5.3 Was the Weimar Republic a success1924-29?

civil service; coalition; judiciary; stability

Question Grade A-E Explanation

Is democracyworking?

Is the economystable?

Is Germanyworkingpeacefullywith othercountries?

League of Nations Inspector's reportDate: 1929Country: Germany

FocurtaskIt is 1929. An inspector from the League of Nations has been sent toGermany to judge how it is doing. As you read through pages 87-89,help him by filling in a chart like the one below.

• two ways in which theWeimar Republic was stable1924-29

• two threats to theRepublic's STABILITY

1924-29.

Your main aim on the nextfour pages is balance. Youneed to be able to balanceWeimar achievements and .problems 1924-29. Aim toremember:

§eats won by parties in_R~chstag ~ections 1919-28.

Question 1: is democracy working?

1 Look at Source 1. Explain whythese figures would beencouraging for supporters ofthe Weimar Republic.

2 Some historians have said thatthe Republic's PR system was'too democratic'.a) Explain what this comment

means.b) Do you agree that a system

can be too democratic?

o

o

12

14

32

Right wing

95

73

71

44

103

von Hindenburg. He was a hero of theGreat War. The fact that a great militaryleader was prepared to be part of theWeimar Republic encouraged moreGermans to support it.

However .. .Proportional representation (PR) wascausing problems. One aim of PR was thatno political party would dominate theReichstag. Parties would have to formCOALITION governments and co-operate witheach other.

The parties did form coalitions, but werenot very keen to co-operate. Thegovernments broke down. The longestgovernment lasted for only two years.People got fed up with so many electionsand squabbling politicians. This damagedtheir faith in democracy as a system.

(DNVP) (SDI\P)

45

45

65

51

19

65

91

62

64

69

75

25

28

39

32

Loyal to the Republic

187

131

153

100

1864

o

54

62

45

Left wing

There were no more riots, revolutions orpolitical crises between 1924 and 1929. Infact, quite the opposite.

• There were several peaceful elections inthis period. Most Germans voted forparties that supported the WeimarRepublic (see Source 1).

• The army, CIVIL SERVICE, JUDICIARY andother officials all co-operated with thegovernment.

• Gustav Stresemann was a leadingmember of every government duringthis period. He was opposed to theRepublic at first, but then changed hisviews and became a strong supporter.He convinced many other Germans todo the same.

• In 1925, there were elections for thepost of President. The winner was Paul

1919

1920

May1924

Dec1924

1928

SOURCE 1

Question 2: is the economystable?In the late 1920s, if you walked down thestreets of Berlin there was much to see.Cafes were full. Shops and theatres weredoing good business. Architects werecreating exciting new buildings. Film­makers were producing successful newfilms. The economy was clearlyrecovering from the crisis of 1923.

In 1924, Germany was helped by theUSA. The Dawes Plan gave Germanyhuge loans (800 million marks). The USAalso reorganised Germany's reparationspayments. This gave Germany economicstability. Wages for workers rose.Industrial production went up. Bigbusinesses, like chemicals and steel, didwell. So did the big cities where theseindustries were based.

1928192619241922o-t--,----...,--,----,----,---,------,,-----,

1920

la

60 +--'-----'---

Industri~productio~nGermany in the 1920s.

20

80

90

1924 1925 1926 1927 1928

Real weekly wages in the 1920s. This graph showsthe buying power of workers' wages.

(30 70......

1100N 60(j)......c0 50+:;u~

'D0'- 40Cl.

ro0;::.....(f)

30~

'Dc

SOURCE 28

100

foreign affairs; negotiate;traitor

However .. .• Germany's recovery was totally

dependent on American loans. Theseloans were for a short period only.The American banks could demandtheir money back at very short notice ifthey wanted.

• Farmers found it hard to sell theirgoods at a decent price.

• Small businesses (such as local shops)suffered from competition from bigbusinesses (for example, departmentstores).

• The wages of people working inpublic services did not go up as fastas wages for industrial workers. As aresult, many people in these sectionsof society felt bitter towards theWeimar Republic.

Question 3: is Germany working peacefullywith other countries?• Stresemann was a FOREIG AFFAlRS expert.• He built good relations with Germany's former enemies.• In 1925, Stresemann signed the Locarno Treaty. This

meant that Germany agreed to accept the bordersbetween Germany, France and Belgium, which hadbeen set out in the Treaty of Versailles.

• The Locarno Treaty improved Germany's relations withFrance, Britain and the USA.

• The Locarno Treaty left Poland and Czechoslovakiafeeling a bit nervous. It did not say anything about theirborders with Germany.

• In 1926, Germany was invited to join the League ofNations.

• Being invited to join the League of Nations showed thatGermany was accepted by the rest of the world again.

• Being part of the League of Nations helped Stresemannto NEGOTIATE some of the other terms of the Treaty ofVersailles.

• Stresemann agreed the Young Plan with the USA. Thisreduced Germany's reparations payments and spreadout the payments to make them easier to afford.

• Some groups of extremists (including Adolf Hitler's aziParty) accused Stresemann of being a TRAITOR for co­operating with Britain, France and the USA.

SOURCE 3

.. PLEAS'S! I MISS I I MAF LE'AR.N'f DE~ ~Ol't. MAY I QE'l' t)OWN ?

This section on foreign affairs isnot organised into plus pointsand 'howevers' like the previoustwo sections.a) Rearrange the ten bullet

points so that they are dividedinto 'plus points' and'howevers'.

b) Shorten each bullet point to asingle word or phrase so youcan remember it.

A British cartoon from March 1925commenting on Germany's attitude

to the League of Nations.Arbitration means working

out problems by negotiation.The person on the stool

represents Germant,

The main issue to understand in this section ishow strong the Nazis were in the 1920s. Youneed to be able to explain:

• three main beliefs of the Nazis• two reasons why they gained little support.

SOURCE 3

3 Hitler was a RACIST. He said that Germanswere part of a MASTER RACE of humans ­ARYANS. He believed that Aryans werethreatened by what he called 'inferior' humanssuch as Jews and SLAYS (people like Russians orPoles).

He thought that Germany had lost the warbecause it had been 'stabbed in the back' byweak leaders. The Weimar politicians who hadsigned the Treaty of Versailles were traitors.Hitler believed that Socialists, Communists andJews had all betrayed Germany. He promised astrong Germany with strong industries, strongarmies and a strong leader - himself!

Hitler did not believe in democracy. InNovember 1923, he and his supportersmarched into a government meeting inMunich, Bavaria. He announced he was takingover the government of Bavaria, as Source 3says.

Ifyou think thislooks wrong

you're right ­check out the taskon the nextpage.

From Weimar Republic to Nazi dictatorship

Aryan; master race; racist;rally; SA; Slav; trial

The Nazi Party was founded in Bavaria in 1919by Anton Drexler. Adolf Hitler joined theparty because he liked its ideas. Here is hismembership card, number 55.

2 Hitler soon took control of the party fromDrexler. He organised young Nazi supportersinto the SA storm troopers. They acted asguards at Nazi meetings and also attackedother parties' meetings. Hitler had tremendousenergy and passion. Before long, the Naziswere gaining attention. Look at Source 2.

SOURCE 2

SOURCE 1~ _

A good way to get a feel for the story of theNazis in the 1920s is to look at sourcematerial from the time.

III 5.4 How did Germans feel about the Nazisin the 1920s?

Part B

fDCMtMkEvidence and sources

We had a bit of a disaster on this page! This story ofthe Nazis in the 1920s was supposed to havesources in it. Unfortunately, we've ended up withspaces, while all the sources are on page 92 ANDthey're in the wrong order!

Sort out which of Sources A-F on page 92 shouldgo where on this page. Your teacher can give you asheet to help you.

4 Unfortunately for Hitler, the Munich Putsch wasa disaster. The army did not join him and thepolice opened fire on his supporters. He ranaway and was arrested soon afterwards. Hewas sent to prison for five years. Look atSource 4.

SOURCE 4

5 However, the putsch helped Hitler in one way.The judge at his TRIAL supported some of hisideas, so the judge let him use the trial to gethis ideas across to the German people. His trialspeech was reported in all the newspapers (seeSource 5). He was sent to a very comfortableprison.

SOURCE 5

6 While he was in prison, Hitler changed hispolicy. He decided he could not seize powerin a revolution. He would have to take powerby being elected. Hitler served only ninemonths of his five-year sentence before hewas released. When he came out of prison,he totally reorganised the Nazi Party.

• He divided the country into districts, orGau.

• He set up a network of local branches ineach Gau. .

• The branches held RALLIES and meetingsand handed out leaflets.

• They also ran Hitler Youth organisations,which aimed to encourage young peopleinto Nazism.

• There was lots of training for Nazispeakers.

• There was a big propaganda organisationunder Josef Goebbels. Goebbels wasbrilliant at setting out the Nazi messageclearly (see Source 6).

SOURCE 6

Hitler also gave up trying to attract workers.Instead he aimed at farmers and the middleclasses. He tried to play on people's fear ofCommunism. He also stirred up feelingsagainst the Jews.

This new approach brought in newmembers. By 1928, party membership wasover 100,000 although this was still not nearlyenough to win an election. In the 1928election, the Nazis had less than three percent of the vote.

SOURCE A

Hitler's Nazi Party membership card. Nazi was short for National SocialistGerman Workers' Party (NSDAP in German). Hitler was actually member

55, but the Nazis started numbering from 500.

SOURCE C

We demand:• a struggle against the shame ofthe Versailles Treaty• work and a decent living for every working German• homes for German soldiers and workers. If there is not

enough money to build them, drive the foreigners out sothat Germans can live on German soil

• land on which to grow the grain that will feed ourchildren

• a government ofstatesmen who are men and whose aimis the creation ofa German state.

Every four years Germans elect a new set oftorturers, andeverything stays the same. Therefore we demand theannihilation [total destruction] ofthe democratic system.Germany for the Germans!

From 'We Demand', a Nazi propaganda leaflet written and published byGoebbels in 1927. It set out what the Nazis stood for.

SOURCE E

The most active politicalforce in Bavaria at the present timeis the National Socialist Party ... AdoifHitler from the veryfirst has been the dominating force and has undoubtedlybeen one ofthe most importantfactors contributing to itssuccess ... His ability to influence a popular assembly isuncanny.

From an American intelligence report on political activitiesin Germany, 1922.

SOURCE B

A wonderful ferment wasworking in Germany . ..most Germans one metstruck you as beingdemocratic, liberal, evenpacifist [peace loving}. Onescarcely even heard ofHitleror the Nazis except as jokes.

From American journalist,William Shirer. He was in Germany

in the 1920s, but was writingin the 1960s.

SOURCE D

The Bavarian Ministry isremoved. The government ofthe November Criminals andthe Reich president aredeclared to be removed ...I propose that the policy ofthe National Government ofGermany be taken over byme ...

Hitler declares the revolution,8 November 1923.

SOURCE F

By the time his trial ended,Hitler had turned defeat intotriumph. He impressed theGerman people with hisspeaking ability and hispassion, and got his nameon the front pages oftheworld.

From the American journalist,William Shirer.

--FOcurtMkThe Nazis in the 1920s

Tackle this task once you have sorted out the sources on page 92.Historians can use sources to support or challenge ideas about the

past. Here are some statements about the Nazis in the 1920s. Decideif the evidence supports or challenges each statement.

Statement Do you Are you Explainthink it is 100 per cent why you havetrue or sure or less? reachedfalse? (Say what per this decision

cent)

Hitler founded theNazi Party.

The Nazis were asmall party.

Jews could join theNazi Party.

The Nazis were amoderate politicalparty.

The Nazis believedanyone who wantedto live in Germanyshould be able todo so.

Hitler was thedominant force inthe Nazi Party.

Hitler was areasonable speaker.

The Munich Putschwas a completedisaster for Hitler.

Nazis did not reallygo in for propagandaposters and leaflets.

The Nazis weregoing nowhere bythe end of the1920s.

Doing an exercise like thismakes you read theinformation and sum it up.This helps you to remember it.When you come to revise. youwill be glad you did thisexercise.

Source Eon page 92 is anintelligence report on the Nazis in1922. Write an update on thisreport set in the year 1928. Youraim is to use the evidence to sumup:• what the Nazi movement

stands for• how it is organised• its strengths• its weaknesses• any important events linked

to it• whether you think it is a threat

to the Weimar Republic in1928.

11 5.5 How did Hitler become Chancellorin 1933?

1930 July 1932 Nov 1932

Unemployment in Germany 1928-32.

Are you worried aboutunemployment? I say put the

unemployed people into the army,or get them building roads. We can

make Germany great again.

SOURCE 1

6

5

Vi'c 4.Q

'E"0 3Q):>.0a.EQ) 2c

:::::>

1

01928

~wordi Depression; nationalisation; SS

In the 1920s, the Nazis decided that the best way to achievepower was to campaign in elections. In 1928, less thanthree per cent of Germans voted for them. Five years later,the Nazis were the biggest party in the Reichstag and Hitlerwas Chancellor of Germany. How did this happen?

A number of factors helped, as you will see onpages 94-97.

The key here is to cut downthe story to basics. Try toremember:

• two ways in which theDEPRESSION helped Hitler

• one piece of evidence tosupport your two choices.

Factor 1: the DepressionThe Depression was bad news all aroundthe world, but in Germany it wasdisastrous. US banks forced Germanbusinesses to repay the money they hadloaned to them during the 1920s. Theresults were:

• businesses went bankrupt• there was huge unemployment -

by late 1932 it was at six million (onein three workers)

• demand for farm goods collapsed, andfarmers lost their farms

• some German banks collapsed, andsome middle-class Germans lost theirsavings

• the Weimar government made mattersworse. It tried to save money bycutting welfare payments. Someunemployed people had no moneycoming in at all. They were forced tolive in shanty towns and beg for food.

The Depression was very bad news forGermany, but it was just what the Nazisneeded. People ignored the Nazis in the1920s because they were so extreme.Now Germans were looking for extremeanswers to their problems. The Nazis hadplenty of those!

Number of seats in Reichstag

Are you frightened of theCommunists'? We'll crush theCommunists. We're the only

ones who really know how to dealwith them.

1 Explain how the Communistshelped the Nazis withoutmeaning to. You might find ithelpful to draw a diagram aspart of your answer.

The growing vote for the Nazis and Communists,1928-32.

1930

1928

July 1932

Nov 1932

SOURCE 2These Weimar politicians areweak and useless. Germany needsstrong leaders. I'll be your strong

leader.

Ever since the Russian Revolution, ordinary Germanshad been frightened of a Communist revolution in theirown country. They knew what would happen:

• Communists wanted NATIONALISATION (state control) ofall major industries. This alarmed businessmen.

• Communists believed in state control of the land. Thisalarmed farmers and landowners.

• Communists didn't believe in religion. This alarmedGerman churchgoers.

In the 1930s, the Communists were getting stronger.Communist gangs called the Red Fighting League attackedthe meetings of other parties. The only group that seemedable to deal with the Communists were the Nazis. TheNazis sent their own gangs (the SA and ss) to deal withthe Red Fighting League. Many people who would notnormally vote for the Nazis decided to support thembecause they seemed able to deal with the Communistthreat.

Factor 2: disillusion with Weimar democracy

As the Depression ruined people's lives, the Weimarpoliticians seemed to spend more time arguing with eachother than trying to help ordinary Germans. When anelection was called in 1930, millions of people voted forparties like the Nazis. These parties planned to get rid ofdemocracy altogether, but now people listened to them.The Nazis increased their vote from three to eighteenper cent.

Factor 3: fear of Communism

Factor 4: Nazi election plansThe Depression gave the Nazis theirchance and they took it. Most historiansagree that the Nazi campaign (push forvotes) was very good.

• Nazi messages were simple. Theytalked about going back to the goodold days. People liked this idea.

• The Nazis criticised Weimar politiciansfor signing the Treaty of Versailles.They also attacked Communists, who,they said, wanted to take overGermany. This meant that the Nazisgave people someone to blame.

• The Nazis used the press and radiowell. Hitler travelled around by plane.This all showed that the Nazis were amodern party in touch with moderntechnology and ideas.

• Germans wanted order and stronggovernment. Nazi meetings and rallieswere huge and well organised. The SAand SS looked good in their smartuniforms. To many people, the Nazislooked like the right party.

• Most of all, the Nazis had Hitler. Hewas a wonderful speaker. People feltthat he truly understood them.Germans were looking for a leader.

These Nazis are well organisedand disciplined. They will bring

order and strong leadership backto Germany.

SOURCE 3

A Nazi election poster from 1932. The caption says'Germany Awake!'

SOURCE 4

A Nazi Party rally in Frankfurt,1932.

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4

Q)uc::.s....oCl.

.~Q)>:.;::;roQ)

a:::

If you want to go further

3 Explain whether you think particular factors weremore important than others.

4 Explain how your two factors are different (forexample, short term, long term).

5 Explain how your factors affected each other.

(You choose the factors to be shown in diagramoptions 2 and 3.)

Diagram option 3

~ Factor? h~h links to this led~

this caus~ ~Ch caused

Diagram option 2

Late in 1932, President Hindenburg andsome other powerful politicians decidedto do a deal with Hitler. Hitler becameChancellor. Hindenburg and his friendsthought they would be able to controlHitler. What a mistake they made!

7

6

5tilc::.Q

4'E"U

3 g;,oCl.

2 ~c::

:=>1

O-+-'-....l-.J,-J-..L.-J..r'---'----'-,J~--Y-- 0

0.+-o....~ 50E:::l

Z

250 Key

0.0 - Unemployed-t; 200 D Communist~ vote& D Nazi vote~ 150.......!:Vl......m100Vl

1928 1930 July Nov1932 1932

The Nazis celebrating Hitler's appointment asChancellor in January 1933.

How did Hitler become Chancellor in 1933?

Prepare a presentation on this question. There arethree possible diagrams you could use in yourpresentation.

1 Choose one of the diagram options.2 Plan and prepare a presentation to go with that

diagram. The most important point is that youexplain to the audience:• at least two factors that helped Hitler become

Chancellor• how each factor helped him• the evidence that supports this view.

SOURCE 5

Diagram option 1

Others who did not fit inwith Nazi ideas (forexample, homosexuals,the mentally ill, thephysically disabled)would be imprisonedor killed.

All non-Aryan people(such as Jews) wouldhave no place inGermany. They wouldbe sent away orkilled.

Flihrer; Lebensraum; National Community;racial purity; regime; terror

Most Germans voted for the Nazis because they thoughtthey would bring economic recovery and strong, stablegovernment. They probably did not take too much notice ofother Nazi plans for Germany. The diagram belowsummarises the Nazi vision.

Aryan people wouldget the best jobs andbe encouraged tohave lots of children.

War would makeGermany strong. TheGerman peoplewould be mentallyprepared for war.

The armed forceswould be built up.

The Nazis woulddestroy the USSRand all those whobelieved inCommunism.

All Germans wouldput the needs of thestate (the NationalCommunity) aboveeverything else ­even the needs oftheir family andfriends.

From this section, you needto be able to explain:

• two of Hitler's broad aimsthat German people wouldhave supported

• two detailed points ofHitler's aims that theywould not have supported.

_ 5.6 What was Hitler's vision for Germany?

Hitler (the FOHRER)would be the keyfigure in Germany.The armed forces,government, allorganisations and allGermans would beloyal to him.

Germany would winback the land lost bythe Treaty ofVersailles.

This diagram was put together in 200 I, using sources from the 1930s,other textbooks, TV programmes and interviews. It shows a completesummary of Hitler's vision.

In pairs or small groups, look at Hitler's plans and aims. Take eachone in turn. Decide whether you think each aim would gain Hitlersupport or put off most Germans. Remember most Germans wanted:

• national pride• economic recovery• strong, stable government.

After you have worked through the rest of this chapter, see if you wereright.

Propaganda wouldwin Germans over toNazi ways of thinking.

TERROR would deal_------- with anyone who

opposed the REGIME.

In the short term, theNazis would get the

!-_----- unemployed back towork and helpGermany recoverfrom the Depression.

In the long term,Hitler would build upGermany's industriesready for war.

EBENSRAUM (livingspace): there wouldbe a giant empire inEastern Europewhere pure AryanGermans would live.

11 5.7 How did Hitler take control of Germany?

14 July

Alaw against the start-up of new parties was passed.Germany became a one-party (Nazi) state.

20 July

An agreement was made between the state and theRoman Catholic Church. The Church agreed to stay outof politics, and the government left the Church alone.

2 May

Trade unions were banned. All workers had to belong tothe new Nazi-run German Labour Front (OAF).

27 February

The Reichstag building burnt down. Hitler said it was aCommunist plot and had 4000 Communists and otheropponents arrested.

24 March

The Enabling Act gave Hitler EMERGENCY POWERS for fouryears and allowed him to pass laws without going to thePresident. It made Hitler a DICTATOR in law.

1933

30 January

Hitler became Chancellor. He co-operated closely withPresident Hindenburg and other important people.

Early February

CONCENTRATION CAMPS were opened. Political opponents(mainly Communists) were taken to the camps. They gotHARD LABOUR and beatings until they agreed to stopopposing the Nazis.

concentration camp; dictator; elite;emergency powers; hard labour

Hitler was delighted to be Chancellor. But he was not reallyin control. Most Chancellors had not lasted very long in theWeimar Republic.

Hitler was determined to be different.To get control of Germany, he used a mixture of

methods, as you can see from the timeline below.

Acartoon from 1933. The people below the chairrepresent the German ELITE.

..0., W.Il"J_ub". Bwli..4.. 4,U'IIIUS

The key point to understandin this section is the range ofHitler's methods. Aim to beable to explain:

• two examples of Hitlerusing force to take controlof Germany

• two examples of him doingdeals to take control ofGermany.

SOURCE 1

1934

Spring

The SA leader, Ernst R6hm, wantedHitler to join the army and the SAunder R6hm's command. Hitler hadto choose whether to go with armyleaders or to stick with his friendR6hm. By the summer, Hitler haddecided.

30 June

Night of the Long Knives:SS troopers used trucks and armssupplied by the army to arrestabout 400 SA leaders. Anyone elseseen as a threat was also arrested.Around 90 of those arrested(including Ernst R6hm) weremurdered. Hitler spoke on radio thenext day to defend his actions.

August

Hindenburg died, and Hitler tookover his role as President. Hedeclared himself Fuhrer (leader)of Germany.

German armed forces swore anoath of loyalty to Hitler in return forgetting rid of the SA.

SOURCE 2

.. .ABritish cartoon commenting on the Night of the Long Knives, 1934.

Its title was 'They salute with both hands now'.

FOautMkHow did Hitler take control of Germany 1933-341

Make your own copy of the table below. Use itto work through pages100-101 and note down how Hitler dealt with various groups inGermany 1933-34. You may want to work in pairs or small groups.

Group Example of Example of Example ofHitler doing Hitler using othera deal or force or methodworking with threatsthem

Germany's elite I

(for example,army leaders;industrialists)

Communists

Trade unions

Other politicalparties

Churches

Other powerfulpeople in theNazi movement

10

,'LL TElYOu WHAT

I TO THINK

---:=-..~.-..............

agent; conforming; Gestapo; inform on;lawyer; persecute; protective custody;re-education; torture

Method 1: the stick - terrorAfter the Reichstag fire, the Nazis rounded up manyopponents and killed or TORTURED them in concentrationcamps.

Police and courtsEarly in 1933, the Nazis took control of the police andcourts. Later they controlled judges and LAWYERS. This meantthat opponents of the regime could not expect a fair trial.

The SS (leader: Heinrich Himmler)The SS began life as Hitler's personal bodyguard (createdfrom the best members of the SA). After the SA wasdestroyed in 1934, the SS grew into a huge organisationunder Heinrich Himmler. The SS had many sub-divisions(for example, the Death's Head Units which ran theconcentration camps). As its power increased, the SS beganto use its own courts. These sentenced 200,000 Germans tobe sent to concentration camps.

The Nazis faced very little opposition in Germany in the1930s. What did they do to make sure of this?

1,000,000+

280 50,000

240,000

1919 1933 1939 1944

The growth of the SS.

These two pages arestraightforward. Make sureyou can explain two examplesof Nazi terror methods.

The Nazis used a range ofmethods to control Germany.Your task over the next six pagesis to explain this cartoon. Addnotes to your own copy of thecartoon to explain each of thethree elements - the stick, thecarrot and the notice in front ofthe donkey's eyes.

In the Activity on page 107 youwill think about examples of eachof these methods in action.

SOURCE 1

11 5.8 How did the Nazis keep control in Germany?

Part C Life in Nazi Germany

SOURCE 2

SOURCE 4

It is clear that the majority ofthe people have two faces;one which they show to closefriends andfamily; and theotherfor the authorities. Theprivate face criticiseseverything; the offiCial onebeams with optimism andcontentment.

From a report written by an agentof the Socialist Party living in

Germany, August 1937.

The power of the SS, 1933-37.

o

H H East-'\,.. ,-':;. ,~'

~ H H ,''c----, fHJPrus~~~::: \~'",,:"'--'~p ~ H ~ H H ,__,:/ ','.,----- ____:" . &: ,/"-.-: fHJ ,~ i N

,..--'. fHJ ~ fHJ H Berlin \ POLAND t "'1,::",:"-", ',. •• • Ij ''', ,"->/ ~fHJ'~ fHJt.· jl !!lDresden"\."\

'r, •DusseldorffHJ ... ~.,' ,fHJ Iif1H1. '--', 0 300(;: Cologne Iffl. ~,!ffi" '" """ __ :' ~ fHJ '\_, '-' -', km

'-'. r< fHJtFrankfurt ~:'-'---' 'Prague:""::""~ ".> Scale,,~,' • • • fHJ " "'-'.',.:.\". ~: .fHJfHJ \, CZECHOSLOVAKIA :,

FRANCE "':,>fHJ ~fHJ fHJ ""\" :.,'.." ''',' Key fHJ SS baseStuttg;rt· I ~ftt1~unich"--":" ''''''f • concentration camp: • HHH,' " • SS court

Y"'~--"'::-'---~"" "'. __--------S· ,:;-)-",,------

Type of case % of cases

Belonging to banned organisations 30.0

Non-CONFORMING behaviour (e.g. criticising the Nazis) 29.0

Possessing banned printed materials 4.5

Listening to foreign radio 2.3

Not interested in politics 0.9

Non-political criminal activity 12.0

The work of the Gestapo in the Dusseldorf region 1933-45.

The GESTAPO (leader: Reinhard Heydrich)The Gestapo's role was to root out possible enemies ofNazism, such as:

• a teacher who taught his pupils to see through Nazipropaganda

• a grocer who told anti-Nazi jokes to his customers• a worker who refused to give the 'Heil Hitler' salute.

SOURCE 3

Germans feared that Gestapo AGENTS were everywhere.They INFORMED ON each other because of this fear. Whenwar broke out in 1939, the Gestapo rounded up 162,000people into 'PROTECTIVE CUSTODY',

The terror organisations gave the Nazis power, but theydid not always have to use it. Fear made people conform,

PERSECUTING minoritiesTerror tactics were used against other groups in society thatthe Nazis did not like, Jews, homosexuals, Gypsies,Jehovah's Witnesses, tramps and alcoholics were also takento concentration camps for 'RE-EDUCATION'.

Huge governmentspending on roads,housing, etc. createdjobs and broughtunemployment down.

The Reich Entailed FarmLaw protected farms frombeing closed by banks.

Farmingcommunities

boom; guaranteed; Reich; resistance

The economy

BENEFITS OF NAZI RULE

Middleclasses

For a great many Germans, the terror was not reallynecessary. Some Germans admired Hitler and liked whatthe Nazis were doing. Many Germans did very well out ofNazi rule. They needed no persuading to support the Nazis.Even those who did not admire the Nazis were oftenprepared to put up with them because of what they wereachieving in Germany.

Method 2: the carrot - Nazi achievements

Re-arming Germanycreated an economicBOOM and increasednational pride.

Big business

People had pride in Germanyafter Hitler overturned the termsof the Treaty of Versailles.

Big jobs working forthe governmentwere available.

These are two more simplepages. Make sure you canexplain two reasons whyGerman people approved ofNazi rule.

The threat ofCommunismwas removed.

There were notrade unions tomake trouble.

SOURCE 5

The Nazis helped farming communities withmeasures like the Reich Entailed FarmLaws. The government promised to buyfarmers' produce. It also stopped banksfrom taking land from farmers who were indebt. However, not all farmers gained fromNazi policies. Even so, many countrypeople left the land to work in the factories,where they earned higher wages.

Industrial workers also gained. They gotwork. They also got better workingconditions from the Beauty of Labour

Movement. And they got leisure activitiesorganised by the Strength Through Joylabour movement.

Life for industrial workers had its downsides as well. In 1933, the working weekwas 43 hours, but it had risen to 47 hoursby 1939. The value of wages did not getback to 1928 levels until 1938.

Overall, workers accepted the benefitsand kept their heads down. They may nothave liked Nazi rule, but they wereprepared to put up with it.

SOURCE 7

November 1933: Millions ofGermans are indeed won byHitler. I hear ofsome actions by the Communists ... Butwhat good do such pinpricks do? Less than none, because allGermany prefers Hitler to the Communists.September 1937: I believe ever more strongly that Hitlerreally does embody the soul ofthe German people, that hereally stands for Germany and that he will consequentlykeep his position.

From the diaries of Victor Klemperer, a Jewish university lecturerin Germany.

There was no resistance movement and there couldn't be.Nowhere in the world can develop a resistance movementwhen people feel betterfrom day to day. We were stones in atorrent and the water crashed over us.

Emmi Bonhoffer, sister of RESISTANCE leader Dietrich Bonhoffer,interviewed in 1989.

I have just returnedfrom a visit to Germany. I have nowseen the famous German leader and also something of thegreat change he has achieved. Whatever his methods, therecan be no doubt that he has achieved a marvelloustransformation in the spirit of the people and in their socialand economic outlook.

From an article by David L10yd George in the Daily Express,November 1936. L10yd George was a former British Prime Minister.

SOURCE 6

The REICH FoodEstate gavefarmersGUARANTEEDmarkets andprices for theirgoods.

The Beauty ofLabour organisationimproved workingconditions inindustries (forexample, canteensand washrooms).

The Strength ThroughJoy organisationprovided leisureopportunities (forexample, sportsclubs and holidays).

Art and culture ~o C». 0

• The Reich Chamber of CULTURE t-1was set up in September v P.

1933 and headed by Goebbels.• Anyone who worked in journalism, radio,

film, literature, theatre, music or the artshad to belong to the Chamber.Otherwise, they could not get a role in aplay, publish a book, sell a painting, etc.Members had to be approved byGoebbels so that there was virtually noneed for censorship. Mo

Film• There were some major propaganda

films made by Nazi-approved film-makers, such as Triumph of the Will (about the1934 Nuremberg Rally) and The Eternal Jew,1940 (a vicious anti-Jewish film).

The environment• The Nazis built huge new buildings,

especially in Berlin. Nazi-approved artists mademassive sculptures showing idealised bodies.

• Posters and photographs were everywhere,especially ones GLORIFYING Hitler.

A scene from the film, Triumph of the Will, 1934.It was a great success, with huge Queues to see it.

culture; glorify; transmitter; warden

The Reich Ministry for PopularEnlightenment and Propaganda

(set up in March 1933 andheaded by Josef Goebbels)

SOURCE 8

At the end of these twopages, aim to:

• list two ways in which theNazis controlled the media

• explain one way in whichpropaganda was effective.

Radio• The Ministry controlled radio

stations and TRANSMITIERS.• Cheap radio sets were made. Germany

had more radios per head than the USA(but radios could only pick up programmesfrom Germany).

• Special WARDENS made sure people listenedto the radio.

Press• The Ministry closed down about

two-thirds of Germany's newspapers.• It also controlled information supplied to

the remaining newspapers.

Special events• Goebbels staged impessive rallies,

meetings and processions.• The most spectacular success was the 1936

Olympic Games in Berlin. Germany won the mostmedals and Goebbels commissioned a specialfilm called Olympia. It was a box office smash.

Method 3: control bypropagandaA vast propaganda effortsupported both the 'stick'and the 'carrot'. Both Hitlerand Goebbels were expertsin propaganda. Theybelieved that all the massmedia had to be carefullycontrolled. They thought thatpeople had to be told whatto think. This diagram showshow the Nazis controlled themass media.

Propaganda and terror together

• Propaganda made terror more effective.The Nazis made sure people knew whathappened to their opponents. So, peoplethought the Gestapo had an agent onevery street corner. In fact, they did not.For example, in Wurzburg there wereonly 28 Gestapo agents to one millionGermans.

• Terror made propaganda more effective.The SS and the Gestapo rounded upanyone who tried to show a banned filmor sell a banned book. So, opponents ofthe Nazis found it hard to spread theiranti-Nazi ideas.

A I' " 11~aw __y

Here are a number of real-life situations. Would yousay each person is being controlled by:

• the stick• the carrot• propaganda• a combination of them all?

1 Pastor Paul Schneider is sent to a concentrationcamp because he preaches an anti-Nazi sermon.

2 Gertrude Weber joins the Nazi Party because she isvery moved by one of Hitler's speeches.

:3 The Northeim Nazi newspaper reports that thehomes of twelve Northeimers have been ransacked ina search for anti-Nazi literature.

How did the Nazis control Germany?

Here are the three main ways that the Naziscontrolled Germany:

• terror • achievements • propaganda.

Terror Achievements Propaganda

Propaganda and achievement together

• Propaganda reminded German peoplehow successful Nazi Germany was. Sothey were constantly told aboutGermany's booming economy, or Hitler'ssuccesses in getting land for Germany.

• Propaganda reminded people of Hitler'svision for Germany (see pages 98-99).Germans were regularly told to bewareof Jews. They were reminded of howthey hated the Treaty of Versailles.

4 Jewish professor, Victor Klemperer, puts out a Naziflag, just like everyone else, even though he hatesthe Nazis - he would be in danger if he did otherwise.

