Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing

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A Behavior Modification Perspective on MarketingAuthor(s): Walter R. Nord and J. Paul PeterSource: The Journal of Marketing, Vol. 44, No. 2 (Spring, 1980), pp. 36-47Published by: American Marketing AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1249975

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WALTER.NORDJ.PAULETER

This article presents an overview of behavior modificationand investigates its applicability to marketing. It is suggestedthat this perspective provides a useful complement to the

more cognitively-oriented approaches which currently dom-

inate the marketing literature. Some of the approach'spotential contributions and unresolved issues are also dis-

cussed.

A BEHAVIORMODIFICPERSPECTIVEN MARKETI

TUDENTS of marketinghave borrowed freelyfrom many areas of psychology. For example,

cognitive psychology, need satisfaction models,field theory, psychoanalytic theory, and stimulus-

response theory have all provided useful insightsfor understandingand predictingconsumer behav-

ior. However, marketingscholars have given littleconsiderationto one of the most influentialperspec-tives developed in psychology in the last 40 years-the behavior modification approach stimulated bythe work of B. F. Skinner' (e.g., 1953, 1969). The

purpose of this paper is to provide an overviewof the Behavior Modification Perspective (BMP)which has evolved from the work of Skinner andothers and investigate its applicabilityto marketing.

Fundamental Elements of BehaviorModification

There is an importantbasic difference between theBMP and the psychological perspectives which

currently dominate the marketing literature: theBMP focuses on environmental actors which in-

Walter R. Nord is Professor of Organizational Psychologyand J. Paul Peter is Associate Professor of Marketingat Washington University, St. Louis, MO. The authorswould like to thank C. William Emory and two anonymousreviewers for their helpful comments.

fluence behavior. It takes the predictionand controlof behavior as problematic and deliberately shuns

speculation about processes which are assumed tooccur within the individual such as needs, motives,attitudes, information processing, etc. In fact, theso-called radical behaviorists reject the value of

considering these internal processes at all. Ourapproach is far less radical and more consistentwith the social learning theories of Bandura(1978)and Staats (1975). We believe that it is useful anddesirableto theorize about and investigate internal,psychological processes which affect behavior.However, we maintain that many marketingobjec-tives can be (and in fact have been) accomplishedwithout such theories by simply studying environ-mental conditions and manipulating them to in-fluence consumer behavior. The BMP provides thestimulus and technology for systematizing this ex-ternal focus.

Frequently, treatmentsof behaviormodificationare limitedto two types of environmentalmanipula-tions-those which result in respondent (classical)conditioning and those which produce operant (in-

'Some psychologists consider Skinner and his followers to beS-R theorists. While there are important similarities, the differencesare significant enough that leading psychologists consider Skinner'swork separately from their treatment of S-R theory (see Hall and

Lindzey 1970).

36/

Journal ofMarketing, Spring

1980Journal of MarketingVol. 44

(Spring 1980),36-7.



strumental)conditioning.2This treatment of behav-ior modification will include these manipulationsas well as those which alter behavior throughvicarious learningand ecological design.

A review of the literature revealed that thesefour ways of modifying behavior have been givenlittle systematic attention in marketing. While re-

spondent conditioninghas been discussed at length

in the marketingliteraturein an attempt to explainbehavior, it has not been discussed as a methodof modifying or controlling behavior. Operantconditioninghas been discussed (e.g., Carey et al.1976; Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell 1973; Kas-sarjian 1978;Ray 1973)but has not been integratedinto the mainstream of marketingthinking. Treat-ment of vicarious learning and ecological designis almost totally absent.3As a result many studentsof marketing are apt to be unfamiliar with theseprocesses. Therefore, all four will be described insome detail.

RespondentConditioning

Respondents are a class of behaviors which areunder the control of stimuli which precede them.

Generally, these behaviors are assumed to be gov-erned by the autonomicnervous system and, there-fore, are not susceptible to conscious control bythe individual. Pavlov's classical conditioningexperiments provide the basic paradigm for thisapproach.

In general, respondent conditioning can be de-fined as aprocess throughwhich apreviouslyneutral

stimulus, by being paired with an unconditionedstimulus, comes to elicit a response very similarto the response originally elicited by the uncondi-tioned stimulus. It is well established that a varietyof human behaviors including reflexes, glandularresponses, and what are often called "emotions"can be modified throughthe process of respondentconditioning.4For example, when a new productfor which people have neutralfeelings is repeatedlyadvertisedduringexciting sports events, it is possi-ble for theproductto eventually generateexcitementon its own solely throughthe repeatedpairingwiththe exciting events. Similarly,an unknownpoliticalcandidate may come to elicit patriotic feelings in

2It has been argued that respondent and operant conditioningmay not be as separable processes as previously thought. For adiscussion of this point, see Miller (1969). However, for presentpurposes they will be treated as conceptually distinct.