5 Herman Schulze gives up Socialism because heneeds a job and Socialists can't get jobs.

6 The government appoints radio wardens to makesure that everyone listens to official radiobroadcasts.

7 Jochen Klepper is forced to resign from his job as aradio scriptwriter because his wife is Jewish.

£3 Book stalls in Berlin railway stations are visited bythe SS and told to stop selling foreign newspapers.

9 Writer Bertholdt Brecht flees to the USA becausehe refuses to have his songs and plays censored bythe Nazis.

1 At the moment they are shown as equallyimportant on the graph. Draw your own graphand represent each factor at a size that showshow important it was.

2 Now turn your graph into words:It~ill~ tM b(11est ba.r SMlA./,d be ...TM llex;t b(11est is .TM t~ird b(11est is .

3 Now turn these words into a piece of extendedwriting:TM II\.Ost illlporta.llt wil.!! tM ~a.zis colltroU.ed gerlllll.II,Y wa.s ...T~is IlIIl.de tM oppositioll fa.it bww.se ...AlIOtMr illlpOrta.llt fa.ctor wa.s ...~is IlIIl.de tM oppositioll fa.it be.ca.lA.se ...AfiMt fa.ctor wa.s ...T~is a.tso 1lIa.M it difficlA.tt for tM oppositioll beca.lA.se ...

_ 5.9 How did young people react to the Nazis?

SOURCE 2

Millions of young German women also joined the Nazi Youthorganisations. The main one for girls was the League of German Maidens(BDM). It was similar to the Hitler Youth in terms of its activities and aims.

However, the girls were trained for nursing or motherhood rather thanwar. This photograph shows a hike organised by the SDM.

Henrik Metelmann loved the Hitler Youth so much that heoften argued with his own father, who hated the Nazis.Henrik chose to be in the Hitler Youth. There was no lawthat made people join, but only one member of Henrik'sclass did not join.

When Henrik left school, he became an engineer. Thefirst question his employers asked him was whether he wasin the Hitler Youth.

Henrik joined the army when war broke out. He foughtagainst the USSR along with millions of other young men.

SOURCE 1

I liked it in the Hitler Youth. I thought the uniform wassmashing, the dark brown, the black, the swastika [the Nazisymbol], all the shiny leather. Before we didn't even have adecent football to play with. Now the Hitler Youth providedus with sports equipment. Never in my life had I been on areal holiday, now under Hitler I could go to lovely camps inthe mountains. I liked the comradeship, the marching, thesport and the war games. We were brought up to love ourFuhrer, who was to me like a second God. I was convincedthat because ofthe German blood in my veins I wassuperior.

From Through Hell for Hitler by Henrik Metelmann, published in 1990.

At the end of these twopages, check that you areclear about two ways in whichthe Nazis won over youngpeople.

Imagine you are HenrikMetelmann or a SDM membertrying to convince a friend to jointhe Hitler Youth or SDM. Whatwould you say?

Why were the Nazis so successful in winning over theyoung people of Germany? In many ways, it is not thatsurprising.

They controlled the schools. By the mid-1930s, mostteachers were either Nazi supporters or were forced toteach the curriculum the Nazis created. You can probablyguess what this curriculum was like. It involved lots ofphysical exercise to make young people fit and tough.It also featured lots of German history which stressedGermany's glorious military past. This history also warnedyoung people that Jews and Communists had ruinedGermany and that Adolf Hitler was the saviour of Germany.Even maths and science were used to get across the Nazimessages of racial hatred and the glory of war.

The Nazi youth organisations were attractive. Theyprovided holidays, sports equipment and comradeship.Many young people enjoyed the opportunity to get awayfrom their parents and be with their friends. They enjoyedthe practical activities, like map reading, and it was quiteexciting for a teenage boy to handle a rifle and clean it likea proper soldier. ,

The Nazi propaganda deliberately targeted youngpeople. Most Hitler Youth meetings contained a shortlecture on Nazis ideas. Posters, radio programmes and evengames tried to establish Nazi ideas (see Source 4).

SOURCE 4

11.. "'''''t Mltrln IH nation lit ,. Ufllf

1JIUdIt, au, '.,lIllIlf 6trualhtltl- unD MrlJtr­Plftt JU IdIttn.

An advertisement for the German pharmaceutical industry. It reads:'German Girl. As the future bearer of the nation it is your duty to take

care of ~ur health and beauty.'

SOURCE 3

All subjects - Germanlanguage, History,Geography, Chemistry andMathematics - mustconcentrate on militarysubjects, the glorification ofmilitary service and ofGerman heroes and leaders,and the strength ofa rebuiltGermany. Chemistry willdevelop a knowledge ofchemical warfare, explosivesetc., while mathematics willhelp the young to understandguns and artillery.

From the German newspaperDer Angriff, October 1939.

Have a look at your currentschool or college timetable.Suggest at least five ways thatthe Nazis would change it.Think about:

• subjects they would get rid of• new subjects they might

introduce• ways they would change the

existing subjects• whether they would give more

or less time to particularsubjects.

Aim to remember twoexamples of young peopleresisting the Nazis.

SOURCE 5

Suddenly Radio Hamburgcame on air again ... theBritish soldiers who hadtaken over the station hadfive or six Glenn Millerrecords with them and thefirst one they played was InThe Mood. It was thehappiest day ofmy life.! TheNazis had gone and I hadsuch a feeling offreedom.!

Uwe Storjohann describing hisfeelings when the Nazis were

defeated in 1945. He had beenarrested several times for playingSwing Music and ordered to stop.He was imprisoned from 1941 to

1945 for refusing to give up.

1 Write your own 30-worddefinition of the SwingMovement for a historicaldictionary of Nazi Germany.

2 Look at Source 5. What does ittell historians abouta) Uwe Storjohannb) the Swing Movementc) Nazi attitudes to the

movement?

~WOrM corrupt; executed

Did all young people support the Nazis?Henrik Metelmann adored the Flihrer - he says so in Source1 (on page 108). But is it possible that some of his friendsjoined the Hitler Youth just for the football and theholidays? There are many accounts from members of theHitler Youth and BDM that suggest so. These people talkabout the fun. They also say that when the lectures aboutNazi ideas began, they mentally switched off. However,other young people were much firmer in opposing the Nazis.

The Swing Movement

Swing groups were anti everything in a way. While somemembers were in the Hitler Youth, the Swing Movementresented the way the Nazis controlled people's lives. Theyshowed their discontent through their interest in bannedmusic. They were heavily into American music such as jazzand swing. They hung out in nightclubs and bars, anddanced American dances. They even opposed the Nazisdirectly.

The Swing Movement was only a tiny minority of youngpeople, who generally came from better-off families.Nevertheless, they irritated the Nazis. The Nazis did not likethe fact that they did not conform. They also saw theirinterest in jazz as CORRUPT. The Nazis acted against them byclosing the bars they went to. Some Swing Movementmembers were arrested (see Source 5).

The Edelweiss Pirates

This was a name given to many small groups of youngpeople from many different parts of Germany. They worethe edelweiss flower (and other emblems) as a symbol oftheir resistance to the Nazis. The earliest groups appearedin 1934. By 1939, there were an estimated 2000 EdelweissPirate groups. Some Pirate groups were like the Swinggroups. They just opposed Nazi control of their lives.Others, like the group in Cologne, opposed Nazi politicalideas. They made fun of Hitler Youth groups or evenviolently attacked them.

When war started in 1939, the Pirates stepped up theiractivities. Some groups were involved in spreading anti-Nazipropaganda and even in helping enemy air crews who hadbeen shot down. The Nazis began to clamp down on thegroups. In December 1942, 739 Pirates in Cologne weresent to labour camps. In 1944, the Nazis hanged the leadersof the Cologne Edelweiss Pirates.

• education• the attractions of Nazi Youth organisations• pressure to join (for example, from the Nazis,

from other young people).2 What would you have done if you had been a

young person in Nazi Germany? Think about thisquestion honestly. For example:• Do you have strong political or moral views?• Do you have interests that the Nazis would have

disapproved of?• Would you have liked the activities the Hitler

Youth provided?• If you had doubts about the Nazis, would you

have stood up for your ideas or kept you headdown?

SOURCE 6

Edelweiss Pirate leaders being hanged in 1944.

Students

Students like Sophie Scholl (see Source 7) joined the WhiteRose. This was a student movement that published anti-Nazimaterial. The White Rose activists were brave, but theywere always a small movement.

FD(M,ftlUk

What would you have done?

Here are the options that were open to young peopleduring the Nazi period:

A Whole-hearted membership of Nazi Youthorganisations

B Membership of the Nazi Youth organisations - butonly for the activities

C Not belonging to any organisation at allo Swing MovementE Edelweiss Pirates.

1 The great majority of young people would havebelonged in categories Aand B. Write a shortparagraph to explain why this was the case.Mention at least one of these factors:

3 Write your own definition of theEdelweiss Pirates for ahistorical dictionary of NaziGermany. Do you think thisdefinition should be longer thanthe Swing Movement definition?

SOURCE 7

We have written and saidwhat is in the minds ofall ofyou, but you lack thecourage to say it aloud.The last words of Sophie Scholl of

the White Rose before she wasEXECUTED in 1943.

- 5. 10 How did the Nazis treat women andfamilies?

A painting showing the ideal Nazi family.

grant; honours system; housekeeping;traditional values

Source 1 is a propaganda painting showingthe ideal Nazi family. The man is the strongprotector of the family. The woman is alsostrong, but in a motherly sort of way. She isbusy breastfeeding the baby. The youngboy is active. He is playing a 'manly' gameby digging in the sandpit. The daughters arepreparing to be mothers - notice the olderdaughter watching and learning from hermother. The younger daughter has a doll.

In Nazi Germany, hundreds of posterslike this, as well as pamphlets, radioprogrammes and films, spelled out the samemessage about the role of women in theNazi state. It was a very important role.German women were expected to be proudto serve Germany by being mothers andproducing as many healthy, racially pure(Aryan) babies as possible.

The Nazis supported this message withactions. As soon as they came to power,they forced many professional women toquit their jobs. Women were banned fromcivil service jobs in 1933 and from workingas lawyers in 1936. In the League ofGerman Maidens (BDM) and at school, girlswere taught about health and HOUSEKEEPING

skills. Women were offered cheap loans andGRANTS if they were married and hadchildren. An HONOURS SYSTEM was set up - acouple with eight children got the highestGold Cross award. These measures workedto some extent. The birth rate in Germanyincreased from 15 per 1000 in 1933 to 20per 1000 in 1939.

What were Nazi policies towards women andthe family?

Make sure you can explain:

• two ways in which womenlost out under Nazi rule

• two ways in which womengained from Nazi rule.

1 Look closely at Source 2 onpage 113. Make a list of theways in which it is similar anddifferent to Source 1.

2 Would you say that Sources1-3 provide historians with allthe information they need aboutNazi policies towards womenand the family? Explain youranswer.

SOURCE 1

She talked and wrote about health, beautyand fashion. Sources 4 and 5 on page 114show two more famous women. But thesewere exceptions. Source 3 sums up Hitler'sattitude to the role of women.

A painting of an Aryan farm family in Kahelenberg by the Nazi artistAdolph Wissel, 1939.

• Many unemployed menfelt that women shouldgive up work and let menhave their jobs.

• In many small towns andrural areas, TRADITIONAL

VALUES about women andthe family were verystrong. Workingwomen, especially youngworking women, wereseen as immoral orcorrupt.

• Many older womenagreed with the view thatwomen should be wivesand mothers.

• The churches generallysupported the idea of womenas homemakers, wives and mothers.

• There is also evidence that many womenfound the Nazi women's organisationsvery rewarding. They got to meet newpeople and to travel around the country.Hitler was particularly popular amongwomen.

These policies were SOURCE 2popular with many Germans(even those who were notNazi supporters).

But as with so many aspects of NaziGermany these policies ended in chaos andthe Nazis had to change track. In 1936,Germany's economy was recovering.Unemployment was falling and the armedforces were growing. By 1938, Germanywas short of workers. Guess who took thenew jobs? The women. By 1939, there were1.4 million more working women than th~rehad been in 1933 (but mostly in low gradejobs with low wages).

There were also some very well knownwomen in Nazi Germany. Magda Goebbels,the wife of propaganda boss ]osefGoebbels, often appeared in news films.

SOURCE 3

I hate women who dabble in politics. And iftheir dabbling extends to military matters itbecomes unbearable. In no local section ofthe Party has a woman the right to hold eventhe smallest post. It has therefore often beensaid that we are a party who hate women,who regard women only as a machine formaking children. That'sfarfrom the truth.Everything that involves war is exclusivelymen's business. There are so many otherfields in which one must rely upon women.Organising a house, for example . ..

A report of comments made by Hitler in aconversation in January 1942. 113

What does the evidence suggest about life for women in Nazi Germany?

FRAUEN.

Kampf den Nazi - ­~~: Sozialdemokratie!

so geht's euch im))Dritten Reich« I

A Socialist Party poster from December 1930.The caption says 'Women, this is what it will be like

in the Third Reich (Nazi Germany)'.

Eure Antwort~

.Die Frau muB wieder Mogd undOienerin werdenc sagl cle<NazifiihrerFeder. Oeshalb i,' auch in der Haken­kreuzfraklian keine Frau "ertrelen.

Then explain why there is more to this story. Youcould mention:• Nazi policies on women and work• Nazi attitudes to the family• what evidence suggests this.

2 Design your own web page to tell the real story.Unfortunately, space is limited. You can only have:• one visual source• one text source• 50 words of your own writing.

Extension3 Explain what the poster in Source 6 is saying.4 Do you think the Socialists' prediction was right?

Explain your answer.

SOURCE 6

1

Film-maker Leni Riefenstahl, who made some of themost famous films of the Nazi period.

SOURCE 4

Nazi women's leader, Gertrude Scholz Klink, posingfor a sculpture. She was head of the Nazi Women's

Bureau and the only female member of the Nazigovernment. She was tall, blond, racially pure, hadfour children and was a true Nazi. Even Klink found

that senior Nazis ignored her views.

SOURCE 5 .

Fo(;,U& tMk

You are doing some research on Nazi Germanyusing the internet. You come across a site that tellspeople how well women did in Nazi Germany. Thereare only two sources on the site. The sources areSources 4 and 5.

1 Write an e-mail to the website author. Explain whythese two sources do not give a complete pictureof life for women in Nazi Germany. Start byexplaining what impression people get if they onlylook at these two sources.

11 S. 11 Why did the Nazis persecute minorities?asocial; boycott; Einsatz; euthanasia;fatherland; Final Solution; gas chamber;ghetto; Nuremberg Laws; slave labour;sterilised; transported

The Nazis used terror tactics against their politicalopponents, such as Communists. But they also ran terrorcampaigns against other groups that did not appear to be athreat to their power at all.

Why did the Nazis persecute racial groups?

The Nazis believed that the ideal German was an Aryan Cawhite person with blond hair). They believed that Aryanswere the master race and were superior to other racialgroups. Hitler feared that Aryans would mix with inferiorraces. So the Nazis persecuted, and later murdered,members of what they called racially inferior groups.Gypsies and Jews suffered most. It is estimated that about500,000 Gypsies died in death camps such as Auschwitz.

Why did the Nazis persecute 'undesirables'?

The Nazis also persecuted anyone who did not fit their ideaof an ideal German. They called these people 'asocials' or'undesirables'. The Nazis thought that Germany wastedmoney looking after them and that their presence 'polluted'the country. Hitler said that getting rid of some of theweakest Germans would strengthen Germany.

• Ideal Germans were socially useful - they worked hardand served the FATHERLAND. SO the Nazis persecutedtramps, beggars, alcoholics and anyone who refused towork. Around 500,000 tramps and beggars were sent toconcentration camps in 1933.

• Ideal Germans pledged total loyalty to Hitler - so theNazis persecuted anyone who refused to do this. Forexample, Jehovah's Witnesses refused to offer totalloyalty to anyone other than God, so one-third of them inGermany were sent to concentration camps.

• Ideal Germans married, had children and createdstable families - so the Nazis persecuted homosexuals,prostitutes and problem families.

• Ideal Germans were strong and powerful - so theNazis persecuted mentally handicapped people and thosewith inherited diseases. About 350,000 were STERILISED.

Later, the Nazis started a EUTHANASIA campaign. About200,000 people were killed in nursing homes.

In this section, make it youraim to explain:

• why the Germanspersecuted ASOCIALS andracial groups

• how persecution of theJews got worse when theSecond World War started.

The Hashude camp for problemfamilies was a bit like a

concentration camp, but not asharsh. Inmates were locked up and

forced to work.

SOURCE 1

1939The start of the Second World War. Hitler's invasion of Poland brought aboutone million more Jews under Nazi control. They were rounded up and forcedto live in GHETIOS. Thousands died from starvation and disease.

1933• The Nazis came to power.• The SA and SS organised a BOYCOTI to stop people using Jewish shops.• Laws made it difficult for Jews to work in the civil service, media and

education.

SOURCE 3

This is what Gad Becksaid about the oldmemorial-On this spot was the first oldpeople's home oftheJewishcommunity in Berlin. In1942, the SS transformed itinto an assembly camp forJewish citizens. Fifty-fivethousand Berlin Jews,ranging from infants to theaged, were taken forCibly toAuschwitz and otherconcentration camps andbestially murdered. Don'tever let this be forgotten.

The construction of the new Holocaust memorial inBerlin, on the site where some of the headquarters ofthe Nazi regime stood. The memorial will be made up

of 2700 concrete stones.

SOURCE 2

1941• The German invasion of the USSR brought yet more Jews under Nazi

control. Special units of SS troops called EINSATZ began rounding up andshooting Jews.

• All Jews still living in Germany were forced to wear the Star of David.

1942-45Senior Nazis met together in January 1942. They came up with what theycalled the 'FINAL SOLUTION to the JewiSh problem'. All Jews in Nazi-ruled landswere rounded up. They were TRANSPORTED to camps in Germany and Poland.Some were murdered in GAS CHAMBERS as soon as they arrived. Others wereforced to work as SLAVE LABOUR, making materials that Germany needed for itswar effort. When they were too old, ill or weak to work anymore, they weremurdered. Bodies were stripped of hair, gold fillings and anything else ofvalue. They were then burned in ovens.

1935The NUREMBERG LAws made marriages and relationships between Jews andGermans illegal.

1938• Kristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass), November 1938 - after a Jewish

student killed two Nazi officials in Paris, Goebbels planned a big pay-back inGermany. Jewish properties were smashed and synagogues were burneddown. Over 100 Jews were killed and 30,000 were arrested. Many endedup in concentration camps.

• German Jews had to register their names and addresses with the Naziauthorities.

The HolocaustThe group that suffered most under theNazis was the Jews. No-one knows for surewhy Hitler hated the Jews so deeply, but inspeeches and in his book Mein Kampf (MyStruggle; see page 126), Hitler blamed theJews for many of Germany's problems.

Other Nazis realised that one way ofimpressing Hitler was to suggest newmethods of persecuting the Jews. From 1933onwards, Jews in Germany were treatedmore and more badly, as you can see fromthe timeline below.

Racism

Demand for totalloyalty to Hitler

The Second World War

Nazi leaderstrying toimpressHitler

Desire for a strongsociety where allGermans play auseful role

1 Copy this diagram.2 For each factor, add an example of how it either

caused persecution or made existing persecutionworse.

Jewish resistance fighters operated throughout the Nazi period. They helped Jews to escape Germany.We also know of at least one unsuccessful Jewish plan to kill Hitler in 1935.

Why did the Nazis persecute certain groups inGerman society?

On pages 115-16 you will find five factors that ledthe Nazis to persecute minorities.

Did most people benefit from Nazi rule?

Look closely at Source 5 on page 105. It is 55words long. It gives a very incomplete picture of lifefor German people in the 1930s. Use informationfrom pages 102-117 to write a more completesummary of life in Nazi Germany. Aim to do this in50 words. If you find this too difficult, aim for 150words.

Be sure to mention:

• how bad things were in Germany 1929-32• at least two examples of people or groups who

gained something from Nazi rule in the 1930s• at least two balancing examples that show ways

in which life was not so great for others.

SOURCE 3

11 S. 12 How did Nazi Germany cope with thedemands of war?

Test your understanding bymaking sure you can:

• remember at least twoeffects of the war onordinary Germans (withexamples)

• explain two factors thathampered Germany's wareffort.

SOURCE 1

frauen mortt.Ir riall,r ,.rfri••fllmr fnUfDHitrtllrHt

The cover of the Nazi magazinefor women, Frauen Warte,

1 March 1940. It shows a housebeing built in conquered Polish

territory. The caption says'Germany is building in the East'.

armament; conquer; loot; raw materials;resources; territory

The early stages of the warHitler's vision for Germany involved a great war to proveGermany's strength. However, most Germans did not shareHitler's enthusiasm. When war broke out in September1939, it took many Germans by surprise. They had got usedto Hitler gaining TERRITORIES for Germany without having togo to war (see page 127).

Germans soon felt the impact of the war. Food rationingbegan in September 1939. From November 1939, clotheswere rationed. On the other hand, the news from the warwas good. German forces won one great battle afteranother (see page 137).

There were other benefits to war as well. The SS underHeinrich Himmler LOOTED the countries the Nazis invaded.Food, RAW MATERIALS and other RESOURCES were sent back toGermany. Pure Aryan Germans were encouraged to settle inthe new territories that had been co QUERED.

The tide turnsHitler turned his forces on the USSR in 1941. The attackwent well at first, but in the long run it was a terriblemistake. By 1943, the USSR's forces were beginning to drivethe Germans back. The fighting was vicious and the costwas appalling. The strain of war began to tell at home.

SOURCE 2

From 1942 to 1943 we, as children, were visibly aware ofalot ofways in which the war affectedfamilies. I myselfexperienced how two ofmyfather's brothers and also two ofmy mother's brothers fell. The 'Deaths' column in thenewspapers increased noticeably from 1943, and grew evenmore in 1944.

Fram an interview in 1994 with a citizen of the German town of Warstein.

The Nazi war effortAs the war went on, the state began to control life andwork even more closely than before. The Gestapo kept aclose watch for people who did not support the war effort.The SS became increasingly powerful. It developed its ownarmed forces and even its own ARMAMENTS industries.

In 1942, Hitler put Albert Speer in charge of Germanindustry. It became much more efficient but:

• Allied bombing destroyed factories and transport links(see pages 144-45)

• rivalry between leading Nazis made it difficult for Speerto get things done.

Germans were bombarded by propaganda. Sometimes theywere told how well the war was going. Sometimes theywere encouraged to support the war effort. Sometimes thepropaganda just tried to keep people's spirits up.

However, not even Goebbels could hide the effects ofwar, especially in the cities. From 1942 onwards, there wereserious food shortages. An even bigger problem was thehousing shortage caused by bombing (see pages 144-45).

The July bomb plotFor most of the Nazi period, almost all of the armysupported Hitler. However, in July 1944, with the war goingvery badly indeed, some army officers tried to kill Hitlerand take over Germany. Colonel Claus von Stauffenbergplanted a bomb under the table where Hitler was meetingwith other Nazi leaders. The bomb exploded, but failed tokill Hitler. The planned take-over flopped. Stauffenberg andaround 5000 others were executed in the Nazi revenge forthe attack.

DefeatBy 1945, it was clear to most Germans that they were losingthe war. In 1945, Goebbels was put in charge of theGerman Home Defence Force. He had to organiseteenagers and old men to fight the invading Soviet,American and British forces. It was hopeless.

In April, with Soviet, British and American troops closingin on each side, Hitler killed himself, Germany surrenderedand the Nazi Reich (empire) was over. Germany was left tocount the cost of Hitler's vision.

Draw a cloud diagram (see page65) to sum up the ways in whichthe war affected Germany andthe German people. Your teachercan give you a sheet to help you.

SOURCE 3

DUI se hEr fi n d ."

'Wocbscn hcron

An advertisement for UHU gluepublished in 1944. It says: 'Germaninventors are working for the future

of Europe!' German industry wasfully involved in all aspects of the

German war effort.

It is now time to prepare yourclass Quiz, based on the yellownotes at the beginning of eachsection. Your teacher can giveyou a sheet to help you.

-German leader AdolfHitler moved German

troops into the Rhineland.Then he united Austria

with Germany. The Treatyof Versailles did not allowthese actions. France

and Britain were worried,but they did nothing to

stop him.

Italy's leader Mussoliniwanted an empire inAfrica. He invaded

Abyssinia (Ethiopia). TheLeague of Nations didnot protect Abyssinia.

Mussolini got away withit. From this time on, noone took the League of

Nations seriously.

The road to war1929-39

1931-33Manchurian crisis

r'" Manchuria "::"'-')

':,~::::~, JAPAN .. .:

;:;;{(Japan invaded a part ofChina called Manchuria.The League of Nationstook a year to decidehow to respond. In theend, it did nothing! Thismade other countries

think that they could dowhat they wanted. TheLeague appeared weak.

~""'~

~-,--------=------

1929-33 Economicdepression

Depression,unemployment,inflation, poverty

The Depression led tounemployment and

poverty in manycountries. Before the

Depression, manycountries helped each

other. After theDepression, they acted

in self-interest.

These two pages outline themain events that you willstudy in Chapter 6. You will-And it useful to refer to themthroughout the chapter.For revision, try to describe inyour own words how eachevent helped cause the war.

_ 6. 1 The road to the Second World Wara summary

1939 Hitler invadesPoland

In September 1939,Hitler invaded Poland.

Britain and Francedeclared war on

Germany.

August 1939Nazi-Soviet Pact

Hitler wanted to invadePoland. He worried thatthe USSR might try tostop him so he did adeal with his great

enemy, Stalin. Hitlerand Stalin divided

Poland between them.

Despite his promise,Hitler took over the rest

of Czechoslovakia.Britain and France saidthat they would declarewar if he invaded any

more countries.

Hitler invaded a part ofCzechoslovakia called

the Sudetenland. Britainand France let him do

this as long as hepromised not to

invade the rest ofCzechoslovakia. Hitlerpromised. This wascalled the Munich

Agreement.

1938 The MunichAgreement

FOCUftlUkThis ta~k will help you to plant the information on this spread firmly inyour mind.

1 Write the dates on one set of cards and the events on a separate setof cards. Then match them up without looking in this book.

2 Check in this book that you have matched the cards correctly. Then~ast~ the cards on a sheet of paper in the correct order to make atlmellne.

3 As you work through this chapter, make notes about how each eventhelped lead to war. These notes will be very useful when you gettothe task on page 135.

4 Look back at the work you did on pages 4-7. Can you find anysimilarities between the causes of the Second World War and thecauses of the First World War?

6.2 What were the effects of the Depression?

The key idea to grasp here isthat the Depression createdproblems in various countries,which led to politicalproblems later.

These two pages will helpyou to:

• describe how theDepression affectedGermany and Japan

• think about how theDepression createdconditions that led to war.

~work manufactured goods; tariff

Economic depressionIn the 1920s, world trade depended on the USA. It was therichest country in the world. It lent money to othercountries, and it bought goods from other countries. Tradewas good for international peace. All the experts said thatcountries were less likely to fight if they were trading withone another.

In 1929, a depression began in the USA.

• Farms, banks and businesses went bust.• Millions of workers lost their jobs.• The Americans bought less (for example, they bought

less silk from Japan).• The USA wanted to protect its own industries so it put

TARIFFS on all goods coming into the USA.• American banks were in trouble so they wanted all the

loans they had made to Germany in the 1920s repaid.

Some historians think thatthis economic depressionwas an important cause ofthe Second World War. Youmight find this hard tounderstand. After all, howcan businesses going bust inthe USA cause a war? Theanswer lies in the linksbetween events. TheDepression in the USA didnot start the war. However,it created conditions thatmade war more likely.Examples of these links areexplained in the diagram inthe Focus task (left).I

1 for example ... I

hardship for peopleand feelings of

bitterness

/

---I for example ... I

caused

Why didinternationalrelations getworse in the

193017

which wasmet by

because of theeffects of the

/'

Ia weak responsefrom the League

of Nations

Here is a basic diagram. Add examples so that it tells a fuller story.

[ for example ... I

122

o\\

oo

o,4

Top priority ­sort outBritish

economy.Low priority ­help sort outinternational

disputes.

BritainBritain was one of the leaders of theLeague of Nations. But, like the USA,

it was unwilling tohelp sort outinternational disputes

r-------, while itseconomywas bad. Forexample,when JapaninvadedManchuria itdid nothing ­

it did not support economic sanctionsagainst Japan and did not send troopsto protect Manchuria.

GermanyThe Depression hit Germany badly. There was unemployment,poverty and chaos. Germany's weak leaders seemedunable to do anything.As a result, Germans electedAdolf Hitler to lead them. Hewas not good news for ,JJ~"~international peace. He openlyplanned to invade Germany'sneighbours and to win backland that Germany had lostin the Great War.

JapanThe Depression threatened to bankrupt Japan.Its main export was silk to the USA, but theUSA was buying less silk. So Japanhad less money to buy ~

food and raw materials.Its leaders were all armygenerals. They decidedto build an empire by ~-"--.

taking over weaker Plans forcountries that had the Japanesefood and raw materials empire ~~~1Japan needed. Theystarted by invading Manchuria(part of China) in 1931.

The USAOne way that the League ofNations could stop one countryinvading another was to r----l~UJ4_....!l

use economic sanctions. Top priority-sort out US

But the Depression made economy.the USA unwilling to help Low priority-in this because economic help sort out rsanctions would make its international

disputes.own economy even worse.

AlLI.UU:;U

In which country might you have heard statements A-F during theDepression? Match each statement to one of the following countries:• the USA • Japan • Germany • Britain

A B C

You might have heard some of the statements in more than one country.Explain the choices you have made.

The USA wants the loanback. We must close our

business.

If we had our own empire,we would have all the resources

we need.

FThe bank has closed. We've lost

everything.

We must ban foreignMANUFACTURED GOODS, then peoplewill buy home-produced goods.

E

I have been unemployed sincelast year.

Our leaders are weak. We need astrong leader to sort this out.

11 6.3 Why did the League of Nations failin the 1930s?

aly and Abyssinia were both members of the League of Nations. Abyssinia askedthe League for help. The League took months to decide what to do. In the end it triedsanctions, but didn't ban the only thing that really mattered - oil - because it knewthe USA would supply oil to Italy if League members did not.

~ word Fascist

Mussolini, theFASCIST dictator inItaly, wanted anempire in Africa.In 1935he invaded thepoor countryof Abyssinia(now Ethiopia).

Aim to remember at leasttwo weaknesses of theLeague of Nations and howthese affected Abyssinia.

The League of Nations was set up to help solve problemssuch as Japan's invasion of Manchuria (see page 120). Butin the 1930s, it failed. The Manchurian crisis showed howweak and indecisive the League was. However, it was theAbyssinian crisis that really finished off the League. You arenow going to look at this crisis in detail.

Case study: Italy and the Abyssinian crisis

Meanwhile, Britain and France privately offered to let Mussolinihave Abyssinia in return for his support against Hitler! When thisnews leaked out, there was uproar.

While the League was thinking about Abyssinia, Hitler senthis troops into the Rhineland. Abyssinia was forgotten.

124

A big country took overa little country and theLeague's two leadingmembers, Britain andFrance, did little to stopit. The message to Hitlerwas clear. Strongcountries could do asthey wanted. The Leaguewould do nothing inEurope.

FOa«tMkWhy did the League of Nations fail in the 1930s?

Here is a diagram summarising the failure of the League of Nations.Complete the diagram to explain how each weakness affectedManchuria and Abyssinia. We have filled in one point for you. There isone weakness that you will not be able to write about - you will find outabout it on page 126.

In Manchuria, they...

In Abyssinia, they...

The memory aid FAILUReshould help you rememberthis for an exam.

In Manchuria, this wasa problem because...

In Manchuria, ...

In Abyssinia, ...

In Abyssinia, the USA...

Ineffective sanctions ­sanctions either weren'tused or didn't work.

In Manchuria, the Leaguecould not send troopsthere as it was impossibleto reach.

Absent powers - keycountries, particularlythe USA, were not inthe League.

oo

00 °

Lack of armed forces- the League had notroops of its own.

In Abyssinia, British and Frenchforces could have acted on behalfof the League, but the British andFrench governments refused.

French and British self­interest - they looked aftertheir own interests ratherthan the League's.

Unfair treaty - the League'sjob was to enforce treatiesthat some members thoughtwere unfair.

Reaching decisions tooslowly - the League tookages to act.

See page 126.

In Abyssinia, ...

In Manchuria, ...

125

11 6.4 Hitler's words, Hitler's actions

From these two pagesremember at least one ofHitler's aims and one actionhe took to achieve it.

Added bonus: explain howHitler's policies made himmore popular in Germany.

Bolshevism; destiny; pact; rearmament

Me;n Kampf - Hitler's wordsIn the 1920s, Hitler wrote a book setting out his views onGermany's future if he were ever to be its leader. The bookbecame a bestseller. It was called Mein Kampf(MyStruggle). Here are some of the things Hitler believedGermany should do.

126

A. Get rid ofthe TreatyofVersailles

Hitler hated the Treaty ofVersailles. It had:

• taken away Germanland (so millions ofGermans were livingunder foreign rule)

• forced Germany todisarm (when noother countries wereforced to)

• forced Germany to payhuge reparations(causing economicproblems in Germany)

• forced Germany toaccept all the blame forthe war.

Hitler said it was hisDESTINY as leader ofGermany to get rid of thetreaty and rebuildGermany.

B. Conquer Lebensraum(living space)

Hitler believed that theGerman people werehemmed in. They neededmore land if they weregoing to do well. Headmired Britain'senormous empire. Hebelieved Germany neededan empire, too. Germany'sempire was to be inEastern Europe. Germanywould have to rule all ofEastern Europe as well astake huge bits of theUSSR.