3However, Kotler's (1976, p. 324) notion of atmospherics as wellas several of Belk's (1974, 1975)situational influences, e.g., physicaland social surroundings, are fully consistent with the principlesof ecological design (and respondent conditioning).

4Miller (1969) has demonstrated that these behaviors can alsobe conditioned by stimuli which occur after them.

voters simply by having patriotic music constantlyplayed in the backgroundof his/her political com-mercials.

Since it is a process which can account for manyof the responses which environmentalstimuli elicitfrom individuals, respondent conditioning has anumber of important implications for marketing.Through t, a particularstimuluscan come to evoke

positive, negative, or neutralfeelings. Consequent-ly, respondent conditioning influences whether awide variety of objects or events are those whichan individual will work to obtain, to avoid, or beindifferent to.

At this point, it should be clear that what theBMPviews as respondentconditioningcan accountfor many of the reactions to stimuli which havealso been accounted for by cognitive or affectivemodels. We are not saying that the BMP view isincompatiblewith these traditionalconcerns or thatit is a perfect substitute for such models. However,

these traditionalconcerns have led marketingschol-ars to accept models and to design research in whichinternalpsychological processes are focal and as-sumed to be "causal." As a result, the role ofexternal events has received insufficient attention.Respondent conditioningand other elements of theBMP focus on the manipulationof external factorsand it is clear that consumer behavior can beinfluenced through this external emphasis withouta complete psychology of internalprocesses.5

Consider aproductor a product-related timulus.External stimuli which elicit positive emotions can

be paired with the product in ways which resultin the productitself eliciting positive effect. Conse-quently, behavior may be triggered which bringsthe potential consumer into "closer contact" withthe product.6 Similarly, stimuli may be presented

5There are three basic ways by which researchers attempt todetermine what properties certain stimuli have for people. Oneway is through verbal reports. A second method may be termedprojection whereby the investigator infers the properties fromhis/her observations of another person's behavior. A third meanscan be termed empirical. This involves presentation of a stimulusand description of its consequences. Of course, these three are

often used in combination. The BMP encourages marketers notto discount the advantages of the empirical approach.6"Closer contact" refers to a general relationship between a

person's behavior and a given stimulus (e.g., a product). Forexample, if a product elicits positive effect, an individual exposedto the product is more apt to move towards it than if negativeemotions are elicited. Attending behavior is also apt to be a functionof respondently conditioned effect. Stimuli which elicit strongeremotional responses (either positive or negative) are, at least overa considerable range, apt to receive more attention from an individualthan are stimuli which are affectively neutral. To the degree thatattending behavior is necessary for product purchase or otherproduct-related behavior, respondent conditioning influences prod-uct contact.

A Behavior ModificationPerspective

onMarketing / 37



which produce certain generalemotional responsessuch as relaxation, excitement, nostalgia, or someother emotion which is likely to increase the proba-bility of some desired response such as productpurchase. Note, while it may be useful to obtainverbalreportsor physiologicalmeasures in decidingwhat stimuli to employ to elicit such emotions, theBMPbypasses these proceduresand focuses direct-

ly on ways to modify behavior. While a numberof psychological theories could be used to accountfor these processes, behavior can be modifiedwithout such theories. In fact, it seems clear thatthe actions of practitionersoften follow this atheo-retical approach.

Consider the following examples. Radio andtelevision advertisements often use famous sports-casters whose voices have been paired for yearswith exciting sports events. These voices elicitexcitement as a result of this frequent pairing.Repeated pairingsof the voices with the advertised

product can result, via higher-order respondentconditioning, in feelings of excitement associatedwith the product. Music, sexy voices and bodies,and other stimuli are used in similar ways. Oftenthese stimuli may influence behavior without this

"higher order conditioning" simply by drawingattentionto the ad. Of course, the attentiongenerat-ing properties of the stimulus itself are apt to have

developed through previous conditioning whichoccurs "naturally" n society. The use of telephonesringing or sirens in the background of radio andtelevision ads, some legal version of the phrase

"news bulletin," and the presence of famous ce-lebrities, are common examples of how stimuli,which are irrelevant to the content of an ad orthe function of the product, are used to increaseattention to the ad itself. In this sense, one of the

major resources that organizations use to markettheir products is made available through previousrespondent conditioningof members of society.

Stimuli at or near the point of purchase alsoserve the goals of marketers through their abilityto elicit respondent behaviors. Christmas music ina toy department is a good example. Although nodata are available to support the point, we suspectthat Christmas carols are useful in eliciting theemotions labeled as the "Christmas spirit." Oncethese feelings have been elicited, we suspect (andretailers seem to shareourexpectations) thatpeopleare more apt to purchase a potential gift for a lovedone. In other words, Christmas carols are usefulin generatingemotions which are incompatiblewith"sales resistance."

These examples can serve as a basis for several

generalizationsabout the role of respondent condi-

tioning as a marketing tool. First, the concept of

respondent conditioning directs attention to the

presentationof stimuliwhich, due to previouscondi-

tioning, elicit certain feelings in the potential con-sumer. Sometimes (as with Christmasmusic) thesestimuli trigger certain emotions which are apt toincrease the probabilityof certain desired behaviorsor reduce the probability of undesired responses.

Second, in many cases the marketer may find ituseful to actually condition responses to stimuli.For example, as with the voices of famous sports-casters, it may be desirable to pair the stimuliwith the product repeatedly in order to conditionthe feelings elicited by a particularstimulus to the

product. Then, the product itself may stimulatesimilar reactions. Finally, some of the benefitswhich can be gained from employingthe principlesof respondent conditioninghave already been used

by marketingpractitionersin an (apparently)ad hocmanner. While the systematic application of the

respondent paradigm is unlikely to result in anynew principles, by calling attention to the actualcontrol process being employed, it is apt to yielda number of practical benefits both to advertisingand to point of purchase promotion. In particular,stimuli are apt to be arrangedin ways which aremore effective in eliciting desired emotional re-

sponses. Thus, the primarybenefit of respondentconditioning, as with other elements of the BMP,is that it encourages the systematic analysis of

purchase and purchase-relatedbehaviors and indi-cates specific techniques for modifying and con-

trollingthese behaviors.OperantConditioning

Operant conditioning differs from respondentconditioningin at least two importantways. First,whereas respondentconditioningis concerned with

involuntary responses, operant conditioning dealswith behaviors which are usually assumed to beunder the conscious control of the individual. Sec-

ond, respondent behaviors are elicited by stimuliwhich occur prior to the response; operants areconditioned by consequences which occur after thebehavior.

In any given situation, at any given time, thereis a certain probabilitythat an individual will emitaparticularbehavior. If all of the possible behaviorsare arrangedin descending order of probabilityof

occurrence, the result is a response hierarchy.Operantconditioninghas occurred when the proba-bility that an individual will emit one or morebehaviors is altered by changing the events or

consequences which follow the particularbehavior.Some events or consequences increase the fre-

38 / Journal ofMarketing, Spring

1980



quency that a givenbehavioris likely to be repeated.For example, a cash rebate given at the time of

purchase increases the probability that a shopperwill purchase in the same store in the future, other

things being equal. In this case,since the cash rebatehas the effect of increasing the probability of the

preceding behavior, it is referred to as a positivereinforcer. In other cases, the frequency of a given

behavior can be increased by removing an aversivestimulus. This is called negative reinforcement.

Although there are few examples of negative rein-forcement in marketing,one illustrationis the situa-tion where a consumerpurchases a productprimari-ly to avoid the high pressure tactics of an overzeal-ous salesperson.

Sometimes operant techniques are used to de-crease the probabilityof a response. If the environ-ment is arranged so that the particular responseresults in neutral consequences, over a period oftime that response will diminish in frequency. This

process is referred to as extinction. If the responseis followed by a noxious or "undesired" result,the frequency of the response is likely to decrease.The term punishment is usually used to describethis process.7

In addition to these general procedures, thereare a number of other principles of operant condi-

tioning. (For a rathercomplete description of these

possibilities, Honig 1966and Staats 1975are recom-

mended.) However, there are three concepts whichdeserve specific mention:reinforcement schedules,shaping, and discriminativestimuli.

ReinforcementSchedules. A numberof differentschedules of reinforcement can be employed. Forexample, it is possible to arrangeconditions wherea positive reinforcer is administeredafter: (1) everydesiredbehavior, (2)every second desiredbehavior,etc. When every occurrence of the behavior isreinforced, a continuous schedule of reinforcementis beingemployed. When every second, third,tenth,etc. response is reinforced, a fixed ratio scheduleis being used. Similarly, it is possible to have areinforcerfollow a desiredconsequence on averageone-half, one-third, one-fourth, etc. of the time,but not every second time or thirdtime, etc. Such

a schedule is called a variableratio schedule.The ratio schedules are of particular interest

because they produce high rates of behavior which

7In this paper, we will focus primarily on the use of positivereinforcement. We are making this choice for two reasons. First,we personally do not believe that aversive consequences shouldbe used to sell products. Second, it is unlikely that the use ofaversive consequences to sell products is generally practical inthe current socioeconomic system even if organizations werepredisposed to use them.

are reasonably resistant to extinction. Gamblingdevices are good examples. Slot machines are veryeffective in producing high rates of response, evenunder conditions which often result in substantialfinancial losses. This propertyof the ratio scheduleis particularlyimportant for marketers because itsuggests how a great deal of desired behavior canbe developed and maintainedfor relatively small,infrequent rewards. For example, Deslauriers andEberett (1977) found that by giving small rewardsfor riding a bus on a variable ratio schedule, thesame amount of bus riding could be obtained aswhen rewards were given on a continuousschedule.Thus, for approximatelyone-third the cost of thecontinuous schedule, the same amounts of behaviorwere sustained.8

Numerous other examples of the use of thevariable ratio schedule can be found in marketingpractice. Lotteries, door prizes, and other tacticswherebyindividuals areasked to respondin a certain

way to be eligible for a prize are common examples(when the prize is assigned by chance).