1 Look at Hitler's actions onGerman territory on page 127.Was Hitler putting his MeinKampf ideas into action?Explain your answer.

C Defeat Communism

Hitler hated Communism(or BOLSHEVISM). Hethought it was a poison,making Germany weak.Hitler's greatest ambitionwas to destroy the greatestCommunist state, theUSSR, and its dictator,Stalin.

In 1936, he wrote a planfor the next eight years tobuild up Germany'sindustries for a brutal fightagainst the USSR. Hisdream was a gigantic warthat would:

• unite the Germanpeople behind Hitler

• make Germany into aleading world power

• destroy the threat ofCommunism forever.

2 Look at Hitler's actions againstCommunism on page 127. WasHitler putting his Mein Kampfideas into action? Explain youranswer.

Hitler's actions 1933-36

Hitler still hatedCommunism. In 1933, hebanned the CommunistParty and arrested anyCommunists who did notescape the country.

In 1936-37, he broughtItaly, Japan and Germanytogether in theAnti-Comintern PACT(Comintern was short forInternationalCommunism). The threecountries agreed to fightCommunism whereverthey found it. The realtarget of this alliance was,of course, the USSR.

C Anti-Communism

In 1935, 90 per cent of thepeople of the Saar region(see page 62) voted tobecome part of Germany.Under the Treaty ofVersailles they had achoice between Franceand Germany. It was agreat victory for Hitler.

In 1936, Hitler took hisbiggest gamble. WhileFrance and Britain werewatching Abyssinia (seepage 124), he movedGerman troops into theRhineland. This was totallyagainst the terms of theTreaty of Versailles. TheFrench were horrified butBritain did not object. TheFrench would not take onthe Germans withoutBritish support. Hitler lateradmitted that if Britain orFrance had resisted, hewould simply havewithdrawn his troops. TheGermans did not evenhave enough ammunition!

B. German territory

--,'Almost as soon as he tookpower in 1933, Hitler leftthe League of Nations'Disarmament Conference.He started to build newweapons secretly. Then in1935, he announced amassive REARMAMENT

programme for Germany.Over the next six years,

Germany built 8000 tanks,warships and militaryaircraft. By 1939, theGerman army had 950,000men (the Treaty ofVersailles allowed only100,000).

Hitler told otherEuropean powers that,because they had notdisarmed, Germany hadevery right to rearm. TheGerman people lovedseeing Hitler stand up tothe nation's old enemies.Rearmament madeGermans feel proud and italso created work for theunemployed.

A. Rearmament

The year is 1936. You are a reporter for a Britishnewspaper. Write a 150-word article about Hitler'sactions from 1933 to 1936.

Your article needs to:• sum up Hitler's main aims• describe the actions he has taken 1933-36• explain why he has taken those actions• comment on how people in Germany have reacted

• explain whether you feel Hitler is a threat to Britain• say whether you think Hitler is a threat to any

other countries.Remember, it is only 1936. You do not know what isgoing to happen in the next few years. You have tobase your article on what was known then.

Swap reports with a partner. Search yourpartner's report for anything not known in 1936.

127

_ 6.5 Was appeasement a good idea?

POLAND

Anschluss; appeasement; compromise;demonstration; mineral resources; war footing

.. oJjL(BalfiC Sea M~~J~Uc:"~( !)1," !USSR

D}Hl~I_K"O_' ' 300 krTL,-- I Scale I l

,I,I

North Sea

SOURCE 1

If you had been the British prime minister, would you havestopped Hitler between 1933 and 1936? In 1937, Britain hada new prime minister, Neville Chamberlain. He soon facedsome very difficult decisions about Hitler.

PGREAT

~BRITAIN

Make sure you can explain:

• what APPEASEMENT was• how the Munich Agreement

shows appeasement inaction.

Decision 1: March 1938 - shouldChamberlain object to the ANSCHLUSS?

Chamberlain's first test came in 1938. On 11 March1938, Hitler moved his army into Austria. He then askedthe Austrian people to vote on whether they wantedAnschluss (union with Germany). Most voted forAnschluss, although the figure of 99.75 per cent in favourwas a bit suspicious.

Union between Austria and Germany was forbidden bythe Treaty of Versailles. Chamberlain had to decide whatto do next. He could:• forbid Anschluss, declare war on Hitler and send troops

to remove the Nazis from Austria• let Hitler get away with it.Chambeflain decided that the Austrians should be allowedto join Hitler's Germany. He felt that people in Britaindidn't want to fight Germany over this issue. Even if theydid, he thought that Britain was not strong enough to win.France and Czechoslovakia were concerned about thesituation, but they did nothing to stop Hitler either.

So Hitler had challenged another part of the Treaty ofVersailles and got away with it.

Decision 2: September 1938 - shouldChamberlain go to war over the Sudetenland?After Anschluss, Hitler felt very confident. It seemed as ifother countries were not prepared to risk war to stop himgetting what he wanted.

In April 1938, Hitler called for the Sudetenland tobecome part of Germany. The population was mainlyGerman. Hitler said the Czechs were mistreating theSudeten Germans. He threatened to invade if the areawas not handed over.

The Czech leader Eduard Benes refused. If he had thearmed support of Britain and France, he was ready tofight to defend the Sudetenland against Germany. In the1920s, Britain, France and the USSR had all signedtreaties promising to support Czechoslovakia if it wasthreatened.

Benes knew how important the Sudetenland was. Itcontained vital MINERAL RESOURCES and industries. Bothsides argued throughout the summer. By September, itlooked as if there would be war. Air-raid protection wasprepared in Britain. In the last two weeks of September,the crisis came to a head, as you can see from the storystrip opposite.

Central Europe in the late 1930s.

128

The Munich Crisis

I only want the parts of theSudetenland where more thanhalf the people are German.

15 SeptemberChamberlain met Hitler and got himto cut back his demands.

You must sign! The peace ofEurope depends on it!

19-21 SeptemberBritain and France pushed Czechleader Benes to accept thisCOMPROMISE.

I want the whole of theSudetenland - German parts

and non-German parts!

22-26 SeptemberChamberlain met Hitler again. Hitlernow rejected the compromise.

War was prevented. Hitler wasappeased. Chamberlain got a hero'swelcome back in Britain. 129

Meanwhile, Britainwent on to a WARFOOTING. Chamberlainordered quickerrearmament. Localauthorities starteddigging air-raidshelters.

1 October onwardsThe Munich Agreement gave Hitlereverything he wanted. The Czechs hadto accept the loss of Sudetenland orfight Germany on their own. So they leftthe Sudetenland and Hitler marched in.

However much we may feelsorry for Czechoslovakia, we

cannot involve the whole Britishempire in war simply on her

account. If we have to fight, itmust be on larger issues thanthat. I am a man of peace ...

27 SeptemberChamberlain made a radio broadcastto the British people explaining hisview of the situation.

Here is the piece of paperthat bears Hitler's name as

well as mine, which meanspeace in our time ...

'------,

WHAT

SHOUlDCHAMB~RlAIN

DONOW1

You all have my word thatonce this Sudeten Germanquestion is settled, that is

the end of Germany'sterritorial claims in Europe.

29 SeptemberChamberlain flew to a Four PowerConference (Britain, Germany, Italyand France) in Munich. On 30September, they signed the MunichAgreement. Hitler was given theSudetenland. The Czechs had nosay. Hitler promised not to take overany more land in Europe.

Some of this material is quitetough. But be sure you candescribe:

• one reason whyChamberlain followed thepolicy of appeasement

• one reason peoplecriticised the policy.

SOURCE 2

k$$V wordi aggressive; na'ive

How did people react to the MunichAgreement?Chamberlain's policy of giving in to Hitler to prevent war iscalled appeasement. Chamberlain himself was convinced hewas right. Some people at the time agreed with him ­others did not.

SOURCE 3

The hour ofneed has found the man. Sincehe took office, Mr Chamberlain has neverwavered in his determination to establishpeace in Europe. At a time when the darkclouds ofwar hung most menacingly overthe world, the Prime Minister took a wiseand bold decision. Well may we call himChamberlain the peacemaker. Three cheersfor Chamberlain.

A commentary from a British news film,21 September 1938.

130

A cartoon by David Low for the Evening Standard,4 October 1938.

SOURCE 5

God bless you, Mr Chamberlain,We're all mighty proud ofyou,You look swell, holding your umbrella,All the world, loves a wonderful fella.So carry on Mr Chamberlain,You know we're all with you,And when we shout 'God Bless You Mr

Chamberlain'Our hats go off to you.

A popular song from October 1938.

SOURCE 4

My Dear Prime Minister... I am fully prepared to take my share indefending the Munich Agreement but Icannot concealfrom myself that the last fewdays have disclosed between you and me aconsiderable difference ofview.

I am afraid that I remain profoundlysceptical [untrusting] ofNazi promises andshall do so until I see peaceful wordsaccompanied by pacific [peace-loving] deeds.I can therefore only regard the presentsituation not as 'peace in our time' but as anuneasy truce.

A private letter from Trade Minister, Oliver Stanley, toPrime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, 3 October 1938.

Stanley was a member of Chamberlain's Cabinet.

1 Study Sources 2-5. Which arein favour of Chamberlain'spolicy? Which are against it?Explain your choice.

The end of appeasementThe Munich Agreement prevented war, butonly for six months. In March 1939, Hitlerdid what the critics of appeasementexpected all along. He broke his promiseand invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia. Sixmonths later, he invaded Poland and theSecond World War began - with all the

terrible consequences and human sufferingthat you will investigate in Chapter 7.

People have argued about appeasementever since. Some wonder how Chamberlaincould have been so stupid as to trust Hitlerin 1938. Others believe that Chamberlainhad very good reasons for following apolicy of appeasement in 1938.

FDcurtMkArguments for and against appeasement

These are the main arguments on either side:

Britain did not have allies who Peace was very precious. Hitler's demands were notwere prepared to fight with her After the horrors of the First unreasonable. He was simply

against Germany in 1938. World War, Chamberlain was right putting right unfair parts of theto do anything he could to avoid Treaty of Versailles. If the Sudeten

another war. Germans wanted to join Germany,

A strong Germany was not Britain should not risk war to

such a bad idea because Hitler stop them.Appeasement was NAIvE.

was ready to fight Communism.Hitler had always said he intended

Appeasement gave Germany

Jto conquer Eastern Europe.

Appeasement gave Britain timetime to build more weapons.

"

to rearm. In 1938, Britain's armyChamberlain was weak. He waswas small and its weapons

were old. unwilling to make tough decisions.Appeasement encouraged

Hitler to be AGGRESSIVE because itmade him think Britain would do

Appeasement worried other British people did not want war anything to avoid war.countries in Eastern Europe. in 1938. They supported

If Britain and France were not Chamberlain's policy.

prepared to defend Czechoslovakia, Appeasement made Germanythen would they defend other stronger. In taking over land,

countries? Appeasement did not prevent Germany got the factories andwar. It just put it off. raw materials it needed.

The arguments above are mixed up.

1 Your teacher can give you a set of cards with 3 Now reach your own conclusions. Do you thinkthese arguments on. Sort the cards into the policy of appeasement was a wise policy or aarguments for and against appeasement. Which is cowardly cop-out?the bigger pile? a) Write a paragraph to explain your choice.

2 Discuss the following questions with a partner: b) Write a second paragraph to explain why youa) Is 'the bigger pile' the same thing as 'the better reject the other option.

argument'? Make sure you include at least two argumentsb) Which are the strongest arguments? and two pieces of evidence in each paragraph.c) Are any of the arguments connected to any of

the others? For example, can you produce aset of arguments under the heading 'Britainwas not ready'? 131

11 6.6 Shock horror! The Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939

A British cartoon from 1939.The Danzig star is the Pole Star,which travellers use to find their

directions; the bear is the symbolof Russia.

Here is a reminder of the story so far. By April 1939, Hitlerhad:

b¥#' wordi border post; neutral

SOURCE 2

The public parts of the pact:• Germany and the USSR agreed not to attack each other.• Each country would remain NEUlRAL if the other was

attacked by another state.

The secret parts of the pact:• Germany and Russia agreed to divide Poland between

them.• They also set out which states would be part ofGermany

or in the power of the USSR.• Under further agreements} the USSR supplied Germany

with grain} oil and metal ores in return for industrial andmilitary technology.

Terms of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, August 1939.

• introduced rearmament to Germany (1933 onwards)• moved his troops back into the Rhine1and (1936)• taken over Austria (1938)• taken over the Sudetenland (1938)• taken over the rest of Czechoslovakia (1939).

But he did not want to stop there. Hitler now wanted toreclaim the (mainly German) city of Danzig. He also wantedto join German East Prussia to the rest of Germany. Theproblem was Poland. If Hitler attacked Poland, he wouldcome face to face with the USSR. He was not ready for thatconflict ... yet (see Source 1).

To Britain and her allies, this seemed like good news.If Hitler was not ready to fight the Soviet Union, then hewould not dare invade Poland, so there would be no needfor war. But on 23 August 1939 that illusion was shattered.

Stalin (the leader of the Soviet Union) and Ribbentrop,Hitler's Foreign Minister, announced the Nazi-Soviet Non­Aggression Pact to a stunned world. (You can see the terms

4 in Source 2.) The two sworn enemies had done a deal. Itwas an agreement that both sides knew would be broken atsome point. It was dishonest.

You should try to get clearat least:

• one reason why Hitlerneeded to make a dealwith Stalin

• one reason why Stalinagreed to a deal withHitler.

1 Look at Source 1. Thecartoonist was trying to saythat Hitler wanted Danzig, butwas not sure whether he couldtake it. Explain how thecartoonist shows this as thoughyou were writing to a friendwho knows nothing about theevents of the 1930s.

SOURCE 1

132

Helpful to Stalin

For Stalin, the pact wasnot perfect but it was thebest option available.Stalin was sure that Hitlerwould attack the USSRone day. In 1939, he hadtried to get Britain andFrance to make an alliancewith him against Hitler,but they had refused. Afterthe 'appeasement of 1938,Stalin did not trust Britainand France to stand up toHitler. He hoped the pactwould buy him time tobuild up his armed forcesfor when Hitler wouldeventually invade theUSSR.

Perfectfor Hitler

For Hitler, the pact wasperfect. It gave him thebreathing space he neededto attack Poland. FromPoland he could also getresources, like oil, whichGermany was short of.

Look closely at Source 3 and thebackground information on thepact. If there were thoughtbubbles in this photograph, whatmight each man be thinking?

Disasterforeveryone else

For the rest of theworld, especially for thePoles, it was a disaster.On 1 September, Hitlerstaged a fake attack byPolish troops on a GermanBORDER POST. He used thisas an excuse to invadePoland. By the middle ofSeptember, Poland wasutterly defeated as theUSSR invaded from theEast. Poland ceased toexist.

On 2 September, Britainand France declared waron Germany. The SecondWorld War had begun.

A photograph showing German Foreign Minister,Ribbentrop, shaking hands with Stalin over the

Non-Aggression Pact in 1939,

SOURCE 3 SOURCE 4

Why did Britain and France help Hitler toachieve his aims? By rejecting the idea ofanalliance proposed by the USSR, they helpedHitler. They appeased him by giving himCzech lands. They wanted to direct Germanaggression towards the USSR.

In 1939 the USSR stood alone against theGerman threat. The USSR had to make atreaty ofnon-aggression with Germany.Some British historians tried to prove thatthis treaty helped to start the Second WorldWar. The truth is it gave the USSR time tostrengthen its defences.

Kukushkin (a group of Soviet cartoonists) writing in1981 about the Nazi-Soviet Pact.

2 Source 4 is a Soviet view of theNazi-Soviet Pact. Which partsof it do you:a) agree withb) disagree with? 133

11 6.7 Hitler's war?defence; prosecution; war-mongering

Hitler killed himself in the ruins of Berlin in 1945. Let'simagine for a moment that he didn't. Instead, imagine hewas put on trial for starting the war. We are near the end ofthe trial. The lawyers are summing up their cases for andagainst Hitler.

Men and women of the jury, thecharge against Adolf Hitler is veryserious, but it is also very simple.

This was Hitler's war. He planned it; .--==~he started it; he caused it. He

should bear full and soleresponsibility for it.

Let me summarise my evidence:

• Hitler's own words condemn him.

• Hitler's attitude to the Treatyof Versailles condemns him.

• His dishonest treaties with othercountries condemn him.

• His WAR-MONGERING invasionscondemn him.

When you go into the exam,

you should be conAdent that

you can explain:

• at least two ways in whichHitler was responsible for

the war

• at least two other factorsthat also played a part incausing the war.

A-L ' 'L,. A,......._-,.You are the PROSECUTION lawyer. How can you support • In speeches, he told the world of his plans for athe points above with evidence? Fill out your own German empire (page 126).copy of this table. The facts opposite will help you. • In Mein Kampf, he wrote about his plans toLook up the page references if you want to find out destroy the USSR (page 126).more. You can add extra points of your own or more • He told the German people that a war would be arows to your table if you want. good thing that would strengthen the German

Your points Supporting evidencenation (page 126).

• He invaded Poland in 1939 although he knew thisagainst Hitler would mean the start of a war (page 133).Hitler's words • He repeatedly broke the Treaty of Versailles. He

Attitude to the Treatydid not care if this started a war (page 127).

• He made a dishonest treaty with the USSR just toof Versailles allow him to invade Poland (page,s 132-33).His dishonest treaties • He made promises then broke them, just to get

His invasionshis own way (page 131).

• He rearmed Germany to prepare it for war(page 127).

Men and women of the jury, it is notthat simple. Hitler must bear some

blame, we know that, but not the soleblame. Standing there in the dock

alongside him should be all the otherswhose mistakes, foolishness,

misjudgements, weaknesses and lack ofcare for Germany in its hour of need,

played into Hitler's hands.They helped to create Hitler and theyshould bear their share of the blame.

Let me summarise my evidence in Hitler's defence:

• The bankers of the USA helped to cause the war by ...• The weak leaders of the League of Nations helped to cause the

war by ...• The writers of the Treaty of Versailles helped to cause the

war by ...• The British Prime Minister Chamberlain helped to cause the

war by ...• Stalin helped to cause the war by ...

FoautlUk

You are the DEFENCE lawyer. How can you supportyour .five points with evidence? Fill out your own copyof this table. In the first column, put the five pointsfrom above. In the second column, write theevidence. The facts below the table will help you.Look up the page references if you want to find outmore. You can add extra points of your own if youwant.

Your points Supporting evidencedefending Hitler

The bankers of theUSA helped to causethe war

• American bankers wanted their loans back, whichplunged Germany into Depression and broughtHitler to power (page 122).

• The unfair Treaty of Versailles created resentmentin Germany, which drove Germany to try to undothese injustices (page 126).

• When a strong reaction to Hitler was required,Britain and France lacked the will to resist him ­appeasement helped to cause the war (pages128-29).

• The League of Nations failed to stand up todictators (pages 124-25).

• Stalin signed the Non-Aggression Pact and sopaved the way for Hitler to start the war (pages132-33).

Was the Second World War Hitler's war?

In your examination, you are not expected to findthe definite answer to this question. Historians atuniversities are still arguing about it! However, theexaminer will expect you to understand that thereare two viewpoints and that the evidence is unclear.

Work in pairs. Look back over the evidence youcame across in the trial. Write two paragraphs:• Paragraph 1 must give at least two pieces of

evidence that make the case against Hitler. Itcould start like this:Some evidence definitely suggests Hitler wasresponsible for the Second World War.

• Paragraph 2 must give at least two pieces ofevidence that make the case that other factorswere responsible. It could start like this:Some evidence definitely suggests other factors,apart from Hitler, were responsible for theSecond World War.

Here are some connecting phrases that will help youto build your paragraphs using the evidence youhave selected:On balance, ... probably shows that . ..· .. definitely proves that .· .. strongly suggests that .· .. might indicate that .· .. seems to show that .· .. could be used as evidence against Hitlerbecause . ..· .. could be used as evidence that other factorsplayed a role because . ..

It is now time to prepare your class quiz, based onthe yellow notes at the beginning of each section.Your teacher can give you a sheet to help you.

135

Britain in the SecondWorld War

Part A Britain at war 1939-45

11 7. 1 Why couldn't Britain stop Hitler 1939-40?

\UNISI~,

September 1940: Italy invaded Egypt.

October 1939-March 1940:Phoney War-no land fightingin Western Europe. Then on11 April 1940 the Germansinvaded Denmark and Norway.

Slitzkreig; Expeditionary; mine; phoney; tactics

SOURCE 1

26 May-3 June 1940:Allied troops rescuedfrom Dunkirk.

AtlanticOcean

SPAIN

11 May-22 June 1940:Hitler conquered theNetherlands, Belgium,Luxembourg and France in "a six-week 'lightning war'or BLITZKRIEG.

MOROCCO .,

o 400 km 'I I

Scale .---,,--,-._/

September-December 1939:222 Allied ships were sunk injust four months - more thantwo ships a day. These weremainly sunk by GermanU-boats and MINES. In 1940losses were 1059 ships.

German bordersin 1939

-+ Soviet forces

-+ German forces

-+ British forces

Land occupiedby Germany1939-40CountriesD co-operatingwith Germany

Key

_ Land gained by- USSR 1939-40

D Neutralcountries

You need to be able toexplain:

• at least two Germanstrengths

136 -- -------------- The war in Europe 1939-40.

'The Phoney War'Hitler conquered Poland by the end of September 1939.After that, there was a period known as the 'PHONEY War' ­war had been declared but there was very little fighting.

The British sent their British EXPEDITIONARY Force (BEF) toFrance to support French forces in case of German attack.

BlitzkriegIn April 1940, the Phoney War ended. Hitler invadedDenmark and then Norway.

In May 1940, he invaded the Netherlands, Belgium,Luxembourg and then France. The Germans used TACTICSknown as 'Blitzkrieg, which means 'lightning war' (seeSource 2).

On 10 June, Italy joined the war on Hitler's side. Francewas now threatened from the north and the south. On 22June, France surrendered. Hitler toured Paris in an open­topped car. It had taken just six weeks to achieve what theGerman army had failed to do in four years of the GreatWar. You can imagine how Hitler must have felt.

SOURCE 2

FocartaskWhy couldn't Britain stopHitler?

Write a report from the BEF inFrance to the Prime Minister,Winston Churchill, in London. Listat least three reasons why theGermans have been sosuccessful. Source 2 willhelp you.

Blitzkrieg tactics. 137

11 7.2 How important were Dunkirk and the Battleof Britain?

Dunkirk: 'a miracle of deliverance'?As the Germans advanced through France, the British andFrench retreated. By 24 May, the BEF and about 10,000French troops had been driven back to Dunkirk on thecoast. At this point, Hitler hesitated. This provided somevital time.

Between 26 May and 4 June, the entire BEF (plus 10,000French troops) were taken back to Britain by a fleet of largeand small boats. At the time, this EVACUATION was calledOperation Dynamo, but it is now simply referred to as'Dunkirk'.

b4#' WOrM evacuation; intact

• two reasons for seeingDunkirk as a success

• two reasons for seeing itas a failure.

Make sure you can make abalanced case about Dunkirk.Aim to identify:

138

SOURCE 1

Dunkirk was a militarydisaster - and took theBritish public by surprise ...But almost at once, victorywas being pluckedfromdefeat and the newspapersbegan to manufacture theDunkirk myth ... Thegovernment encouraged it toflourish - and allowednothing to be publishedwhich might damagemorale. Dunkirk was amilitary defeat but apropaganda victory.

A BBC media correspondentcommenting in 2000 on how thegovernment and media handled

Dunkirk.

A victory or a defeat?

By evacuating their troops, the British were admittingdefeat. They were retreating in the face of superior forces.However, Dunkirk was presented to the public as adramatic story of success against the odds. The headline ofthe Daily Mirror - one of Britain's best-selling newspapers ­said simply: 'Bloody Marvellous!' The newspapers focusedon the hundreds of private ship owners who riskedeverything to sail to Dunkirk to rescue small groups ofsoldiers. Many people in Britain thought that Dunkirkdemonstrated the true British character that would defeatNazism in the end.

Britain's new Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, wasmore realistic. He called the events in France 'a colossalmilitary disaster'.

However, Churchill could also see the propaganda valueof the evacuation. He came out of the crisis as a truly greatleader who could speak honestly and realistically about thewar, but at the same time inspire confidence in the Britishpeople. He vowed that they would 'fight on the beaches, inthe fields, in the streets and in the hills' to defend Britain.

SOURCE 2

Dunkirk has been a miracle ofdeliverance [escape). But wemust be very careful not to assign to this deliverance theattributes [characteristics} ofa victory. Wars are not won byevacuations.

Winston Churchill, 4 June 1940.

SOURCE 3

A painting of the Dunkirk evacuation by the officialBritish war artist, Charles Cundall.

1 In what ways do Sources 3 and4 give a different impression ofthe events at Dunkirk?

2 Using Source 1, explainwhether you think Source 4was ever published in Britain.

The beach at Dunkirk, 1940.

FoCU&task

Look at this list of facts about Dunkirk.

1 Sort the facts into two FACTS ABOUT DUNKIRKcategories - facts that suggestDunkirk was a success and • 34,000 troops were left behind in France. They spent the entire warfacts that suggest it was a as prisoners.failure. • Hundreds of ordinary British people helped out by sailing small boats

2 Choose your top two across the Channel to bring back a few soldiers at a time. Theysuccesses (the strongest carried about 80,000 men between them.evidence that it was a success) • Most of the army's heavy equipment, such as tanks, was left behind.and top two failures (the • Almost 340,000 soldiers, 71 heavy guns and 595 vehicles werestrongest evidence that it was rescued.a failure). Use these to help you • RAF fighter planes over Dunkirk shot down three German planes foranswer question 3. every plane they lost.

3 Do you agree with Source 1 • Dunkirk inspired British civilians to make sacrifices and do their bitthat Dunkirk was just a for the war effort.propaganda victory? Explain • The British abandoned the French army and France was soonyour answer in paragraphs. defeated.You need to consider: • The efficiency of the operation showed how powerful and effective• the evidence that Dunkirk the Royal Navy was.

was a military success • The media co-operated fully and effectively with the government.• the evidence that Dunkirk They kept the start of the operation secret, but when the small boats

was a military disaster were needed they spread the word quickly.

• the effects of Dunkirk on • Britain's navy and air force remained INTACT.

Britain's morale. • Churchill came through as a powerful war leader who could unite thecountry behind him.

139

At the end of this section,check that you can state:

• two reasons why theBattle of Britain was animportant event.

The Battle of Britain: 'a turning point in thewar'?

bailout; decisive; intercept; morale; radar;staging post; strategic

Hitler danced for joy when France surrendered in June1940! But he still had not conquered Britain. To do this hewould have to:

• get past the Royal Navy• defeat the Royal Air Force.

The Germans gathered a huge force of troops and invasionbarges in French ports. First of all though, Hitler ordered hisair force (the Luftwaffe) to destroy the RAF. What followedhas become known as the Battle of Britain. From July toSeptember 1940, Luftwaffe bombers attacked RAF air fieldsand aircraft factories. British planes were sent to INTERCEPT

them and shoot them down.

British and German aircraft destroyed, 1 July-31 October 1940.

Casualties were high - thousands of pilots and planes werelost on both sides (see Source 6). But throughout the battle,British pilots shot down more planes than they lost. Also,British factories built planes faster than they were losingthem and they had better RADAR technology. Most of all,they had the home advantage. If a British pilot was shotdown and he BAILED OUT he could fight again the next day.Any German who was shot down became a prisoner of war.

Hitler's tactics were not working. In September, hescrapped his plan to invade Britain and concentrated onbombing British cities instead (see pages 150-51).

117259332323213147161

1660

1-15 August16-31 August1-15 September16-30 September1-15 October16-31 OctoberTotals

SOURCE 6

1 Read Source 5 carefully.Rewrite it as though you wereexplaining it to one of yourfriends. Make sure you explaineach of the five phrases thatare underlined.

SOURCE 5

The gratitude ofevery homein our island, in our empireand indeed throughout thefree world, goes out to theBritish airmen who,undaunted [not put om byodds, unwearied in theirconstant challenge andmortal danger, are turningthe tide ofwar by their.prowess [skill and bravery}and by their devotion!commitmentJ. Never in thefield ofhuman conflict wasso much owed by so many toso few.

From a speech by WinstonChurchill on BBC radio,

19 August 1940.

140

It was not a victory.All it did was stop an

invasion. It did notdefeat Hitler.

The RAF was not even

Britain's main defence.

Britain's navy was much moreimportant. If the RAF had lost,the navy could still have held

off Hitler's invasion.

On the other hand, there are people whosay the battle is over-rated.

It protected the USA.If Hitler had been able toinvade Britain, then hewould have had eveneasier access to theNorth Atlantic and

eventually to the USA.

It was Hitler's firstreal set-back.

Psychologically, this wasvery important. It

highlighted Germanweaknesses. This was goodfor British MORALE and bad

for German morale.

Importance ofthe Battle ofBritain

Compared with other fighting in the SecondWorld War, this battle was small. It involvedonly a few thousand pilots on either side.But some people argue that it was a DECISIVE

event in the war.

Britain survived to launch acounter-attack.

STRATEGICALLY, this was veryimportant. For the next -Ave years,

aircraft from Britain launchedsuccessful bombing campaignsagainst German targets (see

pages 144-45). Britain andNorthern Ireland were the STAGINGPOSTS for the re-taking of Western

Europe by Allied forces in the D-Daylandings of 1944 (see page 147).

This would have been impossible ifBritain had been invaded.

Other countriescould have fought on

without Britain.Britain was not the

only or the mostimportant country

-Aghting Hitler. Even ifBritain had been

invaded, there wouldstill have been theBritish empire, and

eventually the USA, to-Aght back.

How important was the Battle of Britain?

A local museum is setting up an exhibition about theSecond World War. Unfortunately, the museum isshort of space. It needs to cut:• either the feature on the Dunkirk evacuation• or the feature on the Battle of Britain.

Write a letter to the museum explaining what itshould do. Explain one of the following:• why Dunkirk should go• why the Battle of Britain should go• why they are both vital and neither must go. (If you

choose this option, you must suggest how muchof the total space should go to each event).

141

depth charges; imports; liberate; lifeline;merchant seamen; secret code

After the war, Churchill said that the Battle of the Atlanticwas the only thing that ever really frightened him. Hisadvisers said that the first thing he wanted to know eachmorning was news of the war at sea. He would leap out ofbed if the news was good. If it was bad, he would sit andbrood. To understand why this was so important to him,let's look at the war at sea from his point of view.

Make it your goal to explain:

• two reasons why the Allieswon the Battle of theAtlantic

• two reasons why theBattle of the Atlanticwas important.

11 7.3 Why did the Battle of the Atlanticfrighten Churchill?

IG

When war broke out in 1939, even theGermans thought Britain's trade was safe.This is a real conversation that took placebetween Hitler and a navy commander inNovember 1939.

AtlanticOcean

When the war started,everyone knew that theAtlantic was vital. It was theLIFELINE that brought food,raw materials, equipmentand troops to Britain fromthe USA and Canada.

Come up witha plan to destroy

the Britisheconomy.

But Germanyhas onlyeighteen

submarines inthe Atlantic!

However by mid-1940, Churchill wasworried. Working from their bases inNorway and France, German bombersand U-boats had sunk 25 per cent ofBritain's shipping.

142

5

Chu~chill was happier in December 1941.The USA entered the war against Germany.American shipyards built hundreds of newships. The US navy co-operated with theRoyal Navy to protect Atlantic ships. Thingswould get b~tter...

6

They did not. But slowly radar and DEPTH CHARGES were improved.Special long-range aircraft were developed to hunt U-boats. The SECRETCODES of U-boats were worked out. By the end of 1943, more U-boatswere sunk than Allied ships. From 1943, no Royal Navy battleships oraircraft carriers were sunk at all.

The importance of the Battle ofthe AtlanticWhen we look back on the Battle of theAtlantic, we can see how important it was.

It was big. It dwarfs the Battle of Britain.It was fought over a vast area, for almost allof the war. It involved millions of peopleand thousands of ships. Conditions at seawere very bad. Losses were huge. Around56,000 Allied MERCHANT SEAMEN had theirships sunk and around 25,000 of the sailorsdrowned. There were 39,000 Germans inU-boat crews and 28,000 of them died.

It was significant.• As a result of winning the Battle of the

Atlantic:- Allied ships blockaded Germany's ally,

Italy. They cut off 64 per cent of itssupplies.

- From mid-1943, millions of troops andtons of equipment were transportedacross the Atlantic. These made itpossible for the Allies to LIBERATE

France from Nazi control on D-Day(see page 147).

• If Britain had lost, it would have run outof food and industrial and militaryresources. It would have been defeated.

The situation got worse in 1941. Britain's IMPORTS were at only 40 per cent oftheir normal peacetime levels. And war meant Britain needed more imports,not less! Churchill met with US President Roosevelt in May 1941. Rooseveltagreed that the Atlantic was vital.

7

Look back at your answers to theFocus task on page 141. Wouldyou give more space or lessspace in your exhibition to theBattle of the Atlantic than toDunkirk or the Battle of Britain?

Write short 'thought bubbles' forChurchill (of no more than 30words) for at least three of theframes in the story strip. If youfind it hard to choose, go forframes 4, 6 and 7. Before youstart, think about:• why the war at sea was so

frightening to Churchill• why he was so pleased at any

successes• why he was so worried by any

setbacks.

143

11 7.4 Britain and the bomber waragainst Germany

Aim to remember:

• two ways in which bombinghelped the Allies win thewar

• two reasons why peoplehave criticised thebombing.

SOURCE 1

controversial; firestorm; high explosive;incendiary; morally justified

From 1942 onwards, British and American bomber planesflew over Germany. Night after night they bombedindustrial and military targets. They also carried out terrorraids against German towns and cities. In 1943 the centre ofHamburg was destroyed when RAF bombers dropped HIGH

EXPLOSIVE and INCENDIARY bombs. The resulting FIRESTORM

killed 40,000 people, made one million homeless anddestroyed almost 75 per cent of the city.