Shaping. Another concept from the operanttraditionwhich has important mplications for mar-keting is "shaping." Shaping is importantbecause

given an individual's existing response hierarchy,the probability that he/she will make a particulardesired response may be very small. In general,shapinginvolves a process of arrangingconditionswhich change the probabilitiesof certain behaviorsnot as ends in themselves, but to increase theprobabilities of other behaviors. Usually, shaping

involves the positive reinforcement of successiveapproximationsof the desired behavior or of behav-iors which must be performed before the desiredresponse can be emitted.

Many firms alreadyemploy marketingactivitieswhich are roughlyanalogous to shaping. For exam-ple, loss leaders and other special deals are usedas rewards for individuals coming to a store. Oncecustomers are in the store, the probabilitythat theywill make some other response such as purchasingother full-priced items is much greater than whenthey are not in the store. Also, shopping centersor auto dealers who put carnivals in their

parkinglots may be viewed as attemptingto shape behavior.Similarly, free trial periods may be employed tomake it more likely that the user will have contact

8There are a number of other possible reinforcement schedules.However, we will limit our attention to continuous and ratioschedules. Also we will not deal with the consequences that thedifferent schedules have on the pattern, rate, and maintenanceof behavior. For a detailed treatment of these effects, Honig (1966)is recommended.


onMarketing /

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with the product so that he/she can experiencethe product's reinforcingproperties.

DiscriminativeStimuli. It is importantto distin-

guish between the reinforcementand discriminativefunctions played by stimuli in the operant model.In our treatment of respondent conditioning, wenoted that a stimulus can act as a reinforcer orcan function to trigger certain emotions or other

behaviors. So far in this section, the focus has beenon the reinforcing function. However, the mere

presence or absence of a stimulus can serve to

change the probabilities of behavior; such stimuliare called discriminativestimuli.

Many marketingstimuli are of a discriminativenature. Store signs (e.g., "50% off sale") and store

logos (e.g., K-Mart's big red "K") or distinctivebrandmarks e.g., the Levi tag) are good examples.Previous experiences have perhaps taught the cus-tomerthatpurchasebehaviorwill be rewardedwhenthe distinctive symbol is present and not rewarded

when the symbol is absent. Here then is yet anotherparallel between the principles of behavior modi-fication and common marketingpractice.

VicariousLearning

Vicarious learning(or modeling)refers to a processwhich attempts to change behavior by having anindividual observe the actions of others (i.e.,models) and the consequences of those behaviors.

According to Bandura (1969) there are three

major types of vicarious learning or modeling in-fluences. First, there are observational learning or

modelingeffects

wherebyan observer

acquiresone

or more new response patterns that did not pre-viously exist in his/her behavioral repertoire. Sec-

ond, there are inhibitory and disinhibitory effects

whereby an observer's inhibitory responses areeither strengthenedor weakened by observation ofa model's behavior and its consequences. Third,there is response facilitation whereby the behaviorof others ". .. serves merely as discriminative

stimulifor the observerin facilitatingthe occurrenceof previously learned responses ..." (Bandura

1969, p. 120).Developing New Responses. There are at least

three types of new behaviors that marketers oftenwish to inducein consumersorpotentialconsumers.

First, it is often desirable to "educate" consumersinproductusage. Second, itmaybe helpful to induceconsumers to shop in certain ways. Finally, bydeveloping certain types of "attending behavior,"the sensitivity of a potentialcustomer to advertisinginformation can be increased. Vicarious learningcan be very useful in achieving these three goals.

First, modeling can be used to develop behaviors

which enable potential consumersto utilize particu-lar products appropriately. The demonstration of

ways of using a product may make purchase more

probable, particularlyif the model(s) appear to be

experiencingpositive consequences from using the

product.Moreover,repurchaseorpurchaseby one'sfriendsmay become more probableif the consumerhas learned, by watching someone else, to use the

product appropriately. This use of modeling iscommon to both industrialand consumer productssalespeople who are attempting to sell technicallycomplex products. Also, many self-service retailstores now use video cassette machines with tapeddemonstrations of proper product usage.

Second, models may be very helpful in develop-ing the desired purchasingbehaviors. For example,suppose a firm has a product which is currentlytechnically superior to its competitors. It may be

important to teach the potential consumer to ask

questions about such technical advantages at the

point of purchase. Advertisementsshowing individ-uals doingjust this or behavingin otherways which

appear to give a particular product a differential

advantage may be useful.

Third,particularlyat early stages in the purchaseprocess, it is often necessary to find ways to increasethe degree to which potential customers attend toinformation in advertisements and other messagesabout a product. Attaining this objective can befacilitated throughthe applicationof findings fromrecent research on factors which influence theattention observers pay to models. For example,

attendingbehavior is influenced

bysuch factors

as: incentive conditions, the characteristics of theobservers, the characteristicsof the model, and thecharacteristics of the modeling cues themselves.

Advertisingpractitionersseem to be very sensi-tive to these factors. Manyads reflect theircreators'acute awareness of salient characteristics of the

target audience, the characteristics of the users ofthe product in the ad, and the behaviors exhibited

by the model. Moreover, manyads show the models

receiving positive social orotherreinforcementfromthe purchase or use of the product.

Inhibiting UndesiredBehaviors. Because of the

obvious ethical and practical problems involved inattemptingto use punishment n marketing,we have

given little attention to ways of reducing the fre-

quency of "undesired" responses. However, whilethese problemsexist in the directuse of punishment,they are far less prevalent when aversive conse-

quences areadministeredto models. Thus, vicarious

learning may be one of the few approaches whichcan be used in marketingto reduce the frequencyof unwanted elements in the behavioral repertoire

40 / Journal of Marketing, Spring 1980



of a potential or present consumer.It is well known from the modeling literature

that, under appropriateconditions, observers whosee a modelexperience aversiveoutcomes followingaparticularact, will reduce theirtendency to exhibitthat behavior. Similarly, vicarious learning can

employ an extinction situation to reduce the fre-

quency of behavior.,

While most marketing efforts are directed atincreasing rather than decreasing behaviors, someads are directed at reducing such behaviors as

smoking, drinking, overeating, wasting energy, pol-luting and littering, as well as purchasing or usinga competitor's product. The effectiveness of mes-

sages to achieve these goals may benefit from theuse of vicarious negative conditioning.

Response Facilitation. In addition to its role in

developing new behaviors and inhibiting "unde-sired" behaviors, modelingcan be used to facilitatethe occurrence of desired behaviors which are

currently nthe individual'srepertoire.Forexample,modeling has been used extensively in advertisingnot only to illustrate the uses of a product but toshow what "types" of people use it and in what

settings. Since manyof these uses involve behaviors

already in the observer's response hierarchy, thefunction of the model is merely to facilitate these

responses by depicting positive consequences foruse of theproduct naparticularway. Thistechniqueappears frequently in advertising for high status

products. Such ads do not demonstrate any newbehaviors, but show the positive consequences of

using a particular product. The recent series ofLowenbrau ads stressing the use of this beer for

very special occasions is a clear example of this.It is also possible to influenceemotionalbehavior

through a vicarious learning paradigm. Bandura(1969) noted that many emotional behaviors canbe acquiredthroughobservations of others, as wellas throughdirect respondent conditioning:

? . . vicarious emotional conditioning results from

observing others experience positive or negativeemotional effects in conjunction with particularstimulus events. Both direct and vicarious condi-tioning processes are governed by the same basic

principlesof associative

learning,but

theydiffer

in the force of the emotional arousal. In the directprototype, the learner himself is the recipient ofpain- or pleasure-producing stimulation, whereasin vicarious forms somebody else experiences thereinforcing stimulation and his affective expres-sions, in turn, serve as the arousal stimuli for theobserver (p. 167).

To the degree that positive emotions toward aproduct are desired, vicarious emotional condition-

ing may be a useful concept for the design ofeffective advertisements.

In sum, vicarious learning or modeling has anumber of currentand potentialuses in marketing.If a potential consumer has observed appropriatemodels, then he/she is more likely to know the

appropriate behaviors; if the model has beenrewardedappropriately, hepotentialconsumermaybe more likely to engage in these behaviors. Like-wise, if the potential consumer has observed in-

appropriate models receiving aversive conse-quences, he/she may be less likely to emit them.Models may be used to develop, inhibit,or facilitatebehavior. In short, as with the other componentsof the BMP, it is clear that this technique for

modifying behavior is commonly employed in cur-rent television and other advertising messages. Infact, Markin and Narayana (1976, p. 225) suggestthat many of today's most successful products are

promoted and advertised on the basis of modelingapproacheswhichshow themodel receiving positivefunctional or social benefits from the use of the

product. Products they suggest have used this ap-proach include "Coca-Cola," "Pepsi Cola," "Mc-Donald's," "Kentucky Fried Chicken," "Nyquil,""Absorbine Jr.," "Alka Seltzer," Philip's "Milkof Magnesia," "Pepto Bismol," "Folgers,""Crest," and "Head and Shoulders." However,since the link of current marketing practice to theBMP has not been explicit, research exploring theapplication of the principles of vicarious learningto marketing settings is lacking. Such research is

apt to have both practical importancefor marketingand theoreticalimplicationsfor students of modeling

as previous findings are tested in more general,less artificial settings.