SOURCE 2

Targets of the Allied bombing campaign.

44

Oil works in Hamburg on fire after attacks by bombersin 1944.

SOURCE 3

Victims of an air raid on Berlin, December 1943, laid out in a sports hall.

The bombing - right or wrong?The man behind Britain's bombing campaign was Arthur'Bomber' Harris. He and Churchill believed that large-scalebombing of Germany was one of Britain's importantcontributions to the war. However, Harris is a CONTROVERSIALfigure. In the 1990s, when a statue of Arthur Harris was putup in London, it led to serious protests.

Why is bombing such a controversial subject? There aretwo big questions:

• Was it effective?• Was it MORALLY JUSTIFIED?

:3 Few people argued during the war that bombingwas morally wrong.

9 Leading historian Professor Richard Overy said:'Bombing denied German forces apprOXimately halftheir battlefront weapons and equipment in 1944.It is difficult not to regard this margin as decisive.'

8 The bombing campaign tied up Germany's air powerin defending the country. This was a big help to theUSSR's forces in defeating Germany's armies onthe ground.

7 Many Allied military leaders believed that it wouldhave been better to use the bombers on thebattlefields rather than on Germany itself.

2 Write two short paragraphs to explain your opinionon: .a) Was the bombing effective?b) Was the bombing morally justified?

Justified

Not justified

2 When most of the bombing took place in1943-44, Germany's industrial productionrose dramatically.

Not effective

Effective

1 Bombers often failed to hit the right target. Forexample, in 1942 American and British bombersattacked the French ports of Brest and Lorient.They were being used by the Germans assubmarine bases. The bombers flattened thetowns and killed many French civilians. Thesubmarine bases were almost untouched.

1 Work in pairs or small groups. The twelvestatements below give you information about thebombing. Using your own copies of thesestatements, sort them into these categories:

4 Germany and the Allies both bombed enemy townsand cities.

10 Many German workers stopped going to workbecause they were afraid of air attacks.

5 In January 1945, Germany's Armaments Minister,Albert Speer, reported that bombing severely heldback his plans to increase production.

6 After the war, 91 per cent of Germans said thehardest aspect of life in the war was the bombing.

11 The main victims of bombing were innocentcivilians.

12 Throughout 1943-44, the Allies lost ten to fifteenper cent of their planes and crews in the bombingraids. Losses were so high that the campaign wasalmost stopped in 1943.

14

11 7.5 The end of the war in Europe

As you work through thesepages, try to remember:

• two ways in which Britaincontributed to D-Day

• one example of thecontributions of othercountries.

bA¥Y wordi Commonwealth; Red Army; rout

The Second World War was huge. It was fought in dozensof countries. You have been focusing on Europe. While theAllies were bombing Germany:

• American, British and COMMONWEALTH troops drove theGermans out of North Africa in 1942

• the Allies invaded Italy and drove it out of the war bySeptember 1943

• important events were taking place in the USSR on whatis known as the Eastern Front.

The Eastern FrontOn the Eastern Front, the USSR andGermany were locked in one of the mostbloody battles ever known in humanhistory. Both sides suffered badly but, inthe words of Churchill, the Soviet Unioneventually 'tore the heart out of theGerman army'. Most historians agree thatthis was the most important battlegroundof the Second World War.

This is how it happenedIn 1941, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union.German forces were very successful - theydestroyed almost all of the RED ARMY'stanks and planes. They killed two millionSoviet soldiers. However, severe winterweather then slowed their progress.

Over the winter, the Red Armyreorganised. It learned from its defeats.Soldiers were ordered not to give up evena tiny piece of Soviet soil. Any soldier whoretreated at all was executed.

In one of the most extraordinary turn­arounds in the history of war, the RedArmy stopped the German advance andthen began to drive back the Germanarmy bit by bit.

From 1941 to 1944, 85 per cent of theGerman army was occupied on the EasternFront. By 1945, the Germans were beingROUTED and Russian troops were advancingquickly into Germany.

Key

• German• Allied

300

....~ 100E::J

Z

50

250

o

tl.Oc::

'';::::;~

.g,o 200V)c::

.QV)

:~ 150"0--o

SOURCE 1

146

Italian Front Western Front Eastern Front

The number of divisions fighting on different fronts inEurope in the Second World War.

SOURCE 2

The war in Western Europe 1943-45.

Area gained by Alliesby May 1945Areas held by Germansat surrender

Key

D Area gained by Allies Dby December 1943

•Area gained by Allies Dby August 1944Area gained by Alliesby December 1944

U 0- North Sea oI;jLJ:: "Atlantic R~~~ 6 June 1944: D-Day. AlliedOcean troops landed in France. They

began a slow advance acrossFrance towards Germany.

July 1943: Allied troops landedin Italy.25 July 1943: Italy left the war.Fighting continued in Italy untilMay 1945.2 May 1945: German armiesin Italy surrendered.

8 May 1945:The end of thewar in Europe.

29 April. Germany finally surrendered on8 May 1945. That day is known asYE (Victory in Europe) Day.

Throughout the war, Stalin desperatelywanted Britain and the USA to set up 'asecond front' - to invade France andattack Germany from the west.

This was only possible once the Battleof the Atlantic was won. By the summer of1944, the time had come for the Allies totry to liberate the countries of WesternEurope from Nazi control.

D-Day

On 6 June 1944 the Allied commander, USGeneral Dwight Eisenhower, ordered anattack on the beaches of Normandy. TheAllies were up against strong Germandefences. Despite this, Operation Overlord(the attack) was a great success. By 11June, the Allies had landed over 300,000American, British and Commonwealthtroops. They were supplied by sea andwere protected by the navy and the Allies'much stronger air power.

VEDay

For the next eleven months, the Alliesgradually pushed the Germans back(see Source 2). Hitler killed himself on

The Western Front

FOCl«tMkThe Second World War in Europe

The museum you advised in the Focus task on page 141 has come toyou for more help. Its exhibition is intended to show key aspects of theSecond World War in Europe. You must advise the museum on how touse its space. It has one room 30 metres by 20 metres. Movablepartitions can be used to create mini-galleries or rooms. It wants youto suggest:• how many sections there should be in the exhibition• what the theme of each section should be• how big each section should be (they do not all have to be the

same size)• a title for each section (a question and a sentence summing up what

is in the section)• which sources and artefacts should be included in each section.You could plan the layout of the exhibition using graph paper or drawingor design software. You could also use presentation software to drawup audio-visual displays.

147

Part B The Home Front 1939-45

11 7.6 The Edwards family in the SecondWorld War

blackout; evacuee; reserved occupation

We have talked to one family about their life during thewar. They are the Edwards family from Liverpool. Tom andAnnie Edwards had seven daughters: Theresa, Pauline,Margie, Geraldine, Eileen, Josephine and Carmel. They werea fairly typical family of the time, although they had morechildren than most. Annie ran the house. Tom was aqualified nurse. He had served on the Western Front in theGreat War. The person we talked to most was Josephine,the second youngest daughter. She was always called Jo.

You need to be able to explainat least four examples of howthe war changed people'slives.

Jo was only eight when the war started. Hermain memory of the war is the air raids.Liverpool was hit hard by the Luftwaffe,especially in 1941. Jo remembers that thecouncil built a brick air-raid shelter on thelocal playing field. Also it always seemed to bedark everywhere. The BLACKOUT curtainswere shut tight. You could be fined if lightscould be seen from your house.

Even today, Jo gets very upset when sheremembers the air raids. During one raid, anincendiary (fire bomb) hit her house. It fellthrough the roof into her parents' bedroom.Tom and a neighbour managed to put out thefire, but the bed and bedding were ruined. Anofficial came to look at the damage. Within afew days Annie received a slip of paper. Shetook it to the post office and got money toreplace the damaged bed and bedding. Prettygood in the middle of a war, don't you think?

Jo was just a bit too old to be an EVACUEE,

so she doesn't know much about that.However, she heard lots of tales from herfriends and sister. Overall, she was glad shedid not get evacuated. However, she wasjealous of the evacuees in one way. They got

beautiful new rucksacks in which to carrytheir belongings. Jo thought the bags werelovely. They were almost worth gettingevacuated for!

Several of Jo's sisters worked during thewar. Before the war, it was unusual for manywomen to work. But during the war, you gotsome pretty funny looks if you did not work.

• Pauline worked in the Ministry of Food inthe centre of Liverpool.

• Theresa worked in a factory on the edgeof the city. Conditions there were verybad. Quite a lot of the women caughttuberculosis.

• Eileen was one of the first women inBritain to work for the fire service. Shewas conscripted into the Auxiliary FireService in 1941.

Tom was not conscripted into the army.As a qualified nurse, he was in a RESERVED

OCCUPATION. Like most people, he workedvery long hours. He would often work atwelve-hour shift, then do his turn as firewarden on the roof of the hospital. Thismeant watching for incendiary bombs.

148

FDCI«tMkHow did the war change people's lives?

1 Read through the story of the Edwards family. Make some notes onthe following aspects of life during the war:• Conscription• Air raids and air-raid precautions• Food shortages and rationing• War work• Propaganda and censorship• Evacuation.You could work in pairs or small groups and divide this work betweenyou.

2 With a partner, put the six aspects in order of importance from theEdwards' point of view. The first on your list will be the thing thataffected the Edwards family the most. The last on your list will bewhat affected them the least.

If one fell, he had to put outthe fire with sand.

Jo doesn't remember muchabout school. She says sheremembers being hungrymore! In the early years beforethe Americans arrived, therewas little to eat - early I941was the worst period. Milkwas often in short supply. Youhad to scrape by - one egg perperson every two weeks, forexample! The only thing thatnever seemed to run out was jam.

One of Jo's friends, Frank, remembers thebread and jam as well. Frank's mother haddied before the war so he was looked afterby his brothers and sister. They often atebread and jam because their dad was a rottencook! Frank and his dad had an allotment.They also used all of their garden to growvegetables and keep chickens. They used toswap the vegetables they grew for things theyneeded from their neighbours. One man inthe street kept pigs. The children collectedscraps like potato peelings and gave them tohim for the pigs.

We asked Jo about propaganda. At thetime, most people seemed to think that theposters, newspapers and radio programmeswere just giving information or helpful advice.Propaganda was the sort of thing the Nazisdid! Frank remembers the censorship, in away. His house was near to an anti-aircraftgun. He got a long lecture from his father andthe ARP wardens (air-raid protection; seepage 158) not to go blabbing about the gun.That was hard, as it was quite exciting havingone next door!

Timeline: the Second World War on the Home Front

Were the Edwards family typical?

Women's Land Army set up

Government passes laws giving itself emergency powersin case war starts

Blackout introduced; evacuation begins; petrol rationingintroduced; all men aged 27-41 conscripted into thearmed forces

The government launches the 'Dig for Victory' campaign

The government announces a 100 per cent increase inroad deaths since September due to the blackout

Military conscription introduced in Britain

September

October

December

1939June

August

1938March

~wordi Blitz; prefabricated

• one way in which theEdwards were a typicalwar-time family

• one way in which theirexperience was differentfrom the national picture.

On pages 148-49, youstudied one family'sexperience of war. From pages150-51 -And:

1 Using the information in thetimeline, see if you can guesswhen each of these postersmight have been produced.

1940January

February

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

The government introduces food rationing; people areencouraged to keep chickens and rabbits in theirgardens for food

A 20m.p.h. speed limit is introduced in towns

Lord Woolton becomes Minister of Food

The Home Guard is formed; road signs are taken downso as to confuse the Germans if they invade

The government distributes leaflets telling people what todo if the Germans invade

The tea ration falls to two ounces per week; 50 per centof men aged 20-25 are now in the armed forces

The government bans cakes with icing due to the sugarshortage; London is bombed

The London BLITZ begins

The government estimates that 25,000 Londoners arehomeless as a result of bombing

Coventry is flattened in the Blitz

Manchester is bombed

150

CAQU-£SS TALKCOSTS L.J"fS

1941January-March

March

April

May

June

July

November

December

1942January

February

March

July

August

October

December

1943January

July

1944January

June

September

October­November

1945January

March

April

May

The worst period of food shortages of the war

Labour Minister, Ernest Bevin, introduces the EssentialWork Order - everyone must work

Plymouth is blitzed

The end of the London Blitz after the heaviestair raid of all

Clothing is rationed

The coal ration is reduced

The government introduces controls on milk

Conscription is introduced for men aged 18-26

Fuel shortages; the first US troops arrive

Soap is rationed

Petrol is rationed to essential users only; food importsare now half of peacetime levels; the governmentintroduces a new wheatmeal loaf

Sweets are rationed

The government issues PREFABRICATED furniture

The sweet ration goes up; road signs are put back up

The housing shortage due to bombing means thatabout 2.5 million people are homeless

The government announces that over one millionover-65s are in work

The battle against the U-boats turns in favour of the Allies(see pages 142-43)

More air raids on London; the government announcesplans for a National Health Service

VI flying bombs hit towns in England; over one millionpeople are evacuated from south-east England; one-thirdof the working population are now in the armed forces

The first V2 rockets hit London; blackout restrictions areeased to 'dim out'

More V2 rockets hit London

Britain's armed forces reach 4.68 million, including437,000 women

The last V2 rocket attack

Blackout ends

End of war in Europe

British war-time posters.

L' 'LA.:LL 1IrT ,

1 Look back at your notes on theEdwards family.a) List features on the timeline

that were also mentioned inthe story on pages148-49.

b) List features on the timelinethat were not mentioned inthe story.

2 Do you think the Edwardsfamily can tell you all you needto know about life on the HomeFront? Write two paragraphs toexplain your answer.

151

11 7.7 How did government action affect people?

52

Try to remember:

• one way in which thegovernment organisedworkers

• at least two ways in whichthe war affected women.

1 Why would electronics anddemolition workers be useful onthe Home Front?

FDcurtMkDid the government doenough?

Work in pairs or small groups.Today we often hear radio or

TV news BULLETINS that accuse thegovernment of not doing enoughabout some important issue. Nowimagine that a governmentminister during the war has beenaccused of not doing enough tomake sure people are protectedand that Britain wins the war.How do you think the ministerwould respond?

Over the next eight pages, youare going to prepare briefingnotes for the minister to help himreassure the people of Britainthat they are being protected.

Each note should be a seriesof bullet points on a card. Eachcard should be small enough tofit into the palm of your (or theminister's) hand. You can use thecards later for revision.

assembly line; bulletin; prejudice

As you have seen in the timeline on pages 150-51, thegovernment gave itself special powers in August 1939. Itextended those powers during the war. Step by step, thegovernment controlled people's lives as no government hadever done before.

ConscriptionMen and women were conscripted for military service andfor essential war work at home. Most men aged 18-41 wentinto the army. However, there were some reservedoccupations. Skilled workers in essential industries andsome medical workers were exempt. Workers withspecialist skills - anything from electronics to demolition ­might also be exempt.

The biggest impact of conscription was on women. Bythe summer of 1941, over half of the working populationwas employed by the government. It was still not enough,so women were conscripted. This meant that they had toregister for war work at a labour exchange. Unless theywere ill, or had small children, they were then sent to workin industry or the auxiliary forces.

There were 7.5 million women working in 1939 out of atotal population of 40 million. Of these, 260,000 wereworking in the munitions industry in 1944. There werereports of some women who worked 80 to 90 hours perweek on aeroplane ASSEMBLY LINES.

Millions of women became involved in the war effort inother ways, as air-raid wardens, fire officers, evacuationofficers, and so on. Many looked after evacuees who weresent to live in their homes. The war also brought largenumbers of women into the armed services, many of whomserved overseas.

Even so, PREJUDICE remained. Women earned less thanmen. When the war ended, many women were forced outof skilled jobs back into the home or into lower gradework.

SOURCE 1

Women pilots moved aircraft from one location toanother and were often first to fly aircraft. Few of

these women worked in the air industry after the war.

SOURCE 2

British women officers often give orders tomen. The men obey smartly and know it isno shame. For British women . .. provedthemselves in this war. They have stuck totheir posts near burning ammunitiondumps, delivered messages on foot after theirmotorcycles have been blastedfrom underthem. They have pulled aviators fromburning planes . .. There isn't a singlerecord ofany British woman in uniformedservice quitting herpost, orfailing in herduty underfire. When you see a girl inuniform with a bit of ribbon on her tunic,remember she didn't get it for knitting moresocks than anyone else in Ipswich.

AWar Department booklet for American soldierscoming to Britain in 1942.

2 Would you say that Sources1-3 provide evidence thatwomen overcame prejudice orthat prejudice against womenremained strong? Explain youranswer.

3 Write your firstnote abouthow you willkeep industryrunning if somany men aregoing off tofight.

Industry

SOURCE 3

Additional duties for female deputy managersThe Deputy Manager, being a woman, can assist theManager, particularly ifhe is a male, by undertakingcontrol ofthe female employees:

• Reporting to the Manager as to whether or not ourinstructions regarding leaving the counter are beingcarried out.

• That the female staffcloakroom is kept in proper order.• That hand-bags are kept in the Office, if there is no Office,

in the place fixed by the Manager.• Supervising the general appearance, tidiness, cleanliness,

etc. of the female staff, with particular reference to thecondition, repair and replacement ofoveralls, etc.

• Acting as liaison between the Manager and staff(Managers must remember that in so many matterswomen will only talk properly to other women.)

From a bulletin sent out by the Head Office of Sainsbury's to its branchesin 1943. These bulletins were sent out regularly.

A · 0 o. ,.rw-w-..y

Look back at the story of the Edwards family (pages 148-49). Chooseone paragraph from the story that would make a good source for thispage. Write a suitable source caption to go with it.

15

You need to be able toexplain:

• two examples of foodshortages

• one example to show thatrationing was effective.

SOURCE 4

Food, rationing and shortages

b¥i* worM black market; coupons

You have seen on pages 150-51 how Britain almost ran outof supplies. This was caused by German U-boat attacks onmerchant ships. As a result, the government encouragedpeople to keep animals and grow food. Boy scouts and girlguides collected food scraps to feed pigs. Playing fields,railway embankments and the grounds of major publicbuildings were ploughed up. Private gardens were alsoturned over to vegetables - even window boxes were usedto grow lettuces. Source 4 gives some idea of the success ofthese measures.

154

TurnipsWheat Barley Oats Potatoes and swedes Mangolds Sugar-beet

Date (bushels) (bushels) (bushels) (tons) (tons) (tons) (tons)

1935 33.5 34.7 44.9 6.3 12.2 18.8 9.1

1940 34.6 38.3 47.8 8.5 14.5 18.3 11.1

1945 60.3 59.2 63.7 16.2 26.4 36.5 18.6

War-time food production in the UK.

Even so, food soon ran short. Prices also rose steeply.Women could spend four times the usual amount of timeshopping for food and still go home with nothing. Rationingwas introduced early in the war. It was controlled by theMinistry of Food. Even the royal family had their own rationbooks. Rationing actually benefited many of the poorest insociety. Because the government controlled prices, theycould afford better food than they had in peacetime!

Rationing soon went beyond food. Almost every essentialarticle could only be bought with COUPONS. This meantpetrol, clothes, even sweets! Clothing coupons could onlybe used to buy government-approved clothes. These had aUtility Mark (see Source 5).

Rationing and shortages affected different people anddifferent areas in different ways.

• Very large families with large numbers of ration booksdid not suffer from shortages in the same way as smallerfamilies or families with no children.

• In rural areas, vegetables were usually quite easy tocome by.

• In Northern Ireland, bacon and pork were not rationed.• Some foods were in short supply, particularly sugar, tea

and fruit from overseas.• Fuel was always desperately short. Milkmen went back to

using the horse and cart. Most people walked or cycled.•.The government did not like to admit it, but there was a

strong BLACK MARKET. This became worse when USservicemen brought goods to Britain and sold them.

SOURCE 5

The Utility Mark was a guarantee that goods were madefrom recycled materials or had been made without

wasting resources.

1 What would you have foundhardest about rationing?

2 Write yoursecond noteabout how thegovernment Foodused rationingto help thewar effort.

This picture shows the standard weekly ration for one adult in May 1941.

1 Compare this with your own diet today. Make a list of the differencesbetween this diet and your own. Organise your list under the headings:• Quantity• Quality

2 Explain which diet you prefer, and why.

155

one shilling's worth (5p) meat

115 g bacon

55 g tea•

1 egg

170 g butter 55 g cooking fat

225 g sugar

225g jam

30g cheese

156

Try to remember:

• one effect of evacuation• one reason to control

information• one example of propaganda.

SOURCE 6

School 827,000children

Mothers and 524,000 tuchildren

Pregnant 13,000 iwomenBlind and

~disabled 7000people

Teachers 103,000 lfJTotal 1,474, 000

Numbers of evacuees, September1939. There were no air raids until1940 so many evacuees returned

home in the periodSeptember 1939-spring 1940.

1 Explain the aims of the artist inSource 7. Explain how he usesdetails to make his points.

2 Imagine your class is workingin groups on:• propaganda• women in the war• evacuation.Which group should be giventhe poster in Source 7? Explainyour answer.

EvacuationIn September 1939, around 1.5 million people, mainlyschool children, were moved from areas at high risk ofbombing. These were the main cities, industrial areas, portsand air fields. Many returned home after the firstevacuation, but there were two more periods of evacuationduring the war. The main one was during the Blitz in 1940.The other came in 1944 when VI flying bombs and V2rockets were falling. Evacuation was distressing for familieswho were split up, but what were the other effects?

• Evacuation must have saved thousands of lives.• Many women could work because they did not have to

look after their children. This helped the war effort andgave women new opportunities.

• Different social groups were brought together.Youngsters from tough inner-city areas saw thecountryside, often for the first time. Many comfortablepeople outside the cities learned how bad conditions inthe cities were.

1 Make yourthird noteabout what the Childrengovernment isdoing toprotectchildren.

Propaganda and censorshipThe government used its emergency powers to controlinformation and to create the right mood in the country.On the whole, the policy worked well. The main aimswere:

• to encourage people to save money and not to wasteanything

• to warn people not to gossip• to boost support for the war effort.

The BBC censored itself and played a key role in informingthe public and helping to keep up morale. The newspaperswere also closely controlled. They reported bad news, suchas bomb damage or military defeats, but they alsoencouraged people not to be downhearted. Look back topage 138 to see how the press turned Dunkirk into avictory. Another feature of war-time propaganda was theposter. Source 7 is one example. There are three moreexamples on pages 150-51.

SOURCE 7

DON'Trh it,

A~h'.~'J...•._--,The propaganda guide

Look through pages 150-57 in this chapter andfind at least five propaganda sources. Copy andcomplete this table to analyse them.

1 In columns 1 and 2, note and describe eachsource.

2 In column 3, put each source into one of thefollowing categories:a) preventing wasteb) being careful not to damage the war effortc) keeping up morale.

3 In column 4, explain why you have put thesource in that category.

Source Brief Category Explanation(include descriptionpagenumber) "

l.----.....~~ - ---

A war-time poster about evacuation.

SOURCE 8

A propaganda exercise aimed at children.

3 Write yourfourth noteabout how the Propagandagovernmenthas usedpropagandato help thewar effort.

157

Air-raid protectionYou need to be able to:

• describe at least twoactions the governmenttook to prepare for airraids

• explain at least one waythat protection waseffective or ineffective.

1 As a general rule, people inBritain resented ARP wardens,but they did not resentrationing. Why do you thinkthis was?

Anderson shelter; gas mask; Morrison shelter

Apart from invasion, the greatest threat to British peoplewas the air raid. The government took swift action toprotect the population from this deadly new form of war.

• Everyone was given a GAS MASK and shown how towear it.

• A new force was created for air-raid protection (ARP). Itwas about 500,000 strong in 1939. These ARP wardenssupervised the blackout. They also organised patrolsduring raids to check for incendiary bombs.

• The government provided two million ANDERSON SHELTERS(named after the minister in charge). They could be setup in back gardens.

• In 1941, the government provided 500,000 MORRISONSHELTERS. These could be set up indoors, usually underthe stairs.

Blackout

Another air defence measure was the blackout. Homes hadto black out, but so did shops, businesses and even trainsand cars. ARP authorities could fine people up to half aweek's wages for not obeying the blackout. The number ofroad accidents doubled in September 1939 due to theblackout but, in time, people got used to it.

Painting kerbs for drivers andpedestrians to see in blackout

conditions.

Look at Source 9. Make your ownlist of features for a well SOUR;:...:C::.=E=-.9::..- _protected house. Write the list inthe style of a governmentinformation leaflet (but rememberit will be a handy resource forrevision!).

SOURCE 10-------

158

A school playground in Catford, London,____hit by a bomb.

Interviewer: Was the blackout verystrict?Oh, terrible. One night I wentfor a loafofbread, and somebody had left a little cartout on the road, and I walked into it andfellover because I couldn't see.Interviewer: Can you talk about ARPpatrols?Oh yes, one night we had a gentlemanknocking on the door, and he said 'Will youplease turn your light out or shut yourcurtains, you've a light showing' which wehad, but I didn't know, we were gettingready for bed. It was only early evening,about 730 . ..

From an interview in 1995 with residents of HebdenBridge, near Halifax.

SOURCEll SOURCE 12._---

Despite the precautions, the air raids took a terrible toll.When the Blitz began in 1940, London and other citiessuffered terribly. This was the first war where Britainsuffered more civilian than military casualties. There werenot enough shelters, especially in the densely packedworking-class areas of the cities. Anderson sheltersprotected people from flying glass, but not from fallinghouses. Source 13 shows how the Blitz affected Liverpool.

SOURCE 13

Killed Injured

1940 August 37 73

September 221 357

October 106 90

November 305 192

December 412 382

1941 January 43 23

February 2 7

March 101 99April 36 105

May 1453 1065

Casualties in Liverpool 1940-41. The city's port, docks and warehousesmade it a target for bombs.

2 Write your final ~~~re\note abouthow the Bombing

governmenthas tried toprotect thepopulationfrom bombing.

FDatStMkDo you agree with theEdwards family?

Look back at the Focus task onpage 149. Here is what theEdwards family said was theirorder of importance for the sixaspects of life:

1 Air raids and air-raidprecautions

2 Food shortages and rationing3 Evacuation4 War work5 Conscription6 Propaganda and censorship.

Now you have studied the HomeFront in detail, do you think mostpeople in Britain would agree withthe Edwards? Write a list forBritish people in general,explaining the order.

159

The coming of theCold War 1945-49

11 8. 1 Why did the USA and the USSR fall outafter 19457

These two pages will helpyou to:

• explain what the Cold Warwas in one sentence

• give one example of howCommunist and capitalistbeliefs are different.

capitalism; standard of living; superpower

By the end of the Second World War, the USA and theUSSR were the world's two SUPERPOWERS. This means theywere stronger, better armed and more successful than allother countries. They were clearly in a different league fromother powers, such as Britain and France.

160

Good news

The good news for world peace was thatin 1945 these two superpowers wereallies - working together in the battleagainst Hitler. In May 1945, they met eachother in Berlin.

SOURCE 1

American and Soviet soldiers shaking hands inGermany in 1945. The USA and the USSR fought

together as allies against Germany during theSecond World War.

Bad news

The bad news for world peace was that:

Within one year of thephotograph in Source 1,the Soviet and Americanleaders were accusingeach other of breaking

~} the promises they hadtT' made during war-time.

. Within two years, theCo

American President waspromising his help toanyone who wouldstand up to the USSR.

~ Within four years, it~ : . ~ looked very likely that

the two war-time allieswould declare war oneach other.

The conflict never came to war, but foralmost 50 years it was a Cold War. The twosides never fought, but they spied on eachother, criticised each other in the media andhelped anyone who opposed the otherside.

So why did these former friends fall out?

The big reason: different beliefs

In the past, the USA and the USSR hadalways been very suspicious of each other.They had totally different beliefs about howa country should be run (see Factfilesbelow). They were allies during the waronly because they had the same enemy ­Hitler's Germany.

SOURCE 2

A British cartoon from 1941.

FOautMkUse the information on this page to help you write a25-word caption for Source 2.

F~USA

F~USSR

Can you see the problem'?Both sides had reasonable, sensible, but totallydifferent viewpoints.

With such different beliefs, you would expectthem to disagree. However, different beliefsdon't explain why they fell out so badly and soquickly. To understand that, read on ...

161

tND,VIO,,",I"\L."I q ""'-sE &..Jic. T'oH,J

* Soviet society was based on Communist ideas.* It was a one-party state. There were elections,

but Soviet people could only elect Communists.* Industry was organised and run by the state.* Unemployment and extreme poverty were rare,

but the general STANDARD OF LIVING of most Sovietcitizens was much lower than for the averageAmerican.

* Communists believed that the rights ofindividuals were less important than the good ofsociety as a whole. As a result, there were manyrestrictions on the individual's freedom to travel,read certain books, start a business, etc.

'NDI"IDU~L

~IG~TS

V'IJ\ C"'''IT,o\&-IST #"'\No l)&.lIotoc::.lQ",,.,c.

* American society was based on two key ideas:democracy and CAPITALISM.

* Democracy meant that the American Presidentand Congress were elected in free elections.They could be voted out if the American peoplewere unhappy with them.* Capitalism meant that property and businesseswere owned by private individuals andcompanies.* The USA was the world's richest country, butthere were extremes of wealth and poverty.

* For Americans, the rights and freedoms ofindividual Americans (for example, free speech,freedom to start a business) were moreimportant than everyone being equal.* The majority of Americans believed passionatelyin the American way. They felt that Communismthreatened their way of life.

From these two pages, aim togive two examples of Trumanand Stalin disagreeing in1945.

The Allies fall out, 1945

atomic bomb; personality clash;sphere of influence

_lA

• Soviet troops were occupying most ofEastern Europe - this worried the USA.

• The USA had a new leader - Roosevelthad died and Harry Truman had replacedhim as President. Truman was muchmore anti-Communist than Roosevelt.Truman and Stalin found it very hard tounderstand each other.

• The Americans had developed an ATOMIC

BOMB - this worried the Soviet Union.

• The war in Europe was over - so theglue that held the alliance together wasno longer there.

Disagreements at Potsdam

The Allied leaders met again at Potsdam inJuly-August 1945. This conference did notgo nearly so well as Yalta, for the followingreasons.

• they agreed todivide Germanyinto four zones ­British, French,American andSoviet

~~British French

eRMAN~

, British FCCh '

• they agreed todivide Berlin in thesame way.

• they agreed thatEastern Europewould beregarded as aSoviet 'SPHERE OF

INFLUENCE'

"

Agreements at Yalta

In February 1945, Stalin (USSR), Churchill(UK) and Roosevelt (USA) met at Yalta. Atthat time, the war was going well and itwas clear that the Allies were going to win.The three leaders met to plan what to doabout Germany and Europe once the warended.

President Roosevelt got on reasonablywell with Stalin. However, Churchill andStalin got on badly. Churchill wassuspicious of everything Stalin did. Stalinsaid that Churchill would pick your pocketfor a kopek (a very low value Soviet coin).Despite these PERSONALITY CLASHES, theyreached several important agreements. Forexample:

162

The atom bomb

During the Potsdam conference, Trumantold Stalin that the USA had successfullydeveloped an atomic bomb. This newbomb was the most powerful weaponever known. Source 3 shows how the twosuperpowers remembered this conversationvery differently!

SOURCE 3A

This is the place I told Stalin about the AtomBomb, which was tested on]uly 16, 1945 inNew Mexico. He did not realise what I wastalking about.'

Notes written by Truman on the back of a photo ofhimself and Stalin at the Potsdam conference.

SOURCE 38

Truman decided to surprise us at Potsdam... He took Stalin and me aside andinformed us they had an extraordinarynew weapon . .. It's difficult to say what hewas thinking, but it seemed to me hewanted to alarm us. Stalin reacted quitecalmly and Truman decided he hadn'tunderstood. The words 'atom bomb' werenot spoken, but we immediately guessedwhat he meant.

Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov's memories of thesame event.

Churchill, Truman and Stalin at Potsdam.

1 Look at Sources 3A and 38,then decide which of thefollowing statements youagree with.• Truman was trying to scare

Stalin.• Stalin didn't understand

about the bomb.• Stalin knew about the

bomb, but he was not goingto let Truman see he wasworried.

• Truman and Stalin clearlydid not trust each other.

Use evidence from thesources to support youranswer.

163

Can you see the problem . ..again?Think about what was goingon at Potsdam. It was notthat one side was wrong andthe other right. Both sideshad reasonable, sensible, buttotally different viewpoints.They saw their own actions asreasonable, but they saw theother side's actions asthreatening.

Disagreement 1: what to do about GermanyThis issue caused big tensions at Potsdam.

Stalin said he wanted to make Germany pay hugecompensation ($10 billion) to the USSR. This was a newdemand. He had not asked for this at Yalta. Stalin felt thatthis demand was perfectly justified. He did not care ifcompensation crippled Germany. The Soviets had lost30 million people in the war. The Germans had flattenedvillages, towns and whole cities. Stalin would not admit itto Truman, but the war had left the USSR with almost nomoney or resources.

Truman opposed Stalin's demand for compensation.He did not understand that Stalin still felt threatened byGermany. Truman wanted Germany to recover andbecome a stable, democratic state. He did not want torepeat the mistakes made by the Treaty of Versailleswhen attempts to cripple Germany helped cause anotherwar. Truman also felt that Germany would not be able topay any compensation to the USSR if it was crippled.Stalin couldn't understand Truman's attitude. Hewondered why the USA was so keen to rebuild Germany.Was it to threaten him?

How might each of the leaders have finished off these sentences?

164

We mustnot punishGermanyharshly

because ...

We mustnot let

Germanybecome strong

because, ..

Make it your goal to explainwhy Truman and Stalindisagreed about EasternEurope (one viewpoint each).