Ecological Design

Althoughknowledgeaboutthe role of physicalspaceandotheraspects of environmentaldesignis meager,there is considerable evidence that the design of

physical situations and the presence or absence ofvarious stimuli have powerful effects on behavior(Barker 1968;Hall 1959, 1966;Sommers 1969). Wewill use the term ecological design to refer to thedeliberatedesign of environments to modify humanbehavior.

Ecological design is widely used in marketing.For example, department stores place displays inhigh traffic areas (e.g., at the end of an escalator)to increase the likelihood that consumers will ob-serve the product on display. Similarly, end aisledisplays in supermarketsand the internal arrange-ments of stores involve efforts to place stimuli inpositions whichincrease thelikelihood of consumersmakingone or more desired responses. Direct mailis also a means of placing stimuli in the potential


onMarketing /

41



consumer's environment to increase the likelihoodthat the individual will at least be aware of the

particular product. Other techniques include the useof sound, odors, lights, and other stimuli to increaseattentive behaviors. In fact, store location andexternal arrangements (e.g., design of malls, ar-

rangement of parking space) are all efforts to alterbehavior through environmental design. In a be-

havioral sense, these are all ways to increase the

probability that the individual will make certain

responses which increase the likelihood that pur-chase or some other desired response will follow.

Like shaping, ecological manipulations are fre-

quently employed to modify behavior early in the

purchase process. Thus, their major impact is

through their role in inducing the potential consumer

TABLE 1Illustrative Applications of the BMP in Marketing

I. Some Applications of Respondent Conditioning PrinciplesA. Conditioning responses to new stimuli

Unconditioned or PreviouslyConditioned Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus

Excitingevent A productor theme song

Patrioticevents or music A productor person

B. Use of familiar stimuli to elicit responses

Conditioned Stimulus CoFamiliarmusic Relaxati

will"

Familiarvoices Excitem

Sexy voices, bodies Excitem

Familiar ocial cues Excitem

nditioned Response(s)ion, excitement, "good

tent, attention

lent, attention, relaxation

lent, attention, anxiety

ExamplesGillette theme song followed bysports event

Patrioticmusic as backgroundin political commercial

ExamplesChristmasmusic in retailstore

Famous sportscaster narratingacommercial

Noxema television ads and manyothers

Sirens sounding or telephonesringing in commercials

II. Some Applications of OperantConditioning PrinciplesA. Rewards for desired behavior (continuous schedules)

Desired BehaviorProductpurchase

B. Rewardsfor desired behavior (partial schedules)

Desired BehaviorProductpurchase

C. Shaping

Approximation of DesiredResponse

Opening a charge account

Tripto point-of-purchase

locationEntry nto store

Product trial

D. Discriminative Stimuli

Desired BehaviorEntry nto store

Brandpurchase

ConsequentApprox

Prizes, etc., for o

Loss leaders, ent

event at the shorDoor prizeFree productandbonus for using

Reward Given Following BehaviorTradingstamps, cash bonus or rebate, prizes,coupons

Reward Given (sometimes)Prize for every second, or third, etc. purchasePrize to some fraction of people who purchase

ce Following:imation FinalResponse Desiredpening account Expenditureof funds

tertainment,or Purchase of products

)ping centerPurchase of products

I/or some Purchase of product

Reward SignalStore signsStore logosDistinctive brandmarks

Examples50% off saleK-Mart'sbig red "K"

Levitag




to come into contact with the product and / or

perform product-related behavior. As such, eco-

logical design is best viewed as one part of a

comprehensive marketing approach; ecologicalmodifications can be conveniently sequenced withother techniques (e.g. modeling, respondent condi-

tioning, operant conditioning).As with other elements subsumed under the

BMP, ecological designs to modify behavior havereceived far less attention in the academic literaturethan they deserve in view of how frequently theyare used by marketing practitioners. A major ad-

vantage of the BMP is that it encourages the

integration of these various techniques to lead toa coherent approach for modifying the entire se-

quence of behaviors desired of consumers and

potential consumers.

Summaryof SomeApplicationsof theBMPin

MarketingTable 1 provides a framework for considering some

applications of the BMP to marketing. Each of thefour sections of the table outlines the general

TABLE1 (Continued)

III.Some Applications of Modeling Principles

Modeling EmployedInstructor,expert, salesperson using product(in ads or at point-of-purchase)

Models in ads asking questions at point-of-purchaseModels in ads receiving positive reinforcementfor product purchase or use

Models in ads receiving no reinforcementorreceiving punishment for performingundesiredbehaviors

Individualor group (similarto target) usingproduct in novel, enjoyable way

procedures which would be followed in applyingone of the four basic elements of the BMP. Thetable lists a number of the specific behaviors whichmarketers may wish to develop and organizes the

examples presented in the previous sections of the

paper. In reviewing this table, two qualificationsshould be kept in mind. First, there are many tacticsfor modifying behavior which are combinations of

a number of techniques which do not fit neatlyinto the simple categories presented in the table.For example, Anheuser-Busch has a series of com-mercials which begin with a sports trivia questionand then give the listener "time to think" whilethe virtues of a particular brand of beer are dis-cussed. Then, the answer to the question is given.Determination of exactly which principles this ap-proach uses and whether or not the approach canbe reduced to principles of behavior modificationat all requires a complex analysis of the acquisitionand use of language. However, the approach is

clearly one of picking a desired behavior (i.e.,listening to the commercial) and organizing stimulito increase the probability of this behavior.

Second, most, if not all of these tactics have

Desired ResponseUse of product in technically competent way

Ask questions at point-of-purchase which highlightproductadvantagesIncrease product purchase and use

Extinctionor decrease undesired behaviors

Use of product in new ways

IV. Some Applications of Ecological Modification Principles

EnvironmentalDesignStore layout

Purchase locations

In-storemobility

Noises, odors, lights

Specific ExampleEndof escalator,end-aisle, other displays

Purchase possible fromhome, store location

In-storeproductdirectories, informationbooths

Flashing lights in storewindow

Intermediate BehaviorBringcustomer intovisual contact with

productProduct or store contact

Bringconsumer intovisual contact withproduct

Bringconsumer intovisual or other sensorycontact with store orproduct

FinalDesired BehaviorProductpurchase

Productpurchase

Productpurchase

Productpurchase

A Behavior Modification Perspective on Marketing / 43



alreadybeen used by practitioners. While the BMP

may lead to some new tactics, its most importantvalue to practitionerswill be in systematizing and

integratingmarketingefforts by focusing attentionon the sequence of specific behaviors which canbe modified to change the probability of productpurchase or of some other desired behavior.

PotentialContributionsof the BMP toMarketingAs the examples in the previous section illustrate,a number of tactics which are frequently used bymarketing practitioners can be derived from theBMP. Of course, the fact that they can be deriveddoes not mean that they were so derived or that

they couldnot have been derived fromothermodels.Nevertheless, the fact that such a varied array oftactics can be subsumed under a relatively simplemodelsuggests that theperspectivecan be a valuable

addition to the academic marketing literature. Itis in this spirit that we speculate about the potentialcontributionsof the BMP to marketingpractice andto the study of consumer behavior.

MarketingPractice

The BMP can make at least two majorcontributionsto marketing practice. First, it can facilitate the

development of a comprehensive set of strategiesand tactics which encompass those environmentaland situational factors which directly influencebehavior.If the behaviorsdesiredfromthe potential

buyerare

specified,it will often be

possibleto be

explicit about a set of actions which should occurin any given situation to move the potential buyerto behave in ways which are more likely to leadto purchase behavior. Marketingtactics developedwith this degree of specificity force more careful

planning and analysis of exactly what outcomesare sought and are more easily evaluated and re-fined. It should be noted here that in other systemswhere behavior modification has been introduced,it has often been found that there was considerableambiguity about exactly what results previousmethods of organizationwere really attemptingto

achieve (Nord 1969; Schneier 1974). We suspectthat other than purchase behavior, many studentsof marketing have never delineated the basic se-quence of behaviors that consumers must performin order to purchase a product.

Second, the BMP can stimulate a closer inter-changebetween academics andpractitioners.In thisconnection it is importantto emphasize that whilemarketing managers are rewarded for developingtactics which generate sales andprofits, academics

are more apt to be rewarded for attempting to

provide theoretical explanations of consumer be-havior. The BMP focuses academics on the inves-

tigationof behaviors andtechniques which producesales and profits. Moreover, its simplicity and

pragmaticemphasis should help academics in theirefforts to communicate with practitioners.

Study of ConsumerBehaviorThere are also two majorcontributionsto the studyof consumer behavior.First, the BMP forces explicitrecognitionthat, to the degree thatmarketingeffortsseek to increase sales, marketing is directly con-cerned with the influence, modification, andcontrolof consumer behavior. Such recognition can have

profound effects on consumer behavior research.While research on attitudes and decision processeswill not be precluded, valuable empirical research

may be conducted without attaching great signifi-cance to internalpsychological processes. Instead,

attention is apt to center on the manipulation ofexternal factors which affect behavior in desired

ways. Even in cases where internal psychologicalprocesses are the focus of research,the BMPforces

explicit recognition that there are a variety ofexternal influences which need to be accounted forin research designs. Several of Belk's (1974, 1975)situational influences as well as a variety of thestimuli discussed in this article could well be affect-

ing both the internal validity (i.e., interpretability)and external validity (i.e., generalizability)of cur-rent consumer behavior research findings. The dis-cussions

bySnow

(1974)and Petrinovich

(1979)should be useful for developing research methodsto incorporate these external influences.