1 Sources 4 and 5 look at theUSSR's actions in EasternEurope very differently. Explainthe main differences betweenthe two views.

2 What points and evidence couldyou use to support each view?

3 Is it possible to blame just oneside for the clashes overEastern Europe? Explain youranswer.

SOURCE 4

Disagreement 2: Eastern Europe

b##' wordi Cominform

Stalin and Eastern Europe: justified or not?

The biggest political disputes between the USA and theUSSR were about Eastern Europe.

In 1945 the Allies had agreed that Eastern Europe wouldbe 'a Soviet sphere of influence'. To the Americans, thismeant that Eastern European countries should be friendlytowards the USSR. However, they should also be free toelect their own governments in democratic elections.

That was just not good enough for Stalin. He did not trustany government unless he was in charge of it. His RedArmy troops helped Communists to take power in each ofthe Eastern European states. Then he set up an organisationcalled COMINFORM to control these new governments. Hetold them how to run their countries and how to deal withthe Americans. The Americans protested against Sovietactions, but it did little good.

• To Stalin, control of Eastern Europe made sense. In thetwentieth century, the USSR had twice been invadedthrough Eastern European countries. If he controlled theregion, nobody would be able to invade through it.

• To Truman, Stalin's control of Eastern Europe wasevidence that Stalin was building an empire. He dearlywanted to take over the rest of Europe as well.

SOURCE 5

Stalin's view of his policy in Eastern Europe.

Let us not forgetthat the Germansinvaded the USSRthrough Finland,Poland, Romania,

Bulgaria andHungary. Why is it sosurprising that the

Soviet Union, anxiousfor its future safety,

is trying to makesure that friendly,loyal governments

are in thesecountries?

I am morethan ever

convinced thatCommunism ison the marchon a worldwidescale, and onlythe USA can

stop it.

A comment by US Senator Arthur Vandenberg inApril 1946. Vandenberg was Chairman of the SenateForeign Relations Committee. This meant that he had

a big say in President Truman's policy. 165

Now try to explain why Stalinand Truman saw MARSHALL AID

differently (one viewpointeach).

civil war; containment; Iron Curtain;Marshal! Aid; Truman Doctrine

The Truman DoctrineIn March 1947, Truman made a speech that became knownas the TRUMAN DOCTRINE. He promised to help any countrythat was threatened by a Communist take-over. Truman'spolicy of stopping the spread of Communism becameknown as CONTAINMENT. He started straight away by sendingmoney and equipment to help anti-Communist forces in aCIVIL WAR in Greece (see Source 7).

Marshall AidTruman also worried about Communism spreading todemocratic countries in Europe. Bombing and fighting haddestroyed roads, water supplies and other essential services.Truman feared that Communists would play on people'smisery by making promises to improve their lives. Thiswould gain them support. In 1947-48, it looked as ifCommunists might take power in Italy and France.

Truman decided to use the USA's mighty economicpower. He ordered US general, George Marshall, to comeup with an economic aid plan. It became known asMarshall Aid (or the Marshall Plan). The USA put $17 billioninto helping Europe's shattered economies recover. Food,machinery, animals and countless other items were shippedto democratic countries in Europe (see Source 6). Trumanwanted people to get back to work, make money and feelgood about democracy.

SOURCE 6

$3.2b

o $2.7b

$1.5b $1.4b

o CJ

Keyb = billionm = million

$694m $677m$556m

166

UK France Italy West Nether- Greece Austria Belgium-Germany lands Luxembourg

Marshal! Aid, April 1948 to June 1952 (Denmark, Norway, Turkey,Ireland, Sweden, Portugal and Iceland also received aid).

167

N

t

USSR

Black Sea

Can you see the problem ...yet again?It should be clear as daylightto you now - both sides hadreasonable, sensible, buttotally different viewpoints.The USSR and the USA boththought its own actions wereperfectly reasonable. Butthey both saw the other'sactions as threatening. Thismistrust lies at the heart ofthe Cold War.

1 In what ways was Marshall Aidsimilar to and different fromStalin's actions in EasternEurope? Explain your answerfully.

POLAND1947

The Allies had given the USSR controlof the eastern zone of Germany. It wasrun by the USSR until the creation of theGerman Democratic Republic in 1949.

FRANCE ';:.

j __qJlW~Communist-controlled '-'\l

governments showing dateswhen they gained power ,

Countries that were enemies Jof the USSR during the :.Second World War, showingdates when Communists wonpower

The iron curtain

Both France and Italy had strong __~"-­

Communist parties whichbelonged to Cominform.

Marshal Tito (Communist) was electedPresident in 1945. However, he wasdetermined to apply Communism in hisown way and was expelled fromCominform in 1948.

..... ,-,'- ' ....

SPAIN "

Key

D

SOURCE 7

09Y ~~~-~TURKEY

? Scale ~ ~ c:;Q

A map of Eastern Europe showing the IRON CURTAIN. Winston Churchill first used the term 'Iron Curtain' in aspeech in the USA in March 1946. After this, it became the widely-used name for the border between

Communist Eastern Europe and the West.

People reacted to Marshall Aid in different ways:

• Some saw it as a very generous gesture by the Americanpeople.

• Some saw it as a mixture of generosity and Americanself-interest. The USA wanted Europe to recover so thatAmerican industries could sell their goods there.

• Others saw it as a defence against the spread ofCommunism. For example, Italy did not receive anyMarshall Aid until a non-Communist government tookpower in 1948.

• Stalin saw Marshall Aid as a threat. He believed that theUSA was trying to dominate Europe by making itdependent on American handouts. He banned theEastern European states from accepting Marshall Aid.

FO",,"tMkThe media played an important role in thedevelopment of the Cold War. Both sides wanted toconvince their own people that they were in theright. Your task is to understand how they mighthave done this.

Write two separate newspaper reports of theevents in Europe 1947-48:

1 An American view of the Soviet take-over ofEastern Europe

2 A Soviet view of the Truman Doctrine andMarshall Aid.

Remember that you are writing from only one pointof view in each case.

For each report, describe five events, developmentsor views given by political leaders.

Each telegram on these pages has a point thatyou might be able to use. For each point, askyourself:• Am I clear about what happened?• Can I use it in report 1?• How can I use it to make the USA look reasonable

and the USSR look unreasonable?• Can I use it in report 2?• How can I use it to make the USSR look

reasonable and the USA look unreasonable?• What events have I left out? Why have I left them

out?

From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message:You asked for points you could use in your articleSTOP We have too many for one message STOPKeep checking messages as points will keepcoming STOP

I

68

From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message:The USA insisted that Eastern European statesshould have free democratic elections STOP

From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message:Some people saw Marshall Aid as an attempt bythe USA to make Europe dependent onAmerican handouts STOP

From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message:Stalin helped Communists take control ofEastern European states STOP

From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message:The USA feared that Communists would tryto exploit hardships facing people in post-warEurope STOP

From: Media News Ltd Information Section From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948 To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message: Message:The USSR was simply trying to make

IMany American politicians believed that the

itself secure for the future STOP USSR was trying to take over Europe STOP

From: Media News Ltd Information Section From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948 I To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948:

Message: Message:The Truman Doctrine aimed to The USSR had been invaded by German troopsstop Communism spreading to any moving through Eastern European states STOPmore countries STOP

-

From: Media News Ltd Information Section From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948 To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message: Message:The USA gave SI 7 billion to help rebuild The USSR suffered many more casualties thanEurope's economies STOP any other state in the war STOP

From: Media News Ltd Information Section From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948 To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message: Message:Truman sent money to support anti-Communist Some people saw Marshall Aid asforces in Greece STOP a generous gesture STOP

From: Media News Ltd Information Section From: Media News Ltd Information Section

To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948 To: Reporters in the field I Date: 1948

Message: Message:Only non-Communist governments The USA agreed to Eastern Europe being areceived Marshall Aid STOP Soviet sphere of influence STOP

- - - - --- 169

POLAND

o 200km

Key,/ "Main airports\_ controlled by the) - Western Allies

A map of Berlin and West Germany in 1948.

FRANCE

N

f,

,

British" 'Zone :

,-.... I

\ .............' \;"",

'\"" /--- ---,---- ,) " \,--------\ : ~ ...'(

SOURCE 1From these pages, aim toexplain:

• how the Western Alliesstarted to rebuildGermany

• one reason why thisalarmed Stalin

• two importantconsequences of theBerlin Blockade.

- 8.2 Why did the superpowers clashover Berlin 1948-49?

b!$W word currency

Berlin after the war

170

SOURCE 2

The Western powers aretransforming Germany intotheir strongpoint. They aremaking Germany part ofamilitary andpolitical blockaimed at threatening theSoviet Union.

From a report sent to Sovietminister Molotov in March 1948.

SOURCE 3

Ifwe mean that we are tohold Europe againstCommunism, we must notbudge. I believe the future ofdemocracy requires us tostay here in Berlin unless weare forced out.

US General Lucius Clay,June 1948.

After the war Germany was in ruins. By 1948 the American,French and British leaders decided it was time to startrebuilding Germany. American General Lucius Clayreorganised the CURRENCY and got German industriesworking again. Germans began going back to work andearning money.

The Berlin BlockadeTo Stalin it seemed that the Americans were rebuilding his,old enemy. He could not stop the Allies, but he thought hecould make a point by forcing them out of Berlin. In June1948, he cut the rail and road links from the Allied zones toWest Berlin. He also disrupted water and power supplies.It was a clever scheme. If the Allies stayed in Berlin, thepeople of Berlin would suffer. But the Allies respondedwith a brave and imaginative plan. For almost a year, theysupplied Berlin by air with coal, food and medicine (seeSource 4). The Western media praised the courage andendurance of the air crews. The Soviet media criticised theconstant flights as unsafe. Stalin eventually gave up andlifted the blockade in May 1949.

SOURCE 4

An RAF transport plane being unloadedin Berlin, 1948.

The consequences of the BerlinBlockadeThe Berlin Blockade was an importantpolitical dispute. It showed how stubborneach side could be. Stalin thought he wasmaking a stand because the Americans werethreatening him. The Americans suspectedStalin was getting ready to invade WestBerlin.

1 Look at Source 4. What caption do you thinkmight have appeared with this photograph in:a) an American newspaperb) a Soviet newspaper?

FOatftlUkYou are going to prepare an ICT presentation about the causes of the Cold War.

Stage 1

Copy and complete a table like this - using your work on pages 160-71.

Factor Ways that the Ways that the Which country ExplanationSoviets caused Americans was most totension caused tension blame: S or A or 8

(8 =both equally)

Different beliefs

Personality clashes

Disagreements overthe future of Germany

Disagreements overEastern Europe

Truman Doctrine andMarshall Plan

The Berlin Blockade

Stage 2 Stage 3

Now think about which factors were most to Think about which side was most to blameblame. All the factors in column 1 were important. overall. Look at your decisions in column 4.But which do you think was most important? Put the Choose the side you think was most to blame.factors into priority order. This will be easiest if you Write a paragraph or some bullet points to explainare working on a computer. If not, then cut up your your choice. If you think both sides were equally tochart and repaste it. blame, explain why.

Write a paragraph or some bullet points toexplain why you have put your top factor first. Stage 4

Now use your notes to prepare a presentation.(Keep your notes. They will be useful for revision.) 171

Cold War - Hot War1950-72

11 9. 1 Atouch of Cold War madness

These pages introduce you tothe topic of the Cold War. Tryto remember at least one ofthe examples in this sectionand why the Cold Waraffected this event.

SOURCE 1

CIA; KGB; paranoia; psychic; telepathic

172

Look closely at Source 1. The atmosphere istense. The hopes of a mighty superpowerrest on the shoulders of each man. Eachhas been training his mind for years for thisconfrontation. Each is backed up bybodyguards and special advisers appointedby the government.

Both men also have electronic listeningdevices (bugs) sewn into their clothes,which are being taped by secret agentslistening nearby. Among the minders aredark-suited agents from the CIA (Americansecret service) and the KGB (the Soviet

Union's secret service). In the watchingcrowd, it is rumoured that there arePSYCHICS. They have been hired by the CIAand KGB to use their TELEPATHIC powers toconfuse the man on the opposite side.

Who are these heroes? Great soldiers? Orgreat politicians trying to save the world?Actually, no! They are chess players! Theyear is 1972; the event is the Chess WorldChampionships; the players are BobbyFischer and Boris Spassky; the context isthe Cold War; the atmosphere is one ofPARANOIA.

You might find it hard to believe that all this effort wentinto a game of chess, but in the mad Cold War atmospherethe USA and the USSR went to great lengths to beat theother side at anything. Chess mattered because being thebest at chess meant you were clever. But other thingsmattered, too. The Olympic Games mattered - you had towin the most medals. Science mattered - you had to makethe best discoveries. The Moon mattered - you had to getthere first. In fact, everything mattered.

If you were an American, you saw Communism or Sovietinfluence increasing wherever you looked. If you were aSoviet, you saw American or capitalist evil spreadingeverywhere. And if you didn't stop them, no one would.

So... SOURCE 2If your enemy made a newweapon ... you had to makea better one.If your enemy helped oneside in a far-away war ...you had to help the otherside.If your enemy did somethingnice ... you had to find anasty side to it.If your enemy did somethingnasty ... you milked it for allit was worth.If you lost an argument ...you never admitted it. It wasbetter simply to walk out.

SOURCE 3

1 There was a famous phrase forthe Americans' habit of seeingCommunist influence whereverthey looked - 'Reds under thebeds!' Can you think of a Sovietequivalent?

A I' " , •

........_-"1 Test your understanding of

Cold War madness. Look atSources 2 and 3. How can youexplain what you see?

2 Do some extra research ofyour own and find five morepictures of Cold War madness.The internet is an excellentsource. Try searching thewebsites of the Hulton Archive,the Public Record Office, andnews organisations such as theBBC and ABC News.

173

civil defence; deterrent; hydrogen (H) bomb;missile; nuclear shelter; nuclear war; retaliate

1 1U~ Q •

(lJ Short-range missiles were base In

Amap showing the location of American and Soviet missiles.Short-range missiles from Western Europe could hit the USSR in minutes.

An American852 bomber.

The USA had anuclear branchof its air force

called theStrategic Air

Command(SAC). SAC kepttwelve of these

giant 852bombers in theair, armed with

nuclear weapons, 24 hours a day,365 days a year - just in case.

SOURCE 5.I or )(

SOURCE 4

The previous two pages may have made the Cold War seemridiculous. These two pages should remind you that it wasalso very dangerous. The USA and the USSR had hundredsof nuclear weapons pointing at each other. These MISSILES

were unstoppable. They could be fired at enemy cities fromthe other side of the world, and could kill millions ofpeople in a few minutes. Some people said that a nuclearwar between the superpowers would destroy the humanrace completely.

Nuclear madnessTest your understanding bywriting one sentence each toexplain:

• MAD• why people thought there

might be a NUCLEAR WAR.

.I or )(

MADBoth the USA and theUSSR supported a theorycalled MAD. This stoodfor Mutually AssuredDestruction. Another namefor it was the nuclearDETERRENT. The idea wasthat instead of getting ridof your nuclear weaponsbecause they weredangerous, you built lotsof them. This meant thatneither side would darelaunch a nuclear attackbecause the other sidewould RETALIATE and bothsides would be destroyed.

People sometimes say that truthis stranger than fiction. Thesetwo pages contain a number offacts and sources about thenuclear threat marked .I or )C.

There is one false item amongthem (either a wrong fact or amade-up piece of evidence).

1 Decide which is the false item.2 Give some reasons why you

think it is false.3 Explain which sources or facts

you are sure are right.4 Explain why you are sure they

are right.

174

MIC BOMB SHELTERSp;"cr1BY1't. GOVERNMENTSTOPfi,.DETAltS ,

•

A billboard put up by a Californian swimming pool manufacturer in theearly 1960s. He expanded his business by building NUCLEAR SHELTERS as

well. His slogan was: 'Due to known conditions, ACT NOW!' Lots ofcelebrities had their own shelters built where they could survive for

weeks following a nuclear attack.

SOURCE 6Power crazy?The head of SAC in the1960s was General ThomasPower. Power once said,'At the end of the war ifthere are two Americansand one Russian left alive,we win.' General Curtis LeMay, the man who led SACbefore Power, thoughtPower was mentallyunstable. (Some peoplethought Le May was crazy!)

175

A British CIVIL

DEFENCE

poster from1965. The

posterexplains theeffects of a

HYDROGENBOMB andprovides

advice onhow to

survive anuclear blast.

-. ,f or KI~__~~_ttnnG~..!~!,b rb.." _Mr. K: If West show readiness to settle German

treaty problem we won't insist on deadline

THE BIGGEST BOMBIN THE WORLD

A newspaper account of theSoviet Union's test explosion of a

hydrogen bomb (H-bomb) inOctober 1961. H-bombs were

many times more powerful thanatom bombs. This explosion wasthe largest man-made explosion

in history.

SOURCE 9

SOURCE 8

When a nuclear war getsunderway

And the rockets comefalling down

All the bloody politicianswho started it will scuttleoffunderground

And when they finallyre-emerge

With no life to be foundThey can administrate the

rubble and they canorder each other around.

A song from the mid-1960sprotesting about the nuclear

arms race.

SOURCE 7

H-bomb testWhen the USSR tested itsH-bomb in 1961, the Sovietleader swore all thescientists to secrecy, butthen deliberately gave afull set of results to theUSA. He wanted theAmericans to fear thepower of the Soviet bomb.

You will look at threedisputes in this chapter.Make sure you:

• know the basic outline ofeach dispute

• can explain one way inwhich the disputes weresimilar to each other

• can describe one way inwhich they were differentfrom each other.

Containment case studiesYou already know that disputes between the superpowerswere inevitable because they had fiercely different beliefs.The USSR supported Communist movements all over theworld. It wanted to spread Communism. The USA tried tocontain Communism - to stop it spreading. It wanted tospread capitalism instead. It supported capitalist countriesall over the world.

You are going to examine three case studies of the USAtrying to contain Communism:

• the Korean War 1950-53• the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962• the Vietnam War 1964-72.

The Cuban Missile Crisis 1962Outline:

The Korean War 1950-53Outline:

Similarities with the other twocase studies:

Similarities with the other twocase studies:

Differences from the othertwo case studies:

o

o.'

The Vietnam War 1964-73Outline:

Differences from the othertwo case studies:

Similarities with the other twocase studies:

Differences from the other twocase studies:

- 9.2 Containment case study 1:the Korean War 1950-53

Label the four steppingstones to Americaninvolvement in Korea withoutlooking at this book.

Security Council; United Nations (UN)

The Cold War was a war of threats and propaganda, butthere was also quite a lot of hot war (real war) as well. TheAmericans and Soviets never fought each other face to face,but they fought each other indirectly. In 1950, Americansfound themselves involved in a vicious and very real waragainst Communist forces in Korea. This is how ithappened.

Step 1: China goes CommunistThe Cold War was not just a conflict between the USA and theUSSR - it was a conflict between capitalism and Communism.

In 1949, China went Communist. China was the mostpowerful country in the Far East and it had the largestpopulation in the world. The USA now faced another hugeCommunist power.

Step 2: The USSR leaves the UNITED NJU'IONS (UN)Communist China was already a member of the UN, but its leaderMao Tse Tung wanted China to be on the UN SECURITY COUNCIL,which was the part of the UN that made most of the decisions.The Security Council was dominated by capitalist countries. TheUSSR was the only Communist country on the council. Stalinwanted China to be on the Security Council, but he was outvoted.Stalin was furious, and he pulled out of the UN in protest.

Step 3: Communist North Korea invades South KoreaMeanwhile, Communism was gaining support in other parts ofAsia. For example, Korea was divided into Communist NorthKorea and anti-Communist South Korea. In 1950 North Koreainvaded the South. By September 1950, it was about todefeat the South.

Step 4: The UN takes the side of the USADo you remember President Truman's policy of containment?Truman felt that he could not allow Communism to take overSouth Korea. He managed to get the UN to condemn the NorthKorean invasion. He even managed to get it to send forces tohelp the South Koreans push the Communists out of theircountry. You probably wonder how he managed this. One of themain reasons was that the USSR was not there to object. It wasstill boycotting the UN over the issue of China's membership.

178

Make sure you can list atleast two important effectsof the Korean War.

1 What is the cartoon in Source 1saying about the actions of theUSA and the UN?

The Korean WarSOURCE 1

l'EA;i,;;;~:~

LAel( 01" EI<£~rrSE",«rHa WA~ A,CCR(SlIOI1

%1 1)

..-,,\_,~~;,:~*I \1"",~~--. --::=--._~~.~ .............., ,.,~ ~~- ~_ .......,

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..' • if .. ...~l ••. · .,"',_.. ....' . ~~<.. '

, ,.. ',""

. . ._. .;.I1i>'~\\.~.

A cartoon by David Low, a famous British cartoonist. Low was well knownfor criticising appeasement in the 1930s. The figure on the right is

President Truman.

A UN force (mainly soldiers from the USA) joined the waralongside South Korea. The Americans pushed the NorthKoreans back. In fact, they went further than this. AmericanCommander General MacArthur ordered his forces intoNorth Korea. By late 1950, UN forces were approaching theborder of China.

In January 1951, Chinese troops joined the war on theNorth Korean side. The USSR supplied them with weaponsand equipment. They pushed the Americans back. At thispoint, General MacArthur called for Chinese cities to bebombed. He even said that the USA should use nuclearweapons if necessary. President Truman sacked MacArthurin April 1951.

With the Americans supporting one side and the USSRand China the other, the two sides were fairly evenlymatched. By early 1953, the war reached a stalemate.

All sides signed a ceasefire in July 1953. North Koreastayed Communist. South Korea stayed capitalist. You couldsay the result was a draw!

Physical consequences ofthe Korean War

The war devastated many parts of Korea. The totalcasualties were about 1.4 million. About half a million ofthese were South Korean civilians. The UN lost 35,000soldiers, 30,000 of whom were American.

Political consequences ofthe Korean War

In this chapter, we are most interested in the politicalconsequences of the war - which means the way ofthinking about the Cold War that followed from it.

The Korean War started as a local dispute, which thendrew in the superpowers. The USA was directly involved(Americans made up most of the UN forces), and theUSSR was indirectly involved (supplying weapons).It grew into a major war with the threat of nuclearwarfare. How would this affect the superpowers' views on:

. . . containment?The Americans were divided over whether this nrst attempt to 'contain'

Communism had been a success or a failure. Communism had beenstopped but things had very nearly gone wrong and it had cost themmassive amounts of money and high casualties. They would be more

cautious about getting involved in local conflicts in the future.

... nuclearweapons?

At one stage the

US President had (threatened to usenuclear weapons.

The nuclearthreat made the

USSR moredetermined to

develop powerfulnuclear weapons

of its own.Neutral countries

became moreworried, too.

... China?China had become an importantnew power. You'd expect the USAto be worried by this but it might

surprise you that CommunistUSSR was also worried. The

Soviets wanted to be the leadingCommunist state, and wantedChina simply to support theirpolicies. However, it was clearthat the Chinese leaders had

their own ideas.

... the UN?The USA had taken

over the UN. Infact, at one stage

it seemed as ifGeneral

MacArthur alonewas acting as if he

was the UN. TheUSSR would bevery wary of the

UN in future.

... acting tough?Korea convinced the American

leaders that the only way to dealwith the Communists was to

be tough.

What were the lessons of the Korean War?

The American President has called in one of hisadvisers: 'So tell me, Chuck, what lessons do youthink I should learn from Korea?'

Watch out for China. It's bigtrouble.

These Communists are apush-over.

(~__Y_o_u_'ve_go_t_t_o_a_c_t_t_o_u_g_h.__?

1 Decide which statements Chuck might have made.Note down any evidence from this case study thatsupports the statement.

2 Which statements do you think Chuck would nothave made? Give reasons for your answer.

Nuclear weapons are thefuture.

Don't get too involved in localdisputes in future.

Leave important decisionsto your army generals. They

know best.179

11 9.3 Containment case study 2:the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962

Aim to remember two piecesof evidence which show thatpeople expected a nuclear warin 1962.

Why were people so worried in October19621In October 1962, many people thought that the end of theworld was near.

180

SOURCE 1

A cartoon from the Daily Mail, 29 October 1962.

A ",J..: • ~.~ • A._--,Looking at one source closely

1 Look at Source 1 closely. You probably knowwhat general point the cartoon is making, butthink about how it makes that point. Explain themeaning of each of these details in the cartoon:• what each man is sitting on• the sweating forehead• the arm wrestling• the buttons on the table.

2 Now write a paragraph summing up the cartoon'smessage. Include specific examples from youranswers to question 1.

SOURCE 2

The first time I fell in love with poetry - MrValentine was reading Keats' 'La Belle DameSans Merci' out loud to us ...

It was the time of the Cuba crisis andeverybody was scared, even the grown-ups.No-one on the bus to school talked much, butthose who did talked about nothing else andeveryone'sface was grim.

On a placard outside the newsagents,black block capitals spelled WARINEVITABLE. Even the newsreaders ontelevision looked scared when they talkedabout 'the grave international situation '.

As Mr Valentine read to us about . .. thelake where no birds sang ... we reallyexpected that death. And the bombs mightcomefalling. The poem hurt us. Everyone inthe class felt it, even the science boys and themaths geniuses who hated English, and thesporty class captain and Mr Valentinehimself. You couldfeel it in the silence andthe shared held breath when the voicestopped.

The memories of poet Liz Lochead, who was aScottish school student in October 1962. The poem

she talks about is a haunting and mysterious story.

SOURCE 3

It was a beautiful autumn evening, theheight ofthe crisis, and I went up into theopen air to smell it, because I thought it wasthe last Saturday I would ever see.

Robert McNamara talking about the evening of27 October 1962. McNamara was one of US President

Kennedy's closest advisers during the Cuban Crisis.

SOURCE 4

THE YOUNG ONESIN REVOLT

- school strikes in protest at actionsof superpowers

The two Ks - Kennedy and Khrushchev - willget a cable [telegram] from Britain's youngones in revolt today.

The sender: Robin Mariner, I8-year-oldhead boy at Midhurst, Sussex, grammarschool, and leader of a strike by 40 of theschool's sixth formers yesterday. The strikerstold their headmaster, Mr Norman Lucas,after morning assembly that they would notattend classes for two days.

From an article in the Manchester Guardian,25 October 1962.

SOURCE 5

On October 27th I went and telephoned mywife and told her to drop everything and getout ofMoscow. I thought then that theAmerican bombers were on their way.

The memories of Fyodor Burlatsky. He was a Sovietjournalist but he also carried secret messages for the

Soviet government.

A .' '·'·8._--,Comparing sources

3 Does Source 1 sum up the same views as are inSources 2-5? Write your answer by explaining:a) what views are in each of Sources 2-5b) whether Source 1 agrees or disagreesc) how well you think Source 1 sums them up.

22 October

25 October

28 October

Cuban Crisis timeline

The USA finds out that there are Sovietnuclear missiles in Cuba.

The USA announces that it willblockade Cuba to stop any moremissiles arriving. The US armyprepares to invade Cuba to get rid ofthe missiles that are there.

President Kennedy goes on nationaltelevision to tell the American publicwhat is happening. There is panicbuying in American supermarkets.

The Soviet leader, Khrushchev, tellshis advisers to expect an Americaninvasion of Cuba and to fight back if ithappens.

American warships stop a Soviet ship.This is technically an act of war. TheSoviet ship is only carrying oil so theAmericans let it through.

Over 120,000 American troopsassemble near the Florida coast.

Khrushchev offers to remove theCuban missiles if the USA promises notto invade Cuba and if the USA removesits missiles from Turkey.

Kennedy agrees.

Khrushchev announces that the USSRwill remove its missiles from Cuba inorder to protect world peace.

Using the sources to support an argument

Read through these statements carefully:A Nuclear war was very close in October 1962.B The media thought nuclear war was very close in

October 1962.C Ordinary people thought that nuclear war was

very close in October 1962.o People 'in the know' thought nuclear war was

very close in October 1962.Each statement is making a slightly different point ­they are similar, but not identical. For eachstatement explain:• which sources support the statement• why you feel the statement is supported by these

sources.Think carefully about each statement and be precisein your answers. You will find the timeline helpful.

Many people who were teenagers or older at thetime of the Cuban Crisis remember it vividly. Write ashort paragraph explaining why this might be. 18

Why was Cuba so important?

b!$i worM 'back yard'; launcher; spy plane

Cuba is an island in the Caribbean Sea. In the 1950s, theUSA regarded the Caribbean (and Central America) as itsterritory. Americans dominated Cuba. They went there forholidays. They owned big businesses. They had a largemilitary base at Guantanamo Bay.

In 1959, it all went badly wrong for the USA. It had beensupporting the man who ruled Cuba, Fulgencio Batista. Hewas corrupt and unpopular but he was not a Communist.The problem came when Fidel Castro, a Communist, led asuccessful revolution against Batista.

The USA was furious. It wanted to get rid of Castroquickly. American governments gave money and equipmentto Cubans who opposed Castro. In April 1961, these Cubanslanded in Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. They planned tooverthrow Castro. However, the whole operation was adisaster. American President John F Kennedy washumiliated.

Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev enjoyed the USA'sembarrassment. He was pleased that there was aCommunist state in the USA's 'BACK YARD' and he suppliedCuba with food, advisers and weapons. On the other hand,Khrushchev knew that if the USA decided to invade Cubaand remove Castro there was little he could do about it. Soone reason he wanted nuclear missiles on Cuba was toscare off the USA from invading Cuba.

Khrushchev had another reason, too - Turkey. You mightthink this is getting too complicated, but actually this part isquite simple. The USA had missiles in Turkey. Turkey wasclose to the USSR. Cuba was close to the USA. This wastypical Cold War logic - act tough, look strong. So, havingmissiles in Cuba was no different from the USA havingmissiles in Turkey.

N

T

--=") THE_~AHAMAS

,f\, . '\.":l '-\ _, ...

300 kmL.-____,_----;---"

Scale

... JAMAICA~

From these pages, you shouldbe able to explain:

• one reason why the USAdisliked Castro'sgovernment

• one reason why Khrushchevput nuclear missiles in

Cuba

• one reason why the USAobjected.

~ CARIBBEAN SEA

A map of Cuba.

SOURCE 6

1 Read Source 6. Khrushchevcalled the missiles in Cubala hedgehog in Uncle Sam'spants'. What do you think theAmericans would have thought?

The American missiles inTurkey are aimed at us andscare us. Why not throw a

hedgehog in Uncle Sam's pants?Our missiles in Cuba will be aimed

at the USA, even though wedon't have as many of them.

They will still be afraid.Khrushchev speaking in private to

other Soviet leaders, September 1962.

SOURCE 7

N

t~

SanFrancisco

ILos

• Angeles

- - - ------

Soviet missileships~

ICape Canaveral

Noe,W (space research)reans ~~

HaVa~nal\CU~A <:>"l. ,Guantanamo

/ J~e)Bay of ~Pigs

A map showing the range of missiles based in Cuba. Cuba was as closet~ th~ U~A-9s Tu~key"~a~o !he_USSR.

SOURCE 8

Acartoon from 1960. The notice held bythe US Secretary of State says to Castro in Cuba:

'I forbid you to make friend~wit~!~~ovi~ U~io~.'

The Cuban CrisisDuring September 1962, Soviet ships took40 nuclear missiles to Cuba. Khrushchevalso sent a huge amount of equipment tobuild missile LAUNCHERS, with experts to helpthe Cubans set them up. He even senttroops, tanks, jet fighters and anti-aircraftmissiles to protect the nuclear missiles.About 5000 Soviets went to Cuba alongwith the missiles. It was pretty hard to hideall of this.

On 14 October, an American U2 SPY PLANE

took a series of photographs of Cuba. Itwas the beginning of a two-week crisis thattook the world to the brink of nuclear war.The story of the crisis is summarised on thenext two pages.

2 Do you think Source 8 is pro­American or pro-Communist?Use the evidence in the cartoonto help you decide. 18

--21 OctoberExComm finally came up with aplan. The US navy was to blockadeCuba. This meant stopping all shipsgoing to Cuba. No more militaryequipment would be allowed in. Itwas risky. Stopping a Soviet shipwas technically an act of war.Kennedy admitted to his brotherRobert that it was 'one hell of agamble'.

26 October• Over 120,000 US troops assembled

near the Florida coast. An Americaninvasion of Cuba looked likely.

• Kennedy told ExComm that hewanted a deal to end the crisis.The Hawks still wanted an invasion.

• Kennedy got a letter from Khrushchev.The letter offered to remove themissiles if the USA promised not toinvade Cuba. Most of ExComm wantedto accept the offer.

~wordi diplomatic; piracy

The story of the crisis

25 OctoberUS warships stopped the first Sovietship. It was only carrying oil so they letit through.

16-20 OctoberUS President Kennedy formed an ExecutiveCommittee (ExComm) to advise him. For the nextthree days, ExComm argued about what to do.Some members of ExComm (the Hawks) wantedtough action such as:• a 'surgical' (very precise) air attack to destroy

the missile launch sites• an invasion of Cuba.Other ExComm members (the Doves) wanted lesstough steps such as:• DIPLOMATIC pressure• secret contact with the USSR to see if the two

could do a deal.

\\

/I/I

1\

11

If

\\ \\

From these two pages, try toremember:

• two pieces of evidence thatsuggest the world wasclose to nuclear war

• one reason why Kennedywas happy with theoutcome of the crisis

• one reason why Khrushchevwas happy with theoutcome of the crisis.

/j //

24 October• Secretary General of the UN,

UThant, called on both sides tocompromise.

• Khrushchev ordered Soviet shipsto stop heading for Cuba (but notto turn back).

• US armed forces went to levelDEFCON 2. This was the only timein the entire Cold War they got soclose to war.

14 OctoberA U2 spy plane took picturesof missile sites in Cuba.

18

Who won?The Cuban Crisis wasdesperately tense. In theend, however, both sidescould claim a victory.

Victory according toKhrushchevKhrushchev could claim thathe had a promise from theUSA to leave his ally Cubaalone. In addition, Americannuclear missiles were quietlyremoved from Turkey in1963.

Victory according toKennedyKennedy could claim asuccess for the policy ofcontainment. He had stoodup to Khrushchev and hisdecisive action removed thethreat of nuclear missilesbased in Cuba.

Victory according toplanet EarthPerhaps the most importantoutcome of the crisis wasthat the USA and the USSRset up a 'hot line'. This wasa direct phone link betweenthe American President andthe Soviet leader. Bothrealised that they had gotvery close to war.

In 1963, they agreed to aNuclear Test Ban Treaty. Itwas a small but importantstep towards reducing thethreat of nuclear destruction.

For the sakeof worldpeace ...

27 OctoberKhrushchev announced thatthe USSR would remove itsmissiles from Cuba in order toprotect world peace.

23 October• Khrushchev condemned the US

blockade. Secretly, he was gladthat the USA had not invaded Cuba.

• Castro ordered Cuban forces toget ready for an American invasion.

• Afleet of Soviet ships approachedCuba carrying more missiles.

• There was a panic buying in USsupermarkets as people preparedfor war.

1 You considered these four statements on page 181:A Nuclear war was very close in October 1962.B The media thought nuclear war was very close in October 1962.C Ordinary people thought that nuclear war was very close in

October 1962.D People 'in the know' thought nuclear war was very close in

October 1962.Now that you know more about the crisis, which do you think is themost accurate statement?

2 Some people say that the Cuban Missile Crisis made the world asafer place. Do you agree? Explain your answer.

27 October• Probably the most tense day of the crisis.

Cuban forces shot down a US spy plane.• Khrushchev sent another letter to Kennedy.

It made the same offer but also insistedthat the US missiles be removed fromTurkey.

• Kennedy did not agree immediately. But headmitted that, 'Khrushchev has us in apretty good spot here, because mostpeople will regard this as a reasonableproposal.'

• Kennedy accepted Khrushchev's offer butinsisted that the agreement to removemissiles from Turkey was to be kept secret.

22 October• US armed forces were put on alert

to level DEFCON 3, short for DefenceCondition 3. (DEFCON 1 meant all-outwar with the USSR.)

• President Kennedy went on nationaltelevision to tell the American publicwhat was happening.

• In Moscow, Khrushchev was moreand more sure that the USA wouldinvade Cuba. He told his advisers,'They can attack us and we shallrespond. This may end in a big war.'

11 9.4 Containment case study 3:the Vietnam War 1964-72

From these pages, aim torecall:

• two reasons whyCommunists were trying totake over South Vietnam

• two reasons why the USAgot involved in Vietnam.

~wordi guerrilla; peasant; Viet Cong

Why did the USA get involved in Vietnam inthe 1960s1

SOURCE 1

Background: up to 1954

Here's a very quick summary of the background.• Before the Second World War, the French ruled

Vietnam. Then the Japanese took over. The Communistleader Ho Chi Minh fought the Japanese. Most of theVietnamese peasants supported him.

• When the Japanese were defeated, the French tried totake back Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh fought them too. TheAmericans supported the French because they did notwant Vietnam to become Communist under Ho ChiMinh (see Source 1).

• Even with American help, the French could not beatHo Chi Minh. In 1954 they asked for peace talks.

• Vietnam was then divided into two new states. NorthVietnam became Communist, under Ho Chi Minh;South Vietnam was led by Ngo Dinh Diem. He wasanti-Communist, so the Americans supported him.

The domino theory in Asia. American governments were sure that Chinaand the USSR were planning to spread Communism to countries in Asia.

If one country fell to Communism, the others would fall like a row ofdominoes.

N

tCHINA

Mekong Delta

o 200kmI I

\w)-~ ,',~-- ,

:: SOUTH\ VIETNAM,

~'"i'-~Hue

• Da Nang

,,,,,,

LAOS

CAMBODIA

, --'_:":-'-/NORT~---;?

VIETNAMDien Bien Phu

• H'-,__ . _-__ anal.,.; "

Vietnam and surrounding countries.

,-'- .....

SOURCE 2

Key

D Communist-controlled areasin the mid-1960s

--+- Ho Chi Minh Trail

186

1954-64: The USA supports Diem

The USA supported Diem with money,equipment and military advisers whotrained South Vietnamese troops. Theadvisers were soldiers, but they were not'combat troops'.

Diem's regime was corrupt. It wasunpopular with Vietnamese PEASANTS. As aresult, Communists in South Vietnam(known as the VIET CONG) began to buildup support. They got help from Ho ChiMinh in North Vietnam. In the early1960s, they started attacking the SouthVietnamese army. They also attackedgovernment buildings and officials,including some Americans. They used hit­and-run GUERRILLA tactics, which were veryeffective. By 1962, they controlled muchof the countryside. During 1963 and 1964,this guerrilla war continued and tensionrose between North and South Vietnam.

1964 onwards: the USA sends combattroops

President Kennedy had been wary ofgetting more deeply involved in Vietnam.He was killed in 1963. The new President,Lyndon ]ohnson, decided that the USAhad to get serious about Vietnam or getout. The decisive moment came in 1964when North Vietnamese gunboatsattacked American warships off theVietnam coast.

In response, ]ohnson massivelyincreased American involvement. From1964, he sent hundreds of thousands ofyoung American soldiers to fight inVietnam (see Source 3). These figures donot include the warships, aircraft crewsand other troops, or the secret operationsrun by the CIA or the South Vietnamesetroops.

People thought, 'Surely the Viet Congwill never withstand such power?'

SOURCE 3

Kennedy Johnson Nixon

us troops in Vietnam 1960-74.

You are a young news reporter. Your editor hasasked you for a lOO-word caption to go with thisphoto of American soldiers in Vietnam to explainwhy the USA is sending its young men to Vietnam.Your readers are very anti-Communist.

Make sure your caption includes these words:• domino theory• Ho Chi Minh• Communism• South Vietnam.

Why did the USA get involved in Vietnam?M'IM'II---- am y ~ .. am y~

advisers combat troops

~

~

-

-

-

r-

-

J n~ 01960 61 62636465666768697071 72 73 74.. .. .. ~ ..

Eco.s 400Q)

:>c:.;;; 300....Q)(/).:;

-g 200'0c:co

~ 100oe+-'

~ 600c:co(/)

:::l

,g 500:t:::

188

Find nve reasons why theUSA could not defeat theViet Congo Make sure you canrecall:

• two or three strengths ofthe Viet Cong (withexamples)

• two or three weaknesses ofthe USA (with examples).

1954

1959

1960

1961

1962-63

1964

February 1965

March

June-September

November

1966

1967

January 1968

October

1969

1970-71

1972

Why couldn't the Americans defeat theViet Cong 1965-691

" draft; embassy; search and destroy; supplyroute; Vietnamisation

Timeline: American involvement in the Vietnam War

Vietnam is divided into North and South Vietnam.

The North Vietnam army creates the Ho Chi Minh Trail to carry supplies downto South Vietnam.

North Vietnam creates the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (usuallycalled the Viet Cong).

Around 16,000 American advisers help to organise the South Vietnam army.

The Viet Cong use guerrilla tactics against South Vietnam's army andgovernment. More American advisers and equipment arrive.

North Vietnamese patrol boats fire on American warships in the Gulf of Tonkin.The American Congress gives President Johnson the authority to do whateverhe thinks is necessary.

Operation Rolling Thunder - a gigantic bombing campaign against NorthVietnam. Factories and army bases are bombed, as well as the Ho Chi MinhTrail and the capital of North Vietnam, Hanoi.

The first American combat troops (3500 marines) come ashore at Da Nang.

A major Viet Cong offensive.

Battle in La Dreng Valley. The Communists suffer heavy losses.

American forces build heavily armed camps. They control towns. The Viet Conglargely control the countryside.

Continual running battles between American and Communist forces around theNorth-South Vietnam border. The Communists are unable to force outAmerican troops.

The Tet Offensive: a large-scale Communist attack on over 100 major townsand cities in South Vietnam. Even the American EMBASSY in Saigon is attacked.Some of the fiercest fighting of the war takes place. The city of Hue is nearlyflattened by intense fighting. Tet is a defeat for the Communists but is also amajor shock to the American military and public who thought the war wasalmost won. Intense fighting continues throughout 1968. Casualties on bothsides mount.

Operation Rolling Thunder finishes after three and a half years. More bombshave been dropped on North Vietnam than all the bombs dropped on Germanyand Japan during the Second World War.

The USA begins its policy of 'VIETNAMISATION'. This means building up the SouthVietnam army and withdrawing American combat troops. American air powercontinues to bomb North Vietnam.

Intense fighting continues throughout the year. This includes the Battle forHamburger Hill in May.

The fighting spreads to Cambodia.

Most American forces are now out of Vietnam. A major Communist offensive inMarch captures much ground. Most land is recaptured by the South Vietnamarmy by the end of the year.

Stop this Dan! We'respending loads of money onthis war. So explain to me in

words I can understand ­why can't we beat them?

Good news. We have totalair superiority. Our aircraft

are bombing all the Viet Congstrongholds.

Good news. The Viet Cong'sTet Offensive has failed

completely. They have suffered100,000 casualties.

Good news. We beat theViet Cong at La Dreng. Theylost 2000 troops. We lost300. They are no match for

us in open combat.

Good news. We've started'SEARCH AND DESTROY' missions.Our teams fly into an area and

search out and destroy the VietCong wherever they are.

Good news. The air force haslaunched Operation RollingThunder. We are bombing

Communist factories and fueldepots. We are bombing the HoChi Minh Trail. The Viet Cong willsoon have no equipment and no

reinforcements.

Good news. We have over400,000 young Americans

nghting in Vietnam. And hundredsof thousands more can be

DRAFTED when we need them.

FocustMk

You are Lieutenant Dan.Everything you have told theCongressman in 1965-68 iscorrect. Now he's put you on thespot and you have to tell him whythese measures have not workedas well as everyone had hoped.

On pages 190-91 is acollection of sources andcomments to help you with yourexplanation.

Stage 1

Draw up a table like this one.Use the sources and thecomments on the next twopages to complete it.

Americantactic

BombingSUPPLY ROUTES

Causing heavycasualties inopen warfare

Bombing VietCong bases

Search anddestroy

Sending moretroops

Why itwas not aseffectiveas hoped

Evidenceto supportthisconclusion

Stage 2

Now it is time to get readyto meet the Congressman.Use your completed table towrite three notes under eachof these main headings:

1 Why air power does nothave much effect on theViet Cong

2 Why American troops areless effective than VietCong troops

3 Why the Viet Cong seemto have plenty of soldiers,weapons and supplies.

18

SOURCE 4

.------------.-..COl\fJvrEl\TT •I( •I( Bombing does not work •• very Well against the •I( Viet Congo They hideI( themselves and their :• eqUipment in these •

- I( tunnels. The tunnels are •Rest of • often mined Or BOOBY Itunnr.:,. • TRApPED in CMe enemy I

forces find them. The CIA •:::--,,;:: estimate there are 240 •

kilometres of these •tunnels. •

-----------JAViet Cong tunnel complex.

. their hit-and-run tactics.AViet Cong poster showing

SOURCE 5

r-.---- __._._.. .,• COJlDlilElllT I• This is the main SUPply route for the Viet I: Gong fighters. Much of the equipment comes :

from China and the USSR. Our planes• reg'Ulaply attack the trail With bombs and :

CHEMICAL WEAPONS. However, as Soon as the1bombing stops, 40,000 Vietuamese people !

(mainly peasant women) Work to repair the " _'. . • Chi Minh Trail. • damage and keep SUPPlies moVing. I-~V-iet Cong troops on the Ho '"''' ..J

r----- ~

• C01WlVlEl\TT

: The Viet Gong are fighting a guerrllla war. TheyI( avoid Open combat. They attack American patrolsI( then Simply disappear into the villages or the jungle.• Our soldiers cannot fight an enemy they cannot see.• Viet Cong fighters have Control of the countrYside.• They execute peasants who co-operate with the• South Vietnam government. They have killed anI. estimated 27,000 civilians. But they help any• peasants who support them. They even help the• peasants with their farming at harvest time.

~---------------------

190

SOURCE 8

A scene from the Tet Offensive, January 1968. The Viet Cong launch ahuge attack on Saigon and many other major towns and cities in South

Vietnam. They are beaten and suffer heavy losses.

--------. !KWr - - - - - • ~worM booby trap; chemical weapons

------tco~ d -ungle warfare .a----------------------------,

• GuerrUla an ~e of the • SOURCE 7• s the mor •• ~erican troops. f • I remember sitting at this wretched little outpost one day• Forty per cen: ~re drafted. with a couple ofmy sergeants_ This one sergeant ofmine• -can troOP ~l· 'd k· d h.A1D-er1 . ted) They oJ.Uy • sat, 'You now Lzeutenant, I on't see ow we're ever~ (CO~c~: on~ year so they • going to win this.' And I said, 'Well, 5arge, I'm not• :.:'inezPerienced. ~ters ~ supposed to say this to you as your officer- but I don't• contrast, Viet G~:nced, • either.' 50 there was this sense that we just couldn't see• are usua1l~e:me ground • what could be done to defeat these people.

~ ~rt~e~°are to~~use. ~ Philip Caputo, a lieutenant in the Marine Corps in Vietnam in 1965-66.• dica

ted to the __ ..,~ ---- ~~-------- ~ .

• CO~ .....•III We beat b •"Off, . ack the Tet •• enslve easil• shocked th y, but it has •

public Tb e American •• Viet c· ey thought the •

•- beatenO~h Were almost •

la ,en theyunched this attae •_. k...-..-... ..............~ .................... ,........ .CO~ •

are much •Viet Gong losses . •.....;rl"her than AIIlerlcan . 111.uJ.&U- the Vlet ..losses. However, •Gong are prepared to •

t heavy losses. The •accep . will not.

• AIIlerican publiC ~ __ ..,)1

-----------SOURCE 9

...................... .,r ••co~ •• It is hard for the search and •• ....... ;osioUS to tell the •• destroy .LLJJ.U • •

difference between orcliD&ry •• ants and Viet Gong fighters.• p~a~. et killed by miStake. •~ =s;acre has shocked the

dIII li and weak-ene• AIIlerican pub c• support for the war. ..,) Vietnamese civilians massacred by American.... -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- troops on a search and destroy mission at My Lai,

March 1968. The search and destroy missionsaim to find and kill Viet Cong fighters.

191

Try to remember four keypoints from these two pages:

• two effects of the VietnamWar in Vietnam

• two main reasons whythere was opposition tothe war in the USA.

Why did the USA pull its soldiers out ofVietnam?

b¥#' word veteran

By 1968, the war was a stalemate. The USA could not defeatthe Viet Congo The Viet Cong could not drive out the USA.

However, American public opinion could. As publicsupport for the war drained away in the USA, the Presidentbegan to scale down the American forces. By the end of1973, they had left Vietnam completely. Why did theAmericans pull out?

The media warNewspaper and television journalists covered every aspectof the war in detail. The media brought the reality of warinto people's living rooms.

• They reported the effects of American bombing on theVietnamese people - they showed orth Vietnamesecivilians dead or homeless.

• They interviewed prisoners of war who had beentortured, and showed prisoners of war being executed.

• They filmed the effects of chemical weapons used bythe USA.

The peace movementIt is no surprise that, with no end in sight,public opinion began to turn against thewar. Students in American universities helddemonstrations all over the country. Theytaunted President Lyndon ]ohnson with thechant:'Hey, Hey, LB], how many kids did you killtoday?'

The media also showed the impact of thewar on the USA itself:

• the body bags containing deadAmericans. By the end of the war, theUSA had suffered over 200,000 dead andwounded

• the cost of the war to the Americaneconomy - 20 billion a year.

The memorial to American Vietnam War VETERANS inWashington DC.

SOURCE 10

192

We are not winning and can't win.

What we are doing to theVietnamese people is immoral.

We don't want any more of ouryoung people killed.

This war is tearing the USAapart and costing us dear.

Why are we trying to defeatCommunism anyway? If they want

to be Communist, let them.

Many American school pupils gotinvolved in the anti-war protestsin the 1960s. You and yourfriends have got together to writea leaflet called 'Why the USAshould leave Vietnam'. What willyou say?

Many of these students became 'draft dodgers' - theyrefused to serve in Vietnam. In November 1969, around700,000 protesters marched on Washington DC. This wasthe largest single protest in American history. In March1970, National Guard troopers shot dead four studentprotesters. This caused public uproar.

Not only students protested. In October 1969, about onemillion Americans joined a nationwide anti-war protest.Fifty members of the US Congress took part. Protest becamemore intense the following year. In April 1971, 2300Vietnam War veterans held an anti-war protest inWashington.

The peace movement brought together all sorts of peoplewho had different reasons for wanting the USA to get out ofVietnam, as you can see on the left.

Not all Americans supported the peace movement, ofcourse. But it was obvious that the USA was not united insupport of the Vietnam War.

SOURCE 11

The Washington DC protest march, November 1969. 193

detente; honour; independence; orbit; summit

How did the USA get out of Vietnam?Try to remember two factorsthat helped the USA pull itsforces out of Vietnam.

A cartoon from the Daily Telegraph,30 January 1973.

SOURCE 12

Nixon was pleased with the deal. He talkedabout 'peace with HONOUR'. However, thepeace did not last. North Vietnam invadedthe South in December 1974. In April 1975,the South Vietnam capital, Saigon, fell to theCommunists.

The USA was looking for a way to get outof Vietnam as early as 1968. This aimbecame stronger when Richard Nixonbecame President in 1969.

• From April 1969 to late 1971, he built upthe South Vietnamese army. This policywas called 'Vietnamisation'. At the sametime, Nixon steadily withdrew Americantroops (200,000 of them by 1972).

• Nixon's Secretary of State, HenryKissinger, began talks with NorthVietnam in 1969.

• Nixon pushed South Vietnam tocompromise with the North. He alsoasked the USSR and China to get North SOURCE 13Vietnam to compromise with the South.

• In March 1973, North and South Vietnamsigned a peace agreement in Paris. Thelast American forces left Vietnam.

The fall of South Vietnam

Detente after VietnamA scene at the American embassy in Saigon, April

1975. An embassy official is punching a man in theface to make him let go of the helicopter.

After the war, relationships between thesuperpowers improved. The USA wascounting the cost of Vietnam. It was morecautious and was also trying to cut back onarms spending. China and the USSR fell outwith each other and so both tried to get onbetter terms with the USA. Arms spendingwent down. Soviet and American leadersmet at so-called 'SUMMIT' meetings. The ColdWar seemed to be thawing. This period is

194 known as DETENTE.

1 Sources 12 and 13 seem to contrast withPresident Nixon's claim that the USA achievedpeace with honour. Explain fully how and why theydo not support his claim.

2 Put yourself in Nixon's position and try to defendyour claim. You could refer to:• why it was important to get out of Vietnam• what you think the main American

achievements were in Vietnam.

SOURCE 17

Missing words

lost another roundORBITfree peoplesINDEPENDENCE

usour part of the world

defenceChinesesymbolother parts of the worldarmed

SOURCE 15

First is the simple fact thatSouth Vietnam, a memberofthe free worldfamily, isstriving to preserve its r. ....Jfrom Communist attack.Second, South-East Asia hasgreat significance in theforward r. ....J oftheUSA. For Hanoi, theimmediate object is limited:conquest ofthe south andnational unification. ForPeking, however, Hanoi'svictory would only be a firststep towards r. .. .. Jdominance ofSouth-EastAsia and towardsexploitation ofthe newstrategy in r. .... J.

Robert McNamara, US DefenceSecretary, speaking in 1964.

Hanoi was the capital of NorthVietnam; Peking was the capital

of China.

2 Read through your completed Sources 14-17 carefully. Make a listof the concerns of American politicians between 1947 and the early1960s.

3 Now look back over at least two of the three main Cold Warconfrontations you have studied in this chapter. For each one, fill outa table like this.

SOURCE 14

It must be the policy ofthe United states to support r. ....J whoare resisting take-over by r. ....J minorities inside their owncountries or by outside pressures . . . The free peoples oftheworld look to r. ....Jfor support in protecting theirfreedom.

President Truman setting out the idea of containment in 1947.

.IfKhrushchev's going to get this mean on this one in r. .....hthen we have no choice.President Kennedy talking to his brother about Khrushchev's decision to

put missiles in Cuba in October 1962.

Did containment work?

1 In Chapters 8 and 9, you have found out quite alot about the American policy of containment. Nowthat you are an expert, read Sources 14-17 andfit the missing words into the correct source.Your teacher can tell you if you are right.

SOURCE 16

Korea is a r. .... J to the watching world. Ifwe allow Korea tofall within the Soviet r. .....h the world will feel we have r. .... Jin our match with the Soviet Union.

The US State Department commenting on Korea in 1950.

Case study ... Case study ...Why was the USA concerned?

What was American policy?

What aspects of each eventwould the USA see as a success?

What aspects would the USA seeas a failure?

Was this event a success or afailure for containment?

4 Finally, decide whether you think the USA's policy of containmentwas an effective policy in 1947-75 and write two sentences toexplain your view.

1

Eastern Europe1953-89

11 10. 1 How did Stalin and Khrushchev controlEastern Europe?

Make sure you can write onesentence each to describe:

de-Stalinisation; loyal; luxury goods; NATO;peaceful coexistence; political prisoner;secret police; Warsaw Pact

Black Sea

, Key......, .. .!~\

" D Territory taken over\ by USSR at end ofU~SR Second World War

: D Soviet-dominated• , Communist

POLAND _' governments'-;,j WEST \----tra'g\J~_" :, D Other Communist

',,~~RMANY \~?~~~OSLG~~~~t __ ', _'~._-,_ governmentsFRANCE, "_ ,-r ~

----)-:-\-'!---:AG~TRIA/>-)~da~,est---'SWITZE,~~~,~.,',:r""\'_v"_,--_A,, HUNGARY ROMANIA

..)-_~I \ \_ ....... _ .... '::

.: '.- ',., Bucharest, Belgrade. c\,-~ .,

'- YUGOSLAVIA::':-------) "--,)BULGARI __

/''''~ ... I' I, ~~

LBA' IA~'F--«::'--'-~/ TURKEY

~:GR c:u<""'.. ~ _(1

-~OkmOScale n

?~ ~ j

• how Stalin ruled EasternEurope

• one way in whichKhrushchev appeared to bedifferent to Stalin in 1955.

Stalin -tough guy?

Stalin ruled the USSR and Eastern Europewith an iron grip.

Each of the Eastern European states wassupposed to be just a friendly ally of theUSSR. Each state was supposed to be runby its own national Communist Party.

In fact, it was rather different. Stalincontrolled the leaders, the economies, theSECRET POLICE and just about everything elsein Eastern Europe. Only Yugoslavia was at

196 all independent.

A"'~'. ~'J.. •._--,Which of the two leaders, Stalin or Khrushchev, doyou think might have said the following?

( We must help the poor eat well,dress well and live well.

Everyone imposes his ownsystem (on a country) as far as

his army has power to do so.

( You will do what I say, and youwill appoint who I want.

We must work together toprotect each other from capitalist

aggression.

Peaceful coexistence betweendifferent systems of government

is possible.

Support your choice with evidence from these twopages.

The Warsaw PactOne topic appearing throughout thischapter is the WARSAW PACT - so let's beclear what this was. Just like Stalin,Khrushchev believed that the security of theUSSR depended on keeping the countriesof Eastern Europe strong and on the side ofthe USSR.

In 1949, anti-Communist countries hadset up an alliance called the North AtlanticTreaty Organisation (NATO). In 1955,Khrushchev forced all of the EasternEuropean states to join a Communistalliance called the Warsaw Pact.All members promised that if one state wasthreatened, they would help to defend it.The USSR was determined to keep allcountries LOYAL to this pact. So to keep thealliance strong, Soviet troops w~re basedin each country.

Khrushchev -nice guy?

Stalin died in 1953. In 1955, Nikita Khrushchev becameleader of the USSR.

At first he seemed very different from Stalin:

• Khrushchev talked about 'PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE' ­Communist countries living in peace with Westerncountries.

• He criticised Stalin for being a harsh dictator and releasedthousands of POLITICAL PRISONERS in the USSR.

• He brought in economic reforms to give people morefood and LUXURY GOODS.

These policies were called 'DE-STALINISATION'. However, noone quite knew how far Khrushchev would go. Over thenext 25 years, different Eastern European countries testedout the USSR to find out just how much freedom it wouldgive them. On pages 198-211, you are going to find outhow the Soviet Union dealt with protests in Hungary,Berlin, Czechoslovakia and Poland. 197

Trouble in HungaryIn October 1956, anti-Soviet protests erupted in Hungary.

• Hungarians were fed up with their leader, Gero, who hadbeen chosen by the Soviet Union. They wanted tochoose their own leader.

• There were thousands of Soviet troops in Hungary. Theprotesters wanted them out.

• Communist Party officials controlled everything from thepolice to factories to schools. The protesters wantedmore say in how these were run.

• The AVO (the secret police) arrested anyone whocriticised the government. The protesters wanted moreFREEDOM OF SPEECH.

• Hungary's factories produced goods for the USSR insteadof things Hungarians wanted to buy. The protestersdemanded economic reforms to bring about a betterstandard of living.

• All farms were owned or controlled by the governmentand told what to grow. Their produce was also ownedand distributed by the government. People wanted anend to this system called COLLECTIVISATION. Farmerswanted their land back.

~ 11 10.2 Why did Khrushchev send tanks into~ Hungary in 1956?~ .------...---------------------,.... collectivisation; freedom of speech

Check that you understand:

• two reasons why theHungarians rebelled

• how Khrushchev reacted atnrst, then how he changedhis mind.

• •ArhJHJ'1J

1 The crowd in this picture has pulled down a statueof Stalin.a) Do you think this really happened? Was the

crowd brave enough to do this or has the artistgone too far?

b) How could you check if this is true?2 Look at the list above of Hungarian complaints in

1956. Work with a partner to draw up someprotest banners that might have appeared in thecrowd. Remember, protest banners are usuallytwo or three words long. For example, one bannermight say 'Ger6, get out!'

198

Khrushchev's responses

25 October -crush it!

Gero asked Khrushchev for the use ofSoviet troops to crush the demonstrations.On 25 October, Khrushchev sent 30,000troops to do just that. However, things didnot go well. There was fierce fighting,and some of the troops seemed tosympathise with the protesters.

A · - -·11~aw ......y

Imagine Khrushchev is writing in his private diary.What might he have written about:a) the day he got the request from Gerb (Was he in

two minds over whether to help Gerb?)b) the day he ordered in the troops (What did he

expect to happen?)c) the day he got the news of what had happened

(Was he surprised, worried, angry? What mightbe in his mind to do next?)

28 October -give in!

Khrushchev changed his approach. Hesacked Gero and appointed Imre Nagy asHungary's new leader. Nagy wasdefinitely the people's choice. Hepromised reforms in Hungary and thismade the Hungarians happy. Nagy alsopromised to be a loyal ally to Moscow,which made Khrushchev happy. On 28October, Khrushchev ordered Soviettroops to pull out of Hungary. However,he increased the number of Soviet troopson the Hungarian border.

1 Khrushchev often found himselfin a no-win situation overHungary. Look at his actions atthe end of October 1956. Howwould his actions be seen by:• the Hungarians• a Soviet politician who

believed in Stalin's way ofdoing things?

SOURCE 1 SOURCE 2

These four flags tell Hungary's story since the SecondWorld War. Flag A is the Hungarian flag that the

Communists introduced when they took power afterthe war. Flag B shows the changes the Hungarians

made to the flag during the uprising in 1956. Flag C isthe Hungarian flag after the Communists regained

control, and Flag D is the flag after Communist ruleended in 1989.

199

Hungarians standing on a fallen statue in the centreof Budapest, 1956.

B

D

A

c

1 Make a list of all the actions taken by the Hungarians inOctober 1956.

2 Explain why it was amazing that Khrushchev accepted these actions.3 Explain why some Soviet leaders were worried.4 Do you think Khrushchev was a decisive or an indecisive leader?

Test yourself to see if youcan remember:

• two important changesbrought in by Nagy

• two reasons whyKhrushchev sent tanksinto Hungary.

clamp down; imperialist; rebellion

200

Nagy's new HungaryNagy set about reforming Hungary. Heintroduced free elections so that non­Communists could try to get elected. Hestarted giving land back to farmers and hegot rid of the secret police.

Ordinary Hungarians began to set uptheir own local councils and took control ofthe police, factories and schools.

Khrushchev gives the go-ahead. ..

Amazingly, Khrushchev made an officialstatement on 30 October agreeing to whatwas happening.

... others are not so sure!

He)wever, behind the scenes, many Sovietleaders were worried. They thought Nagywas being used by the Americans, or by.opponents of Communism in Hungary, orby both!

Communist leaders of other countries inEastern Europe were worried that theHungarian protest would spread to theirown countries if no action was taken.

SOURCE 3

The centre of Budapest, 1956.

What about the Warsaw Pact?On 1 November, Imre Nagy declaredHungary to be a neutral country. He madeit clear that Hungary was pulling out of theWarsaw Pact. This action made Khrushchevand others in the USSR sure that events inHungary were part of an anti-Soviet plot.(In fact, there was no plot, but Khrushchevdid not know what we know now.)

Will the USA help?

On 3 November, Soviet troops and tanksmoved back into Hungary. Nagy called forhelp from the USA, but none came. TheWestern powers were already caught up ina dispute over the Suez canal in the MiddleEast. Also, Hungary was too close to theUSSR for the USA to get involved.

Death in the streets

Nagy called on the Hungarian people toresist the Soviet forces. Hard fightingfollowed. There were over 2000 Sovietcasualties and around 4000 Hungarianswere killed. Some 200,000 more fled thecountry.

Clamp-down

A new Hungarian leader, Kidar, tookcontrol. He was backed by the USSR. In themonths that followed, he CLAMPED DOWN onthe REBELLION. Around 35,000 Hungarianswere arrested and 300 were executed,including Imre Nagy.

FoautarkWhy did Khrushchev send tanks into Hungary in 1956?

In December 1959, the Communist government in Hungary published areport on the events of 1956. Here is a summary of what it said.

Factor that caused the violence of 1956 Importance of the factor according to theCommunists' report

Actions of the Hungarian governments before 1956 Essential factor

The actions of Imre Nagy Very serious factor

Actions of opponents of Communism inside The second most important factorHungary

Actions of internationallMPERALlSTS, led by the USA, The biggest single factorintended to stir up trouble

Look carefully at the conclusions of the report and the information onpages 198-200. Decide how far you agree with the report's findings.Draw up a table like this:

Factor Evidence Importance Explanation

1 Look at each factor and note down any evidence from the last threepages that supports the view that it was a factor.

2 Decide whether you agree with the report's view on how important itwas. Explain its importance in column 4.

3 Add new rows to your table listing any other factors that you think thereport missed out - for example, the actions of the USSR orKhrushchev's de-Stalinisation policies.

4 Rearrange your new list of factors in order of importance. You coulduse a table like this:

Factors (in order of How/why this factor caused Evidence that supports theimportance) the violence of 1956 view that this was a cause

of violence

Extel1.SUJ11./

5 Write your own report on why there was such violence in Hungary in1956. Include all of the factors in your table. Remember to say howimportant you think each factor was.

201

~ FDClMtMk~4::) In the rest of this chapter, you are going to investigate three more casea studies of Soviet control of Eastern Europe. Based on what you have read~ about Hungary, how do you think the Soviet Union will deal with each of the.... following situations?

Berlin 1961In the heart of CommunistEast Germany is capitalistWest Berlin. This city hasalways been a worry - now itis getting dangerous. It's fullof American troops. Thecapitalist countries arepouring money into it to makeit a boom town. The workersof East Germany look onjealously. Many of them wantto leave East Germany to livein West Berlin where they canenjoy a much higher standardof living.

Czechoslovakia 1968A new Prime Minister hasbeen elected. He is aCommunist and is loyal to theSoviet Union. But he has saidthat farmers, not CommunistParty officials, should decidewhat crops to grow. He hasallowed Czech journalists tointerview political leaders onTV and radio and ask themawkward questions. What willthe Soviet Union do?

Poland 1980An illegal trade union has beenset up, which has organised awave of strikes all overPoland. The strike leaders arecalling for more pay; a betterstandard of living; an end tocensorship; workers to getthe same welfare benefits aspolice and Communist Partyworkers; church services tobe broadcast on radio and TV;workers to elect their ownfactory managers.

Write your ideas of how the Soviet Union will respond in columns 2and 3 of a chart like this. Keep it and see if you were right.Then fill out column 4.

202

Situation

Berlin

Czechoslovakia

Poland

I think the Soviet Union will . .. Explanation What actually happened

10. Why did Khrushchev build the Berlin Wallin 1961?

203The Berlin Wall six to nine months after Source lA.

SOURCE 18

What was the Berlin Wall?

IKey worM barricade; permit

At the end of the Second World War, the Allies divided, Berlin between them (see page 162). The USSR controlled

East Berlin and the Americans, British and Frenchcontrolled West Berlin. There was a border between thetwo sections of the city, but there was no wall. Berlinerscould travel back and forth between East and West. Manyworked in the West and lived in the East; a few did theopposite. It was one of the few places in Europe wherethere was free access between the Communist world andthe capitalist world.

Early in the morning of 13 August 1961, Soviet workmenarrived at the edge of the Soviet sector. They unloadedwood and barbed wire. Metre by metre, they built a woodand wire BARRICADE all along the border. By the end of theday, the city was split. Border guards had orders to shootanyone who tried to cross without a PERMIT.

Within a week, buildings that lay on the Soviet side ofthe border had their windows bricked up. Within a month,the barbed wire fence was being replaced by a brick andconcrete wall. In a very short time, the wall had highwatch towers and machine-gun posts with armed guards,dogs and even minefields.

You need to be able to give:

., two reasons whyKhrushchev built theBerlin Wall

• an explanation of eachreason.

SOURCE lA

The very early stages of the BerlinWall, summer 1961.

How did people react to the wall?

Some people in East Berlin panicked.There was a scramble throughout the firstday to get to the West. Within a week,there was a casualty. Rudolf Urban diedtrying to jump across the wall from anupstairs window. Many more deaths wouldfollow.

West Berliners got pretty worried, too. Itlooked like the Soviet Union was squaringup for a fight. Khrushchev had alreadywarned the Americans to get out of Berlinor face a war. This looked like one steptowards it. West Berliners held a huge rallyon 17 August calling on the AmericanPresident, John F Kennedy, to keep troopsin Berlin and not give in to Soviet bullying.Kennedy reassured them.In fact, he sent 1500 extratroops to the city.

Tension mounted; peoplewaited; the world watched.On the tensest day -27 October - Soviet and UStanks drew up on eitherside of the wall. They wereonly 100 metres away fromturning a Cold War into aHot War. But nothinghappened. No shots werefired and the tanks backedoff. The Americans did nottry to reopen the border.

A tense stalematefollowed. Kennedy said:'It's not a very nicesolution, but a wall is a hellof a lot better than a war.'And 28 years later, the wallwas still there.

SOURCE 2

The tension rose rapidly because this wasAmericans confronting Russians. It wasn'tEast Germans. There was live ammunitionin the tanks on both sides. It was anunexpected, sudden confrontation that inmy opinion was the closest the Russiansand the Americans came to going to war inthe entire Cold War period.

The views of Colonel Jim Attwood of the US armybased in Berlin. Attwood was describing the events

of 27 October 1961 when Soviet and Americantanks faced each other.

SOURCE 3

204

East Berlin and French West Berlin police confront each other over agap blown in the Berlin Wall by explosive laid on the East Berlin side,

May 1962.

Why did Khrushchev build thewall?The wall caused enormous and lastingtension between the USA and theUSSR. Some people at the time thought thatit might even spark off a full-scale nuclearwar. So why did Khrushchev take such ahuge risk? Here are two possibleexplanations:

• to keep the East Germans in• to warn the West Germans and

Americans to stay out.

1 This will stopEast Germans

leaving EastGermany.

2 This will stop thecapitalists trying to interfere in

the affairs of East Germany.You have to act tough.

Why did Khrushchev build the Berlin Wall?

You have two possible explanations why Khrushchev built the Berlin Wall.There is evidence to support them both. Unfortunately, it is all scraps,but sometimes that's all historians have to work with!

1 Look at the scraps of evidence and decide which explanation eachscrap supports. A sorting grid will help you.

Explanation 1

Points for Points against

Explanation 2

Points for Points against

Between 1948 and 1961, one sixth of thepopulation of East Germany (2.8 million people) leftCommunist East Germany and fled to WestGermany via Berlin.

In 1955, West Germany joined NATO and beganto rearm.

In 1961, West German leader Konrad Adenauercalled for East and West Germany to be unitedagain.

At a meeting in Vienna in June 1961, Khrushchevtold President Kennedy to pull American troops outof Berlin altogether or risk war.

Khrushchev wanted to strengthen his hold on EastGermany. American forces based in West Berlinthreatened that control.

Most historians think that Khrushchev was bluffingat the Vienna meeting! It was the first time he hadmet Kennedy, who had been President for only fourmonths. Khrushchev wanted to test him.

Living and working conditions in West Germanywere far better for most people than they were inEast Germany.

Most people fleeing Communist East Germany wereyoung, skilled workers or educated professionals,such as teachers, lawyers and doctors. EastGermany needed these people to make its owneconomy successful.

205

The Brezhnev Doctrine

b¥#' WOrM Brezhnev Doctrine; planner

10.4 Czechoslovakia 1968: a repeat of 1956?

IFrom this section and pages198-201, you need to be ableto explain:

11

• two ways in which 1956and 1968 were similar

• two ways in which theywere different.

Leonid Brezhnev replaced Khrushchev as leader of theSoviet Union in 1964. Brezhnev was not a reformer likeKhrushchev. He believed that:

• the USSR should keep tight control of Eastern Europe• Communist countries should be one-party states• nothing should interfere with Communist Party control of

people's lives• Communist countries should be loyal to the Warsaw Pact.

His views later became known as the BREZHNEV DOCfRINE.These views faced their first test when Alexander Dubcekbecame leader of Czechoslovakia in 1968.

Loyalcommunist~

Believed in theWarsaw Pact

Dubcek~ Pro-Russian

Believed in a one-party~ state, but thought the

Communists shouldallow free speech, theinvolvement of ordinarypeople in decisionmaking, and economicreform

206

Imagine you could readBrezhnev's personal diary. Whatmight he have written in his diaryon these dates?

Here are some suggestedstarters:

January 1968: New leader inCzechoslovakia called Dubeek.I think ...February 1968: Dubeek just

made a speech to Czechfarmers. I ...April 1968: This Dubeekcharacter is ...

Dubcek's reformsDubcek was soon putting his beliefs into action.

• In his first speech (February 1968), he told farmers thatthey should decide what crops to grow - not CommunistParty economic PLANNERS.

• In April 1968, he published the Action Programme. Thisgave more power to ordinary workers and managers infactories.

• He allowed Czech journalists to interview politicalleaders on TV and radio. The journalists asked veryawkward questions about whether the USSR's influencewas good for Czechoslovakia.

These events are known as 'the Prague Spring'.

Communist reactionsYou might think that Dubcek's views were quitereasonable. However, at the time, this kind of thing wasunheard of in' Eastern Europe.

Communist leaders in other Eastern European countriesurged Brezhnev to stop Dubcek. If Czechoslovakia hadthese freedoms, then people in Poland, Hungary and EastGermany would want them as well.

Soviet politicians were also alarmed. Could they trustDubcek when he said he supported the Warsaw Pact?Could they control Dubcek if he got rid of the secret police?Were the Americans supporting Dubcek?

Brezhnev held a crisis meeting with Dubcek between29 July and 1 August. He demanded that Dubcek clampdown on the media. Dubcek agreed some restrictions. Thenon 9-11 August, Dubcek welcomed Yugoslavia's MarshalTito to Czechoslovakia on a visit. This was not very clever.Tito was a Communist leader, but he refused to follow theorders of the USSR. The visit made Brezhnev wonderwhether Dubcek was going to behave like Tito.

The tanks roll in SOURCE 1

againOn 21 August 1968,Brezhnev decided thatenough was enough. He senttanks and paratroopers intoPrague. Half a million troops(including forces from EastGermany and Hungary)soon followed. Moscowradio claimed that the Czechgovernment had invited theSoviet troops. The Soviettroops thought they werehelping Czechoslovakia todefeat American and anti­Communist forces, whichwere threatening thecountry.

Dubcek called for calm.There was some resistance tothe Soviet forces, but not asmuch as in Hungary in 1956.Estimates put the deaths atbetween 80 and 200. Czechs arguing with Soviet tank commanders in Prague, August 1968. 207

The aftermath SOURCE 2

Dubcek and all his ministers were arrestedand taken to Moscow. Dubcek wasreplaced by Gustav Husak whom Brezhnevtrusted to follow the Soviet line. Dubcekwas given a new job in Turkey but, twoyears later, he was thrown out of the partyand carefully removed from Communisthistory (see Source 2).

Husak restored strict party control overall aspects of Czech life. Soviet troops wereplaced in the country. The Czech peopledid not resist, or at least not openly. But inJanuary 1969, the whole country ground toa halt, to show how people felt. The Czechice hockey team beat the USSR. It was asmall victory, but the massive celebrationsshowed the bitterness Czechs felt towardsBrezhnev and the USSR.

This photograph was changed by Communist censorsafter Dubcek was thrown out of the Communist Party.

Dubcek is marked with an arrow in the first picture.

208

FDeJ,t,ftaskHow similar were events in Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968?

1 Look back over your work on Hungary (pages 198-201) andCzechoslovakia (pages 206-8). Complete a table like this tocompare the two rebellions.

Feature of the rebellion Hungary 1956 Czechoslovakia 1968

Aims of rebels

Attitude of rebels to Soviet control

Attitude of rebels to Warsaw Pact

Attitude of Soviet leader towards the rebels

Attitude of other Warsaw Pact countries

Action taken by USSR

Resistance to Soviet action

Treatment of rebels

Clamp-down

2 Underline or highlight the similarities between Hungary andCzechoslovakia in one colour. Mark the differences between them inanother colour.

11 10.5 How important was Solidarity in Poland?

From this section, aim toexplain:

• two reasons why Solidaritybecame important

• one reason why it fell• two reasons why you think

it was an importantorganisation.

b!$W wordi incompetence; privilege

The rise of SolidarityIn the 1970s, Poland was heavily in debt. Poland'sCommunist leader, Gierek, tried to solve the problem byraising food prices and holding down wages. He hoped thatthis would bring the government extra income so that itcould payoff its debts.

This may look like a sensible solution to the crisis, butworkers in Poland did not see it that way. They felt that:

• government INCOMPETENCE caused the crisis in the firstplace

• most government leaders and police officials had luxuryflats, private health care and other PRIVILEGES

• if workers had to pay for the country's problems, theyshould have a true say in how it was run.

The workers' unhappiness showed in the shipyards in thecity of Gdansk in 1980. Heavy industries such as coal, steeland shipbuilding were very important in Poland, and theyemployed thousands of workers. The Gdansk shipyardsbecame the centre of protest for all these workers. They setup a committee to demand a say in how the economy wasrun. Then in September, it joined with similar groups fromacross Poland to form a trade union called Solidarity. Theunion was controlled by the workers, not by theCommunist Party.

Solidarity's demands

Solidarity soon became massively popular. It had a well­liked leader, Lech Walesa, and the full support of theCatholic Church, which was the most powerful organisationin Poland apart from the Communist Party. By January 1981,Solidarity had 9.4 million members. It looked as thoughSolidarity had real power - it was almost an alternativegovernment. For example, Solidarity demanded that Gierekresign, and he did! He was followed by Kania. Solidaritydemanded to be recognised as a legal organisation, andKania did so.

209

In September 1981, a Solidarity CONGRESS was held. This waspretty amazing - a non-Communist organisation holding ahuge congress in the middle of a Communist country!Speakers at the congress called on workers in othercountries to set up their own unions.

SOURCE 1

Solidarity~

Catholic Church LArmy fff

Communist Party ~

Key • Have confidence D No confidence

The results of an opinion poll in Poland,November 1981. People were asked whether theyhad confidence in key organisations in Poland. It is

known that 11 per cent of those polled wereCommunist Party members.

Anti-Communist countries loved Solidarity. They enjoyedany development that challenged the Communists. Therewere millions of Americans who had Polish ancestors andthey strongly supported Solidarity. Money flooded in. TheSolidarity logo became a popular car sticker all overWestern Europe! Walesa was interviewed on internationalnews programmes as if he was a major political figure.

A".-· ..~-

How this contributed to the rise ofSolidarity

Factor

Why did Solidarity become an important force in Poland?

This table shows some reasonswhy Solidarity became a majorforce.

1 Complete your own copy of thetable.

2 Choose one factor that youthink is most important andexplain your choice.

Government policies

Privileges ofgovernment officials

Religion

Support fromWestern states

210

~ wtJydi activist; congress; martial law

The fall of Solidarity. Unfortunately for Solidarity, it was not as strong as it

thought. In October 1981, Poland got another new leader,General Jaruzelski, head of the army. Brezhnev told himthat he would send Soviet troops into Poland if he did notclamp down on Solidarity.

Jaruzelski declared MARTIAL LAW in December 1981. Hearrested Lech Walesa and around 10,000 other SolidarityACTIVISTS. In January 1982, Poland's Parliament declaredSolidarity illegal. Its members did not resist. They knew thatthe Soviet army would come in and help the Polish army ifnecessary. There was no violence as there was in Hungaryin 1956 or Czechoslovakia in 1968.

As an organisation, Solidarity simply disappeared,although its former members continued to oppose theCommunist regime in different ways - for example, they ranan illegal radio station.

However, the rise and fall of Solidarity carried two simplemessages for all Communist governments in EasternEurope.

• Many ordinary working people were fed up with livingunder Communist rule.

• Communist rule depended on Soviet military power. Ifthe USSR stopped backing the Communist governmentsin Eastern Europe, they would crumble.

FDCMtMk Extt!AUtolf/How important was Solidarity? 3 Bad news! Your programme has to be cut to 30

1 You are planning a one-hour documentary about minutes. You must either cut all topics by half orcut two topics altogether. Which option will youSoviet control of Eastern Europe 1948-81. Your choose? If you cut two topics, which will you cut?programme should cover: To help you think this through, draw up a chart like

• Hungary 1956 this for each topic.• Berlin 1961• Czechoslovakia 1968 Reasons X Reasons X• Poland 1980-81. is important is not importantWork in a group to decide how much time you willgive to each topic. -

2 Write one paragraph to explain your decision. 4 Write another paragraph to explain your decision.211

11 10.6 Why did Communism collapse in 1989?~ IKey w-ordf free travel; people power

From this section, you need

to be able to explain: You now know a lot about the Cold War.

• why some people think'PEOPLE POWER' broughtabout the collapse ofCommunism

• two pieces of evidence thatsupport this view.

• You have seen how it started (Chapter 8).• You have seen how the Americans tried to contain the

spread of Communism (Chapter 9).• You have seen how the Soviet Union tried to contain the

spread of capitalism and democracy in Eastern Europe(Chapter 10).

You now come to a story that ties it all together andfinishes it off as well - the collapse of the Communistregimes of Eastern Europe.

East Germans escaping to the West by train fromCzechoslovakia.------------

A scene in Berlin, November 1989. East Germanborder guards watch as East Germans smash huge

chunks out of the wall with sledgehammers.

Factor 1: people powerSOURCE 2- -----~-----

A cartoon from the News of The World,12 November 1989.

SOURCE 3

SOURCE 1

212

N

t

UKRAINE

,-,

Key

D Territory taken over by USSR atend of Second World War

D Soviet-dominated Communistgovernments

D Other Communistgovernments

OctoberSoviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visits East Germany andmakes a key speech. He urges all Eastern European leadersto reform their countries. He makes it clear that the USSR willnot use troops to keep them in power.

Hungary declares itself to be a democratic republic ratherthan a Communist republic

June-AugustProtests against Communist rule in Poland continue throughoutthe summer. In August, Communist party leaders agree totruly free elections. Solidarity wins 99 out of 100 seats inPoland's Senate. Lech Walesa becomes Eastern Europe's firstnon-Communist leader since the Second World War.

NovemberThousands of East Germans march on the Berlin Wall. Honeckerorders troops to shoot at the demonstrators, but they refuse.Border guards join the crowds.

Giant demonstrations (over 350,000 people) in Czechoslovakiaforce the Communist leaders to resign.

Czechoslovakia opens its orders with the West. It also holdsfree elections.

SOURCE 4

MayHungary opens its borders with non-Communist Austria.Hungarians already have the right to FREE TRAVEL. However,many East Germans on holiday in Hungary start using thisroute to get to West Germany.

DecemberMassive demonstrations lead to the downfall of the Communistregimes in Bulgaria and Romania.

SeptemberThousands more East Germans flee to West Germany throughHungary and Czechoslovakia. East German leaderErich Honecker asks Hungary an Czechoslovakia to closetheir borders. They refuse.

The collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989.

FDCMStMk

1 Source 1 is a joke, but it is based on real events.Which parts are true and which parts are overthe top?

2 Choose five words that you think describe themood in Source 2.

3 What does Source 2 tell you about how people feltabout the wall? Explain your answer.

4 Source 3 shows people wanting to escape fromEast Germany. What does this say about people'sattitude to their own country and its leaders?

Why did Communism collapse?

When Communist regimes collapsed in 1989,people tried to think why. Many newspapers,journals and TV programmes came up with thesame conclusion - people power.

1 Look carefully at Sources 1-4. List any evidencethat supports the idea that people power broughtabout the collapse of Communism.

2 Make a separate list of any other factors thatseem to be important. 213

In this section, try topinpoint two problems in theUSSR which led to the USSRchanging its mind aboutEastern Europe.

1 Put yourself in the position ofsomeone like Lech Walesa inthe mid-1980s (see page 211).If you had known about theUSSR's problems, would theknowledge have made you:• worried• hopeful• both?Explain your answer fully.

Factor 2: problems in the USSRDuring the 1980s, big changes were taking place in theUSSR.

• Economic disaster: its economy was in a mess. TheUSSR could not afford to keep huge numbers of troops inEastern Europe.

• Social problems: its people faced huge problems,especially in housing and health. The USSR needed tospend money on these problems rather than oncontrolling Eastern Europe.

• Political problems: its leaders were mostly old menwho were ill. The USSR needed new leaders and newideas.

The USSR no longer wanted to hold on to EasternEurope.

Factor 3: Mikhail GorbachevMikhail Gorbachev became Soviet leader in 1985. He wastotally different from previous Soviet leaders. He set out twomain ideas:

Perestroika (restructuring orreorganising the USSR)

• He brought reforms to the Sovieteconomy.

• He increased spending on health andhousing programmes.

• He made huge cuts in the USSR'smilitary spending.

Glasnost (freedom or openness)

• He did not try to hide his country'sproblems.

• He made it clear to the USA that theUSSR would no longer compete withthe USA. He now felt that the USSR'ssecurity depended on good relationswith the USA.

• He encouraged people in the USSR tospeak out and to suggest new ways ofrunning the economy and the country.

214

What did Gorbachev's reforms mean?

The USSR had always controlled Eastern Europe to providea security zone. Gorbachev turned this idea on its head.

• He said that the USSR could not afford to have millionsof troops in Eastern Europe to keep it Communist.

• He believed that Communist leaders in Eastern Europeshould bring in reforms similar to those he hadintroduced in the USSR.

• He made it clear in 1989 that Soviet troops would not putdown demonstrations in Eastern European countries.

Today, Gorbachev is still regarded as a hero in the USA,Western Europe and Eastern Europe. However, he is lesswell regarded in Russia. Many Russians see Gorbachev asthe man who lost their empire. It is easy to see why.Gorbachev started a process of change that could not bestopped. In October 1990, East and West Germany becameone country again. Within months, other parts of the USSRdeclared themselves to be independent countries. It startedwith the Baltic states, but the process soon spread to theUkraine and the Muslim republics in the south of theUSSR. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev announced thebreak-up of the USSR and he stepped down from beingleader.

SOURCE 5

2 Look back at Source 4 on page213. Make a list of the eventsin Eastern Europe that seem tobe affected by what Gorbachevdid.

Look closely at Source 5. Writea paragraph explaining whyGorbachev should be 'Man ofthe Decade'.

SOURCE 6

If interviews with 'the man inthe street' can be believed,the former Soviet peoplesconsider him a failure.History will be kinder. TheNobel Prize he receivedforending the Cold War waswell deserved. Every man,woman and child in thiscountry should be eternallygrateful. His statue shouldstand in the centre ofeveryEast European capital; for itwas Gorbachev who allowedthem their independence.

From a report on Gorbachev'sspeech of 25 December 1991,

which appeared in theUS newspaper, the Boston Globe.

The cover of Time, a US magazine, January 1990,naming Mikhail Gorbachev as Man of the 1980s. 215

Make it your goal to explainone way in which RonaldReagan helped Gorbachev tochange the Soviet Union.

Factor 4: President Ronald Reagan and otherWestern leaders

Ronald Reagan became US President in January 1981. Hewas President until 1988. He had only one policy about theUSSR - get tough. He criticised its control over EasternEurope. He also increased the USA's military spending by$32 billion. He then challenged the USSR to keep up withAmerican arms spending.

Reagan was generally very popular with the Americanpeople. He also had the support of other Western leaderssuch as Britain's Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, andFrance's President Mitterand. Reagan was extremelyanti-Communist.

Reagan's tough tactics increased the USSR's problems.But, in a way, Reagan helped Gorbachev.

• It was clear by the late 1980s that the USSR could notcompete with American military spending. This helpedGorbachev to push through his military spending cuts.

• Reagan got on quite well with Gorbachev himself. Theymet at summit conferences and discussed many issues.As superpower relations improved, the USSR felt lessthreatened by the USA. This meant there was less needfor the USSR to control Eastern Europe.

SOURCE 7 SOURCE 8

~ ~~'"-I "I,) 0

~ ~

..,YOU ~TYOUR RIGl-ITHANDOUT,..'YOO PUi '(OUR RIGl-IT ItAND IN '"

", 'fOU POT YoOR ~I~l-\T HAN\) IN... ". AND VOU SHAKE IT ALL ABOU'r/"

SUMMIT f.lOKtY COKey

A cartoon called 'Summit Hokey Cokey', firstpublished in the D.9i1y Telegraph, 9 November 1985.

President Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev at their firstsummit meeting in Geneva, November 1985. They

met again in 1986, 1987 and 19§8.216

FOCMtMkWhy did Communism collapse?

Work in small groups to prepare a 'cheat sheet' on this question. Imagineyou are going to cheat in an essay test. You cannot take a textbook orpile of notes into the test so you will have to get everything you need tojog your memory on to one side of A4 paper or less.

1 Your cheat sheet should be organised in paragraphs or sections.

Divide your group so that you are all studying at least two factorsfrom this list:• people power• problems in the USSR• Mikhail Gorbachev• Reagan and other Western leaders.

2 Now research your factors. Come back with notes and ideas on howimportant your factors were.

3 As a group, plan what you will put in each essay paragraph on eachfactor. Here is a suggested format:

Ask .. .

What is the theme of this paragraph?For example, people power

How is it helping to answer thequestion?

How can we show we are not justmaking it up?

What we will say

One important reason why the Berlin Wall came down in 1989was people power.

People power helped to bring down the wall in severalways ...

There are several examples that support our view.They include ...

Repeat this process for each paragraph. There is no need to writeout in full what you plan to say in the essay. If you use a word-processorfor this exercise, you can revise your plan and print out spare copies!

4 Now here is an extra challenge! Some of these factors are connected.

Factor People power Problemsin the USSR

Gorbachev Reagan and otherWestern leaders

People power

Problems in the USSR

Mikhail Gorbachev

Reagan and otherWestern leaders

Use a format like this to:• note down any connections you can see• choose two connections you will write about in an extra paragraph

on connections (use the same format for this new paragraph asyou used in stage 3).

5 Now plan an introductory paragraph. Use the same format for thisplan as you used in stage 3.

Obviously you can't use yourcheat sheet in a real exam,but it will help you revise!

217

Glossary

ABDICATE to give up a throne for example German Kaiser Wilhelm gave uphis throne in 1918

ACTIVIST person heavily involved in a movement, for example a member ofthe azi party would be a Nazi activist

AGENT person who works for another person or organisation, for examplean intelligence agent works for a government

AGGRESSIVE using force or threats, for example when Italy attacked Greece in1923

AIRSHIP large balloon filled with gas which was lighter than air so it flew.The best known example was the zeppelin

ALLIANCE deal between two countries to help each otherALLIES countries which are in an allianceALLOTMENT a small patch of gardenALLY country which is friendly towards another countryAMMUNITIO bullets or shellsANDERSON SHELTER shelter made from thin iron and covered in earth - used

during the Second World WarANSCHLUSS joining Austria and Germany together into one countryAPPEASEMENT giving way to another person or country, for example Britain

and France letting Hitler take over territories in the 1930sARMAMENT building up a stock of weaponsARMISTICE short-term end to fighting before a final treaty is signedARMOURED CAR military vehicle which was protected by metal plates but was

lighter and faster than a tankARMS RACE competition between two or more countries to build more

weapons than their rivalsARTILLERY heavy gunsMY type of human which the azis believed to be the master raceASOCIAL person who did not fit the Nazis' view of normal society (for

example homosexuals)ASSEMBLY LINE method of producing goods in a factory where each worker

does only one task over and overATOMIC BOMB powerful bomb first used in 1945 by the USA against JapanATTRJTlON wearing down, for example tactics of killing large numbers of

enemy soldiers in the First World War was known as attrition

'BACK YARD' area of influence of a country, for example Cuba was seen asbeing in America's back yard

BAIL OUT abandon a plane or shipBARBED WIRE barricade used in the First World War to stop trenches being

attacked by enemy soldiersBARRACKS place where soldiers are based, and usually live and trainBARRAGE large number of shells fired by heavy gunsBARRICADE obstacle designed to stop people getting throughBATTALION an army unit made up of several regimentsBAYONET sharp knife attached to end of riflesBENEFIT help, or good effectBLACK MARKET buying and selling goods illegally during war-timeBLACKOUT shutting down all lights so that enemy aeroplanes could not see

where they were or what they were attackingBLAST effects of bombs or shells or other explosionsBLITZ name given to German air attacks on British cities in 1940-41BLITZKREIG German tactics used in the Second World War involving fast-

moving troops and vehicles219

220

BLOCKADE stopping supplies getting through, for example the Royal Navyblockaded Germany in the First World War and stopped food andequipment getting to German ports

BOER WAR war between British government and farmers called Boers wholived in South Africa. Lasted from 1899-1902

BOLSHEVISM beliefs of the Bolsheviks or Communists in Russia in the period1900-24

BOMBARDMENT attack by large numbers of heavy gunsBOOBY TRAP trip wire or similar device attached to explosive or blade

designed to injure attackers, for example Viet Cong tunnels in the VietnamWar were booby trapped

BOOM good times for business and the economyBORDER POST place between two countries where guards check passports,

etc.BOUNDARY line between two states or areas within statesBOYCOTT refusing to trade or have other kind of contact with a countryBREAKTHROUGH event which brings about important changeBREZHNEV DOCTRINE views of USSR leader Brezhnev in the 1960s which

stated that Communist control in Eastern Europe could not be challengedBULLETIN short programme which brings news

CAMOUFLAGE using paint or cloth or both to disguise men or equipmentCAMPAIGNER someone who tries to get something changed, for example

Suffragettes campaigned for women to get the voteCAPITALISM economic system in which companies and individuals trade freely

and in which some do well and others do badlyCAVALRY soldiers on horsebackCEASEFIRE end to fightingCENSOR government official who reads letters, newspapers, etc. and decides

whether they are giving away valuable informationCENSORSHIP controlling information published in newspapers, films, ete.CHANCELLOR important government minister. In Germany the Chancellor was

the head of the government. In Britain the chancellor controlled finance.CHEMICAL WEAPONS weapons like poison gas in the First World War or

substances which killed leaves on trees in the Vietnam WarCIA Central Intelligence Agency - the organisation which ran the USA's spiesCIVIL DEFENCE looking after civilians and their homes and protecting them

from dangers like air raids or nuclear warCIVIL SERVICE organisation which takes measures passed by governments and

actually puts them into operationCIVIL WAR war between people who live in the same countryCLAMP DOWN action (usually by governments) to stop a group causing

trouble, for example Provisional Government tried to clamp down onBolsheviks in Russia in 1917

COALITION group of people or countries working togetherCOLLECTIVE SECURITY policy of the League of Nations in 1920s. The idea was

that all nations looked after each other's security so that any countrywhich attacked another one would face the opposition of the rest

COLLECTIVISATION policy of Soviet leader Stalin in 1930s to bring small farmstogether into larger farms

COLO territory ruled by another country, for example India was a Britishcolony until 1947

COMINFORM organisation set up by Soviet leader Stalin to link the Communistparties in all countries under his control

COMMANDER leader, person in chargeCOMMONWEALTH countries which used to be part of the British Empire and

were still closely linked to BritainCOMMUNICATIONS methods of getting messages and goods from one place to

another - can refer to radio, road, rail, sea, air, ete.

COMMUNIST belief of Communist Party members. Basic idea of Communismis that the whole community is more important than the individual and allmembers of the community should work for the good of the community

COMPENSATION giving money or goods to a person or country which hadbeen harmed

COMPROMISE reaching an agreement where each side gives up something itwanted

COMRADESHIP feeling of being together - often seen among soldiers whofought together in the First World War

CONCENTRATION CAMP special centres set up by the Nazis to get rid of theiropponents

CONFERENCE meeting where important issues were discussedCONFORMING fitting in with what government or society expectedCONGRESS meeting of people, usually to discuss a big issue like how a

country is runCONQUER take over, for example Germany conquered much of western

Europe in 1939-40CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTOR person who refused to fight in wars because they

believed war was morally wrongCONSCRIPTION making people go into the army by lawCONSTITUTION the rules used to run a country, for example whether it was a

democracy, how long between elections, ete.CONTAINMENT policy of the USA from 1947 onwards to stop Communists

taking control of countriesCONTROVERSIAL causing argumentsCO-OPERATE work togetherCORRUPT not honest, for example government officials taking bribesCOUNCIL group of people who run an organisation, for example the League

of Nations Council contained the most important countries in the LeagueCOUPONS tickets that allowed people to buy certain goods in war-time, for

example coupons for meat - without these you could not buy meat nomatter how much money you had

COURT-MARTIAL court of law run by the armyCOVENANT agreementCRISIS (pl. crises) serious event which caused tension or even war, for

example Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962CULTURE language, music, art, literature, ete. of a people which makes them

uniqueCURRENCY money

DECISIVE being able to make difficult choicesDEFENCE lawyer who presents the case in favour of a person accused of a

crimeDEMOCRATIC (democracy) system of government in which people elect their

governments and can get rid of them at the next electionsDEMONSTRATION way of showing protest about an issueDEPRESSION bad times in the economy, causing businesses to fail and leading

to unemploymentDEPTH CHARGES special bombs fired by ships to destroy submarinesDE-STALINISATION policy of Soviet leader Khrushchev in the 1950s moving

away from the way Stalin had ruled and criticising Stalin's actionsDESTINY what fate said a person or nation was meant to achieveDETENTE good relationsDETERRENT putting someone off - the main example of this was nuclear

weapons. The USA and USSR both had nuclear weapons. This deterred(put om the other side from using them

DICTATOR single ruler with complete powerDIPLOMATIC talking between countries by their representatives (diplomats)DISARMAMENT see armament getting rid of weapons - this was supposed to

happen at the end of the Second World War but did not 221

222

DIVISION separating, for example Germany was separated or divided intoEast and West Germany at the end of the Second World War

DOMESTIC SERVICE working as a cook, cleaner or similar job in a wealthyperson's home

DRAFT similar to conscription - calling up men to serve in the armyDUCK BOARDS pieces of wood used in trenches in the First World War to try

to keep feet out of the mudDUGOUT underground area of a trench

ECONOMIC relating to business or moneyECONOMY the work and earnings of a countryEINSATZ special units used by the Nazis to kill Jews and Communists during

the Second World WarELECTIO (general/local) event where people choose local or national leadersELITE top people in society, for example army generals, wealthy landowners,

owners of big industriesEMBASSY building where countries have their representatives in another

countryEMERGENCY POWERS ability to ignore normal political rules, for example

President Hindenburg in late 1920s Germany used Emergency Powers topass laws without consulting the Reichstag (the German Parliament)

EMPIRE land ruled over by another country, for example British Empiremeant that Britain ruled large parts of Africa and India

ETHNIC race, for example particular races were said to have a particularethnic identity

EUTHANASIA putting very sick people to deathEVACUATION taking people away from an area, for example British children

in the Second World War were evacuated away from cities to rural areasEVACUEE person who was evacuatedEVIDE CE information which supports a point of viewEXECUTED killed, usually for committing a crimeEXEMPT not affected byEXPEDITIONARY setting off to foreign country, for example the British

Expeditionary Force went to France in the First and Second World WarsEXTREMIST person who holds very radical views on an issue

FACILITIES essential servicesFASCIST party run by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. A person belonging to

that party. This term was also used to describe the NazisFATHERLAND GermanyFINAL SOLUTION Nazi plan to murder all the Jews and certain other racial

groups in Europe. It began in 1942FIRESTORM huge, intensive fire caused by bombing. Firestorms in Hamburg

and Dresden killed tens of thousands of peopleFOREIGN AFFAIRS relations between one country and other countriesFREE TRAVEL the right of a person to go anywhere without being checked onFREEDOM OF SPEECH the right of a person to say his/her view without being

attackedFREIKORPS group of ex-soldiers who were powerful in Germany in the early

1920sFRONT (Western Front/Eastern Front) where fighting took placeFOHRER leader - name that Adolf Hitler liked to use when he was in power

in Germany

GAS CHAMBER rooms used to murder Jews and other racial groups withpoison gas in death camps in the period 1942-45

GAS MASK special equipment which allowed people to breathe during agas attack

GENERAL senior commander in the armyGESTAPO secret police force in Nazi Germany

GHETIO area where Jews were forced to live in Poland in the Second WorldWar

GLORIFY to celebrate something and make it seem exciting or gloriousGRANT to give something, usually land or loans of moneyGUAfuVITtED promisedGUERRILLA fighter using hit and run tactics rather than fighting in large battles

HARD LABOUR punishment which usually involved prison and physical worklike breaking rocks

HIGH EXPLOSNE powerful type of shell or bombHINDENBURG LI E line of trenches and barricades built by German forces in

the First World WarHINDSIGHT looking back from the present at the pastHO OUR a kind of reward, for example a medalHONOURS SYSTEM range of rewards used in Britain to reward people who had

made an important contribution to areas like politics, health, business, etc.HOUSEHOLDER someone who owned or paid the rent for a whole house Cas

opposed to a room in the house)HOUSEKEEPING feeding and clothing a family, paying the rent, etc.HUMILIATED made to feel stupidHUNDRED DAYS final stages of the First World War in which British forces

won a series of victories against German forcesHYDROGEN CH) BOMB very powerful type of bomb, many times more

powerful than an atom bombHYPERINFLATIO prices increasing very fast

IDEAL strongly held view or beliefIMPERIALIST connected with empires - an imperialist was usually someone

who was trying to get or keep an empireIMPORTS goods coming into a countryINCENDIARY bomb which starts firesINCOMPETE CE being unable to do something properlyINDEPE DENCE freedom to rule yourself, for example when a colony became

independent from the country which used to rule itINDUSTRIALIST owner of a big factory or industryINFANTRY soldiers who fought on footINFERENCE working out what a piece of text or an image saysINFORM ON give away information about another person or movementINHERITED passing from parents to children after the parent diesINSTALMENT stage, for example a bill might be paid in instalmentsINSURANCE protection against something happeningINTACT not damagedINTERCEPT to cut in on, for example German radio signals to U-boats in the

Second World War were intercepted by the BritishINTERNATIONAL relating to more than one countryINTERPRET work out the meaning, for example historians looking at a range

of sources and reaching a judgement based on those sourcesIRON CURTAIN barrier between the communist Eastern European countries

and the democratic western European countries which emerged at the endof the Second World War

ISOLATIONISM attitude in the USA at the end of the First World War in whichthe USA did not want to get involved in the concerns of other countries

JUDICIARY judges and other top officials in the lawJUSTICE fair treatment which allows a fair trial for someone who is accused

of a crime

KAISER ruler of Germany in the early 20th century, up to 1918KGB secret police service of the USSR

223

224

LABOUR one of Britain's main political parties - Labour represented ordinaryworking people

LABOUR EXCHANGE office where unemployed workers could find out aboutjob opportunities

LAND MINE small bomb placed underground which blew up when peoplestepped on it

LANDMARK an important eventLAUNCHER machine for firing rockets - caused great concern to USA in 1962

when launchers were spotted in CubaLAWYER person who works with the law and tries to win casesLEAGUE OF NATIO S organisation set up by President Wilson in 1919 to try

and keep the peace in the worldLEBENSRAUM liVing space - Nazis claimed that Germans in the 1930s needed

more living space and used this to justify their wars and invasionsLIBERAL one of the main political parties in Britain in the early 1900sLIBERATE to set freeLIFELINE a chance of survival or of a better life, for example old age

pensions in 1908 gave many old people a lifelineLOAN money given to a person or country which had to be repaid, for

example US loans to Germany in the 1920sLONG TERM lasting a long timeLOOT to steal goods or moneyLOYAL giving complete supportLUXURY GOODS items which are not necessary to stay alive, for example

jewellery, fancy food, wine

MACHINE GU T specialist gun which fired hundreds of bullets a minute - firstbecame important in the First World War

MALNUTRITIO lack of food or very bad food leading eventually to deathMANUFACTURED GOODS goods made in factories, for example clothing,

machineryMARK German moneyMARSHALL AID (Marshall Plan) package of money and equipment given to

western European countries by the USA at the end of the Second WorldWar to help their economies recover from the war

MARTIAL LAW rule by the armyMASTER RACE Nazi belief that some humans were inferior to othersMERCHANT SEAMEN sailors who worked on ships carrying goods (not

warships)MILITANT radical or extremeMINE place where minerals like coal or iron were dug upMINERAL RESOURCES coal, iron, copper, etc.MINISTER senior politician in a governmentMISSILE rocket-powered bomb which could hit targets many miles awayMODERATE reasonable, prepared to discuss an issueMORAL CONDEM ATION criticism of a country which attacked another countryMORALE spirit of a country or people, mostly important in war-timeMORALLY JUSTIFIED action which can be said to be acceptable because it is

rightMORRISON SHELTER indoor air-raid shelter produced by the government in the

Second World WarMU ITIONETTES women who worked in munitions factories in the First World

WarMUNITIONS bullets and shellsMUTINY disobeying authority, usually in the army or navy

NAIVE easily misled or fooledNATIONAL COMMUNITY Nazi aim for Germany in the 1930s - people would

become members of the National Community totally loyal to HitlerNATIONALISATION putting industries under control of the government

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation - set up in 1949 as alliance ofNorth American and Western European countries against the USSR

AZI short for National Socialist, party of Adolf Hitler in the 1920s-40s inGermany

NEGOTIATE to talk and tIY to reach a solution to a problemNEUTRAl not linked to any side in an argument or war

o MAN's LAND area between German and British/French trenches in theFirst World War

UCLEAR SHELTER underground building built to withstand a nuclear bombattack

NUCLEAR WAR war using nuclear weapons - bombs and missilesNUREMBERG LAws laws passed in Germany in 1935 which banned Germans

from marIYing or having relationships with Jews

OBJECTIVE aimOFFENSIVE attackingORBIT in the Cold War the USSR was said to have many countries in its orbit

(control)OUTFLANK to get round the side - in 1914 the German and British/French

forces tried to get around the side of each other's armies but failed'OVER THE TOP' getting out of a trench in the First World War to attack an

enemy trench

PACT agreement or dealPARACHUTE silk sheet used to protect someone who jumped from an

aeroplane - mainly used by pilots whose planes were hit or byparatroopers (soldiers who jumped from aeroplanes)

PARANOIA suspicion or fearPARAPET top of a First World War trench which protected troops from blast

or snipersPASSIVE RESISTANCE not co-operating, but not actually fighting, for example

going on strikePATRIOTIC supporting your countIYPEACEFUL COEXISTE CE liVing together without fightingPEASANT farmer with small plotPENSION payment to people who were too old to workPEOPLE POWER impact of large numbers of ordinaIY people in terms of

causing important changesPERMIT a document that allows people to travel from one place to another,

for example people needed a permit to cross the Berlin WallPERSECUTE to arrest or generally make life difficult for people, usually

because of their beliefsPERSONALITY CLASH argument caused by the fact that people dislike each

other rather than political ideasPHONEY fakePIRACY illegal actionPLAN ER government official who works out what action might be taken in

particular circumstancesPLEBISCITE vote in which people decide on an issuePOISON GAS weapons first used in 1915 - common versions were chlorine

and mustard gasPOLISH CORRIDOR area of land given to Poland after the First World War but

which contained mainly German people - given to Poland so that Polandhad access to a sea port

POLITICAL PRISONER someone put in prison for political views rather thancommitting a crime

POVERTY LINE way of measuring how well off people were - first used bysocial reformer Seebohm Rowntree in the late 19th centuIY

PREFABRICATED already made - usually refers to buildings, for example roofswhich were already built and then simply put together on site 225

226

PREJUDICE strong dislike, usually based on racial, religious or political viewsPRESIDENT head of the government in many countries, especially the USAPRIVILEGE wealth and luxuryPROPAGANDA information containing a particular message - governments

used propaganda, especially in wars, to get people behind themPROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION system of voting where the number of seats for

a party in the assembly is based on the number of votes they received inelection - one example is Weimar Germany, where if a party like theSocialists got 30% of the vote, they got 30% of the seats in the Reichstag

PROSECUTION lawyer who accuses someone of a crime and tries to get themfound guilty

PROTECTIVE CUSTODY putting someone in prison for their own goodPSYCHIC person with mental powersPSYCHOLOGICAL relating to the mindPUBLIC OPINIO views of the general public - in the 20th century

governments became more and more concerned with public opinionPUTSCH revolt

RACIAL PURITY term used by the Nazis - racially pure people had only Aryanfamilies and had never had relatives who were Jews or certain other races

RACIST someone who discriminates against others because of their race, forexample being Jewish, or black

RADAR system used in Britain to detect aircraft approaching the country longbefore they reached it

RALLY gathering of people, usually to show support for a political party or toprotest about something

RATIO I G controlling the amount of particular foods and other goods whichpeople could buy

RATIO s amount of food, clothing, etc. which people were allowed to buy inwar-time

RAW MATERIALS goods like timber, rubber, ete. which were then used to makemanufactured goods like cars

REARMAMENT see armament building up weapons, for example Hitler built upGermany's supplies of weapons in the 1930s

REBELLION refusing to obey the governmentRECRUITMENT getting people into an organisation, for example trying to get

people into the army in Britain in 1914RED ARMY the army of the USSR from the 1920s onwardsRE-EDUCATION the Nazis' name for putting people with different political or

religiOUS ideas, or way of life, into concentration campsREFORM changing something to improve itREFUGEES COMMISSIO organisation which was part of the League of ations-

its job was to help refugees to get homeREGIME type of governmentREICH GermanyREICHSTAG German parliamentRELIABLE something which can be trustedREPARATIONS payment to make up for damage or injury caused, for example

Germany had to pay reparations to France and Belgium after the FirstWorld War

REPRESE TATION how people's views are given to the government, forexample the Representation of the People Act in Britain allowed womento vote, so they were then represented in Parliament

REPUBLIC system of government which does not have a monarchyRESERVED OCCUPATIO job which was so important that men in the job were

not allowed to join the army, for example coal miners at certain times inthe First World War

RESISTANCE movements which fought against German occupation in theSecond World War

RESOURCES materials that are useful to a country, for example in the SecondWorld War Germany needed resources like oil, rubber and timber

RETALIATE to hit backREVOLT to try to overthrow a governmentREVOLUTION successful overthrow of a government, for example Russian

Revolution of 1917ROUT total defeat

SA Nazi storm troopers who attacked Nazis' political rivals in the 1920sSANCTIONS measures to cut off one country from trading with other countriesSCARCE in short supplySEARCH AND DESTROY type of mission used by US forces in Vietnam in 1960s

- they searched for and tried to destroy enemy forcesSECRET CODE way of sending messages so that anyone listening in could not

understand unless they knew the codeSECRET POLICE police force used against political opponents of the

governmentSECURITY safetySECURITY COUNCIL organisation within the United Nations which contained

the most powerful members of the United NationsSELF-DETERMINATIO ability of small countries to rule themselvesSEWAGE human wasteSHELLFIRE term for any kind of shooting by large or small artillery gunsSHELL SHOCK mental illness caused by blast from artillery shellsSHILLI GS money used in Britain up to 1971 - there were 20 shillings in a

poundSHORT TERM lasting a short timeSHRAPNEL type of shell which burst into metal fragments, deSigned to kill

soldiersSLAV eastern European peoplesSLAVE LABOUR workers used by the Nazis in the Second World War - they

could be prisoners of war or racial groups like Jews or GypsiesSNIPER soldier with accurate rifle who picked off enemy soldiersSOCIALIST Socialists held political ideas which were similar to Communism

but not as extreme - they believed in greater government involvement ineveryday life, for example laws to protect workers from harsh employers

SOURCE any document, picture, song, film, etc. that historians can use tolearn about the past

SPHERE OF INFLUENCE area where one country had a strong say in whathappened, for example USSR controlled Eastern Europe after the SecondWorld War because that was the Soviet sphere of influence

spy PLANE aeroplanes used to take photographs of enemy countries - thebest known was the U2 spy plane

ss organisation in Nazi Germany which ran concentration camps and manyother aspects of security - headed by Heinrich Himmler

STABILITY situation which is calm and peaceful (stable)STAGING POST step towards a particular aim to be achievedSTALEMATE situation where two sides are equally matchedSTANDARD OF LIVING general conditions for people, usually shown by their

ability to afford food, a place to live and a few luxuriesSTERILISED stopped from having childrenSTORM TROOPERS Nazi organisation which attacked opponents of aZis; also

type of soldier in the First World War specially eqUipped for attackingtrenches

STRATEGIC overall thinking, for example a strategic plan is a plan to win awar, but a tactical plan is a plan to win a battle

SUBMARINE ship which can sail below the surface, usually to attack enemy shipsSUFFRAGE the voteSUFFRAGETTES radical women's group which campaigned to get women the

vote 227

228

SUFFRAGISTS moderate women's group which campaigned to get women thevote

SUMMIT important meetingSUPERPOWER the USA and USSR after 1945SUPPLY ROUTE way of getting food, medicine, weapons, ete. to an army

TACfICS way of fighting a battleTANK large armoured vehicle, first used in the First World War in 1917TARIFF tax on goods coming into a country to make the goods more

expensiveTELEPATHIC communicating from mind to mind without talkingTENSIO bad feeling, for example in the years up to 1914 there was a lot of

tension between Britain and GermanyTERRITORY landTERROR fearTORTURE hurting people to frighten them or to get information from themTRADE UNTO organisation which represented workersTRADES UNION CONGRESS meeting of all of the trade unions in BritainTRADITIONAL VALUES ideas about how homes should be run and families

should live - traditional values usually meant the man working and thewoman staying at home looking after children

TRAFFICKI G transporting goods, usually referring to illegal transporting, forexample trafficking drugs

TRAITOR person who works against his/her own countryTRANSMITTER equipment for sending radio signalsTRA TSPORTED taken from one place to anotherTREATY agreement between countries, often at the end of a warTRENCHES deep ditches dug and repaired by soldiers to shelter from gunfire

and shellfire - generally associated with the First World WarTRIAL when someone is accused of a crime and the evidence for and against

them is investigatedTRIGGER event which causes other events to happenTRUMAN DOCfRINE speech by US President Truman in 1947, in which he

promised to help any country which wanted to oppose CommunismTUBERCULOSIS chest disease caused by damp conditions

U-BOAT German submarines from the First World War and the SecondWorld War

UNEMPLOYMENT no workUNION see trade union

NITED NATIONS (UN) organisation set up after the Second World War to tryto keep international peace

VETERAN person who has experience of something, for example war veteranVIET CONG Communist group which fought to make South Vietnam a

Communist country in the 1950s and 1960sVIETNAMISATION policy of US President Nixon in late 1960s and early 1970s to

build up South Vietnam forces and withdraw US forces from VietnamVOLUNTEERS people who offer to do something or join an organisation, for

example men who agreed to go to war in 1914

WARDE official who looked after a particular area, for example air-raidwarden

WAR FOOTING getting ready for warWAR-MONGERING threatening war or making it more likelyWARSAW PACf organisation of USSR and Eastern European countries set up

in 1955 to oppose the USA and ATOWELFARE looking after peopleWORKHOUSE place for poor people who had no money and no place to live

Index

AAbyssinian Crisis 120, 124Adenauer, Konrad 205Africa 26air-raid protection 158, 159Alsace-Lorraine 3, 63Anschluss 128Anti-Comintern Pact 127anti-Semitism 90,98, 106, 115, 116appeasement 128-31Aryan master race 90, 98, 112, 115Asquith, Herbert 45, 46Australia 27, 53Austria 128Austria-Hungary 3, 5AVO (Hungarian secret police) 198,

200

BBairnsfather, Bruce 15-16Balkans 3, 5, 26Batista, Fulgencio 182Battle of Britain 136, 140-1Battle of the Atlantic 142-3, 147BDM see League of German MaidensBeauty of Labour Movement 105BEF see British Expeditionary ForceBenes, Eduard 128, 129Berlin, division of 162Berlin Blockade 170-1Berlin Wall 203-5, 212, 213Bevin, Ernest 151Big Three 60-1, 63blackout 150, 151, 158-9Blitz 150, 151, 156, 159Blitzkrieg 136, 137bombing campaigns 26, 141, 144-5:

see also BlitzVietnam 188, 190

Bosnia 5, 6Brezhnev, Leonid 206Britain 3, 64, 123

Battle of Britain 136, 140-1Dunkirk 138-9

First World War 2-57and League of Nations 72, 73Second World War 136-59

British Expeditionary Force (BEF) 137,138

Bulgaria 76, 213

CCanada 26, 53cartoons 16,69,100, 101, 130,

132: see also under propagandaCold War 178, 180, 183, 194,

212, 216Castro, Fidel 182, 185Cat and Mouse Act 43censorship 48, 51, 149, 156, 208Chamberlain, Neville 128, 129, 130,

131Chess World Championships (1972)

172-3children: welfare reforms 32-3China 177-8, 179, 194Churchill, Winston 138, 139, 140,

142, 162Clay, Lucius 170Clemenceau, Georges 60,61,63Cold War

Berlin Wall 203-5Cuban Missile Crisis 180-5Czechoslovakia 206-8events leading up to 160-71Hungarian Crisis 198-200Korean War 177-9Poland 209-11Vietnam War 186-94

collectivisation 198, 200Cominform 165, 167Communism 167, 177, 187

collapse of 212-16Germany 82, 83, 95, 100, 104Hitler and 126, 127USSR 161, 165

concentration camps 100, 102, 115conscription 52-3, 150, 151,

152-3, 191containment policy 166:see also

Cuban Missile Crisis; KoreanWar; Vietnam War

Corfu 76Cuban Missile Crisis 180-5Czechoslovakia 89, 131, 206-8, 213

Sudetenland 121, 128, 129

oDAF see German Labour FrontDavison, Emily 41,42Dawes Plan 88

D-Day 141, 147Depression 94,95, 120, 122-3de-Stalinisation 197Diem see Ngo Dinh DiemDORA (Defence of the Realm Act)

48-53Dreadnoughts 4Drexler, Anton 90Dual Alliance (Austria-Hungary,

Germany) 3Dubcek, Alexander 206-7, 208Dunkirk 138-9

EEastern Europe 27, 162, 165, 167,

196-7: see also individualcountries

Ebert, Friedrich 78-9, 81-5Edelweiss Pirates 110-11education 30, 32-5, 109Eisenhower, Dwight 147elderly people: welfare reforms 33evacuation 148, 156

FFawcett, Millicent 40, 45, 46First World War 57conscription 52-3

DORA 48-53events leading up to 3-6factfile 58peace process 58-69Somme, Battle of 13, 18, 20-5source assessment 8-10, 22-3stalemate 12,17-19trenches 12-16, 17, 25war of attrition 18, 24Western Front 11-13, 17-19women, contribution of 44, 54-6world involvement 26-7

food supplies 15, 48, 50France 3,4, 5, 75, 128, 167

First World War 26and League of Nations 72, 73Second World War 137, 138and Treaty of Versailles 64and Vietnam 186

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria2, 6

Freikorps 82, 83

229

230

GGerman Labour Front (DAF) 100Germany 3, 4, 5, 63, 87, 94: see

a/50 Nazi Party; Weimar Republicanti-Comintern Pact 127anti-Semitism 98, 106, 115, 116and Communism 82,83,95, 100Depression 94, 95, 123economy 88, 104hyperinflation 67, 85and League of Nations 73, 89racial purity 90, 98, 112, 115reparations 63, 66, 67, 68, 84,

85,89reunification 215Schlieffen Plan 6terror 102-3and Treaty of Versailles 62, 65,

66-7, 84and Upper Silesia 75

Gero, Erno 198, 199Gestapo 103, 107, 119Gierek, Edward 209g/asnost (openness) 214Goebbels, Josef 91,92, 106, 116Gorbachev, Mikhail 213,214-15,

216Great War see First World WarGreece 26, 76, 166, 167

HHaig, Sir Douglas 19, 20, 24Harris, Arthur 'Bomber' 145health care 28,30,31,32-5, 77Heydrich, Reinhard 103Himmler, Heinrich 102Hindenburg, Paul von 87, 97, 101Hindenburg Line 17, 19Hitler, Adolf 90-2

assessments of 105becomes Chancellor 94-7and Communism 126, 127invades Czechoslovakia 121, 128,

129, 131becomes Fuhrer 101Germany, control of 100-1Germany, vision for 98-9Mein Kampf 116, 126and Munich crisis 129invades Poland 131, 132, 133and rearmament 127responsibility for Second World War

134-5suicide 119and Treaty of Versailles 126

Hitler Youth 91, 108Ho Chi Minh 186, 187Ho Chi Minh Trail 186, 188, 190Holocaust 116Honecker, Erich 213Hundred Days 19Hungary 198-200, 213Husak, Gustav 208hyperinflation 67, 85

IIndia 27industry (British) 31, 55

government controls (DORA) 48-9munitions 44, 48-9, 56

Iron Curtain 167isolationism 73Italy 127, 167

Abyssinian crisis 120, 124and League of Nations 72, 73,

76Second World War 26, 137

JJapan 127

Depression 123First World War 27and League of Nations 72, 73Manchurian crisis 120, 123and Vietnam 186

Jaruzelski, Wojciech 211Jews 98, 106, 115, 116-17Johnson, Lyndon 187, 188, 193July bomb plot 119July Crisis 6

KKadar, Janos 200Kania, Stanislaw 209Kapp, Wolfgang 83Kennedy, John F 181,182, 184-5,

187, 204Khrushchev, Nikita 181, 182-3,

184-5, 197,204Kissinger, Henry 194Kitchener, Lord 52Korean War 177-9Kristallnacht (Night of the Broken

Glass) 116

Llabour exchanges 30, 34Labour Party 31League of German Maidens (BDM)

108, 112

League of Nations 60, 63, 76, 89,120

assessment of 74-7failure of 124-5organisation 70-3

Lebensraum 99, 126Liberal Party welfare reforms 28-35Lithuania 75L10yd George, David 105

and First World War 24, 25, 48,60, 63, 64

and votes for women 35, 43and welfare reforms 30, 45

Locarno Treaty 77, 89

MMacArthur, Douglas 178, 179MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction)

174Manchurian Crisis 120, 123Mao Tse Tung 177maps

Allied bombing campaign 144Berlin 170Central Europe (late 1930s) 128Cuban missiles 176, 183Eastern Europe 167, 196, 213Europe (1914) 3First World War 11, 17, 19, 26-7Germany 62, 103, 144, 170Iron Curtain 167Korea 176, 177League of Nations' intervention

(1920s) 74nuclear weapons sites 174, 183Second World War 136, 147SS bases 103Suffragist march 40Treaty of Versailles, border changes

62Vietnam 176, 186

Marne, Battle of the 11Marshall, George 166Marshall Aid (Marshall Plan) 166-7Middle East 27Morocco 3,4Munich Agreement 121,129, 130,

131Munich Putsch 90-1Mussolini, Benito 76, 120, 124Mutually Assured Destruction see MAD

NNagy,lmre 199, 200National Health Service 151

National Insurance 30, 34-5National Liberation Front of South

Vietnam see Viet CongNational Union of Women's Suffrage

Societies (NUWSS) 37, 38, 40,43

NATO (North Atlantic TreatyOrganisation) 197, 205

Nazi Party 89achievements 104-5, 107anti-Semitism 106, 115, 116foundation of 90-2Germany, control of 102-7Germany, vision for 98-9persecution of minorities 98, 103,

115-17propaganda 106-7, 109, 112,

119rise to power 94-6Second World War 118-19terror 99, 102-3, 107, 115and women and families 112-14and young people 108-11

Nazi-Soviet Pact 121, 132-3New Zealand 27Ngo Dinh Diem 186, 187Nicholson, Sir Harold 68Night of the Broken Glass see

KristallnachtNight of the Long Knives 101Nixon, Richard 194North Atlantic Treaty Organisation see

NATONSDAP (National Socialist German

Workers Party) see Nazi PartyNuclear Test Ban Treaty 185nuclear weapons 174, 178, 179: see

also Cuban Missile Crisisatom bomb 162, 163

H-bomb 175Nuremberg Laws 116NUWSS see National Union of

Women's Suffrage Societies

oOperation Rolling Thunder 188Ottoman Empire 3: see also Turkey

pPankhurst family 41, 42, 44Paris Peace Conference see Treaty of

Versaillespensions 30, 33perestroika (restructuring) 214Phoney War 137

Poland 63,89, 209-11, 213and Hitler 121, 131, 132, 133and Upper Silesia 75and Vilna 75

posters 35, 96, 114, 190: see alsounder propaganda

Potsdam conference 162, 163, 164Prague Spring 206propaganda 37,45, 51, 106, 109,

110, 156British 48, 51, 138, 149, 150-1,

156-7cartoons 37, 42, 49, 51, 53, 65Nazi 106-7,109, 110, 112, 119posters 43,51,52,55, 150-1,

157

Rracial purity 90, 98, 112, 115rationing

First World War 48, 50Second World War 118, 150, 151,

154-5Reagan, Ronald 216rearmament 127, 129Reich Entailed Farm Laws 105Reichstag elections 87Reichstag fire 100reparations 63, 66, 67, 68, 84, 85,

89Representation of the People Act

44-6Ribbentrop, Joachim von 132, 133R6hm, Ernst 101Roosevelt, Franklin D 143, 162Rowntree, Seebohm 30Russia 3, 5, 18, 26, 27: see also

USSRRussian Revolution 18, 27

SSA (storm troopers) 90,95,96, 101,

116Saar region 63, 127SAC see Strategic Air CommandSchlieffen Plan 6Second World War

Battle of Britain 136, 140-1Battle of the Atlantic 142-3, 147bombing campaigns 141, 144-5Britain in 136-47Dunkirk 138-9Eastern Front 146end of, in Europe 146-7events leading up to 120-1

Hitler and 134-5Home Front 148-59Jo Edwards' memories 148-9Nazi Party and 118-19USSR in 118, 146Western Front 147women, contribution of 152-3,

156Serbia 5, 6, 26Solidarity trade union 209-10,213Somme, Battle of 13, 18, 20-5Speer, Albert 119SS (elite corps) 95,96, 101, 107,

116, 118development of 102, 119

Stalin 132, 133, 162, 164, 177,196

and Eastern Europe 121, 165and Marshall Aid 167

Stauffenberg, Claus von 119Strategic Air Command (SAC) 174,

175Strength Through Joy labour

movement 105Stresemann, Gustav 85, 87, 89Sudetenland 121, 128, 129Suffragettes 39, 41-3, 44, 54Suffragists 38, 40, 44, 54Swing Movement 110

TTet Offensive 188, 189, 191Thant, U 184timelines

Cuban Missile Crisis 181Home Front 150-1Vietnam War 188

Tito, Josip Broz 167,207trade unions 48, 51, 100, 104

Solidarity 209-10, 213Trades Union Congress (TUC) 51Treaty of Versailles 60, 62-5, 89:

see also League of Nationsassessment of 68-9effects on Germany 63, 65, 66-7,

84Hitler and 126

trenches 12-16, 17, 25Triple Entente (France, Britain, Russia)

3Truman, Harry 162, 163, 164, 165,

166, 176Truman Doctrine 166TUC see Trades Union CongressTurkey 3, 27, 182, 185 231

232

UU-boats 26,50,142,143, 151, 154unemployment 34,94, 104, 122,

123United Nations (UN) 177, 178, 179Upper Silesia 63, 75USA: see also Cold War

and China 194Communism, attitude to 166Depression 122, 123factfile 161enters First World War 18, 26and Germany 88and League of Nations 73enters Second World War 142USSR, relations with 194

USSR 133, 214: see also Cold WarCommunism 161, 165factfile 161and League of Nations 73Second World War 118, 146USA, relations with 194

Utility Mark 154, 155

VVandenburg, Arthur 165VE Day 147Verdun, Battle of 18Viet Cong 187, 188, 189, 190, 191

Vietnam War 186-94media coverage 192peace movement 193US withdrawal 194

Vietnamisation 188, 194Vilna, Lithuania 75votes for women 36-47

arguments for and against 36-7partial suffrage 44-7Suffragettes 39,41-3,44Suffragists 37, 38, 40, 43, 44

Votes for Women 40, 45

WWAAC see Women's Auxiliary Army

CorpsWalesa, Lech 209, 210, 211, 213Warsaw Pact 197,200Weimar Republic 78-89

assessment of 87-9challenges faced 81-5early stages 78-80

welfare reforms 28-35assessment of 32-5employment 30events leading up to 28-31health care 28, 30poverty 28, 30

White Rose movement 111

Wilson, Woodrow 60, 63and League of Nations 60, 70, 72

womenduring First World War 44, 54-6in industry 44, 55, 56in Nazi Germany 112-14during Second World War 152-3,

156votes for 36-47

Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC)54

Women's Land Army 50, 55, 150Women's Patrol Movements 55Women's Social and Political Union

(WSPU) 39, 41, 43

yYalta conference 162young people: in Nazi Germany 91,

108-11,112Young Plan 89

AcknowledgementsThe author would like to express his thanks to Phil Smith and his students atConey Green High School, Radcliffe, Manchester, for their help in developingmany of the materials in this book. The author would also like to thank hisown GCSE students at Stafford College who helped to decide what workedfor them!

Photo creditsFront cover Main picture Imperial War Museum, London, tl Imperial WarMuseum, London, bl and br Popperfoto; p.v t Illustrated London NewsPicture Library, c Mary Evans Picture Library, b News International Syndication;p.vi t Centre for the Study of Cartoons and Caricature, University of Kent/Atlantic Syndication, c Topham Picturepoint, b The Art Archive/ImperialWar Museum; p.l Popperfoto/Reuters; p.2 AKG LondonlErich Lessing;p.16 t and b Illustrated London News Picture Library; p.2l sketches by PrivateJim Maultsaid of 35'h Ulster Division published in The Road to the Somme byPhilip Orr, Blackstaff Press page 193; p.25 t Corbis UK Ltd, b The LiddellCollection, University of Leeds Library; p.33 © National Library of Wales,unidentified photographer (PZ4257 Llyfr Ffoto LLGC: LW Photograph Album254 p.7); p.35 Hulton Getty; p.37 t Mary Evans Picture Library, b Punch CartoonLibrary; p.38 and p.39 Mary Evans Picture Library; p.40 British NewspaperLibrary; p.4l, p.42 and p.43 Mary Evans Picture Library; p.45 Mary Evans/Fawcett Library; p.47 Mary Evans Picture LibralY; p.49 Topham Picturepoint;p.50, p.5l t and bl Imperial War Museum, London, br Public Record Office;p.52 Imperial War Museum, London; p.53 Mary Evans/Fawcett Library;p.54 Imperial War Museum; p.55 Mary Evans Picture Library; p.57 Tony Hall/The Liverpool Daily Post and EchO; p.65 Mary Evans Picture Library; p.69 t PunchCartoon Library; p.71 all United Nations © DACS 2001; p.82 bl BildarchivPreussischer Kulturbesitz, br Hulton Getty; p.84 Ullstein; p.85 Hulton Getty;p.89 Centre for the Study of Cartoons and Caricature, University ofKent!Atlantic Syndication; p.92 AKG London; p.96 t Peter ewark's MilitaryPictures, bAKG London; p.97 Suddeutscher Verlag BildercUenst; p.l00 RandallBytwerk's German Propaganda Archive, http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/;p.l0l London Evening Standard/ Atlantic Syndication; p.l06 Kobal Collection;p.l08 AKG London; p.l09 Archiv Gerstenberg; p.lll Suddeutscher VerlagBilderdienst; p.1l2 Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz; p.1l3 AKG LondonLtd; p.1l4 tlPopperfoto, bl AKG London Ltd, rBildarchiv PreussischerKulturbesitz; p.116 Press Association; p.117 © Yad Vashem Photo Archive;p.1l8 and p.1l9 Randall Bytwerk's German Propaganda Archive,http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/; p.130 Evening Standard/AtlanticSyndication; p.132 Punch Cartoon Library; p.133 Topham Picturepoint;p.139 I The Art Archive/Imperial War Museum, r Hugo Jaeger/TimePix/RexFeatures; p.144 rHulton Getty, b Imperial War Museum; p.149 Ben Walsh;p.150 Mary Evans Picture Library; p.15l both Peter Newark's MilitaryPictures; p.153 Imperial War Museum, London; p.155 t Hulton Getty, b JohnTownson/Creation; p.157 t Imperial War Museum, bl and brTyne & WearArchives Service; p.158 Hulton Getty; p.159 Popperfoto; p.160 AssociatedPress/Topham; p.16l Atlantic Syndication; p.163 Hulton Getty; p.17l PeterNewark's Military Pictures; p.172 Associated Press; p.173 t Corbis UK Ltd,b Corbis/BettmanlUPI; p.174 Popperfoto; p.175 t Popperfoto, c Public RecordOffice, b John Frost Newspaper Archive; p.178 Evening Standard/AtlanticSyndication; p.183 Pravda 1960; p.187 Larry Burrows/TimePix/Rex Features;p.190 Corbis UK Ltd; p.19l t Corbis UK Ltd, b Associated Press/Topham;

233

234

p.192 and p.193 Corbis UK Ltd; p.194 t © Daily Telegraph/Centre for theStudy of Cartoons and Caricature, University of Kent, b Corbis UK Ltd;p.196 The Art Archive; p.197 AKG London; p.199 Hulton Getty; p.200 HultonGetty; p.203 I Topham Picturepoint, r Popperfoto; p.204 Popperfoto; p.207Czech News Agency; p.208 both The Open University; p.212 tl News of theWorld/John Frost Newspaper Newspapers, bl PiellGamma/Frank SpoonerPictures, r Popperfoto/Reuters; p.215 TimePixlRex Features; p.216 I TophamPicturepoint, r © Daily Telegraph/Centre for the Study of Cartoons andCaricatures, University of Kent.

et = top, b = bottom, I = left, r = right, c = centre)

While every effort has been made to contact copyright holders, thepublishers apologise for any omissions, which they will be pleased to rectifyat the earliest opportunity.

History in Focus: clear and focused coverageof GCSE, ~ Grade and 'GCSE History

Essential Modern World HistoryThis entry level textbook covers the heartland of Modern WorldHistory:

• the First World War• Nazi Germany• International Relations 1919-1939• the Second World War• the Cold War.

Its innovative approach is designed to enhance students' grades atGCSE or prepare them for Entry Level Certificate or IGCSE.

Essential Modern World History is:

• Manageable - each topic is pared down to its essentials andmemorable key ideas.

• Thought provoking - it provides accessible tasks to help studentsthink about the key ideas in the way that examiners expect.

• Interesting - it selects the engaging content and concentrates onmemorable human stories.

• Useful - by focusing on the most useful transferable skills it not onlyprepares students for exam success but it is also deeply relevant tomodern life.

Teacher's Resource BookThe accompanying Teacher's Resource Book includes structured supportfor every major task in this Student's Book and enhanced opportunitiesfor the use of ICT in history.

Th~ authorBeh Walsh is a GCSE Assistant Examiner for OCR Modern WorldHistory. He teaches AQA Modern World History at Stafford Collegeand does regular INSET for all aspects of the teaching of Modern WorldHistory and the use of ICT in history teaching.

ISBN 0-7195-7715-2

1111111111111111111111111111119 780719577154 >