Second, there is considerable evidence that thebehavior of consumers is far more consistent withthe principles of the BMP than with traditional

explanations. For example Markin(1974) and Mar-kinandNarayana(1976)note thatempiricalresearchon consumer decision processes documents thatconsumers: (1) do not seek extensive amounts ofinformation n relation to purchaseandconsumptionproblems; (2) do not process large amounts ofinformation n relationto purchaseandconsumptionproblems; and (3) do not appear to engage inextensive problem solving behavioreven in relationto big ticket or capital intensive items such asautomobiles, houses, and major appliances. Notonly does the BMP account for the empiricaldatabetter than many other approaches, but it does sowith fewer variables. In a word, it is more parsi-monious. Further, it has long been recognized thatpurchase behavior often precedes attitudes aboutthe product or brand purchased. Thus, the BMP




may well provide insights into predictingand con-trolling the purchase-consumption process. It isimportant to emphasize here that the BMP doesnot nor is it intended to provide theoreticalexplana-tions of behavior. However, it is clear that anyscientific explanation of the causes of consumerbehavior will have to include not only internalpsychological processes, but also the external in-

fluences embodied in the BMP.

SomeUnresolvedIssuesBased on our argument,we believe it is reasonableto conclude that a good deal of marketing, at leastat the tactical or operational level, is as closelyaligned with techniques of behavior modificationas with those suggested by more complex, internal-

ly-oriented psychological models. To the degree thisconclusion is valid, it raises a number of issuesabout the value of the BMP for marketing.

First, to what extent is the BMP a suitablereplacement for more traditionalapproaches? Webelieve that it is a useful complement, not a replace-ment. The BMPfocuses on externalfactors; it stopsshort of providing adequateexplanation of internal

processes. Although Skinner(1969)has argued per-suasively that the skin is an arbitrarybarrier, wedo not find theattemptsof manyradicalbehavioriststo ignore the internalcorrelates of external stimuli

intellectuallysatisfying. At the same time, we agreewith Bindra (1959) that the efforts of motivationalandcognitive psychologists to deal with these inter-

nal correlates often are merely classifications ofacts, rather than adequate accounts for causes ofbehavior. Thus, we are driven to a psychologicaleclecticism which, unlike the currentpsychologicaleclecticism in marketing, incorporates an externalperspective.

Second, there is the issue of the efficacy ofbehavior modification techniques. While existingresearch indicates that the technology exists tomodify behavior very effectively, this technologycan be used more effectively in controlledenviron-ments. While retail stores and shopping malls pro-vide relatively closed environments, they do not

permit the type of control which experimenters inhospitals, schools, prisons, and even work organ-izations may have. Moreover, the degree of controlwhich is possible will vary at different stages inthe purchasingprocess. Empiricalresearch involv-ing applicationsof behaviormodificationprinciplesat different stages of the purchasingprocess wouldclearly be useful for investigating this issue. It isonly at the latter stages that substantial controlseems possible.

Third, there are major ethical/moral issues in-volved in the use of the BMP in marketing. In

many areas, the ethical/moral challenges to theapplication of behavior modification are, at leastin the minds of most behavior modifiers, relativelyeasy to refute. In most areas where behavior modi-fication has been applied (e.g., psychotherapy,education, self-improvement), it is usually possible(althoughthe possibility is often not translatedintopractice) for subjects of behavior modification toparticipate in defining the ends and also to whatdegree they will determine in the means. Thushuman freedom and dignity are, to some degree,protected; in such situations, the BMP providesa useful technology for helping human beingsachieve the ends they are seeking. However, evenin these cases, behavior modification has beenchallenged on ethical grounds.

We maintainthat behavior modification is not,in itself, immoral or unethical, but that valid ethi-

cal/moral concerns stem from (1) the ends to whichthe technology is used and (2) the process by whichthese ends are determined (see Nord 1976). Theapplicationof these techniques in marketingseemsethically vulnerable on both these counts. Effortsto marketproducts rarelyincludethe subject whosebehavior is modified as a full participantin deter-miningeither the use of the technology or the endsto which it is put. There are, of course, examplesof the use of behavior modification techniques inmarketingto achieve purposes which many peoplebelieve are socially desirable. For example, certain

outcomes such as reduction in littering, reductionin pollution, smoking, and other behaviors can beand are marketed through such techniques.Moreover, much of consumer education involvesmodifyingthe purchasingbehaviorof the uneducat-ed poor to get better economic value for dollarsspent. However, there appear to be many otherapplicationswhichhave few redeeming social bene-fits.

The BMP reveals that these concerns are rele-vant to the present-not just the future. It is clearthat behavior modification techniques, even thoughthey may be called something else, are

beingcur-

rently employed in marketing. Moreover, since itis clear that the type of emotions often labeled"needs" or motives can be developed throughconditioning and modeling processes, the defensethat marketingsatisfies needs is not fully adequate.Thus, while explicit application of the BMP inmarketing is apt to trigger ethical concerns, theBMP may be quite useful for viewing ethical prob-lems involved in currentmarketingpractice.

Fourth, there are a number of practical issues.

A Behavior ModificationPerspective on Marketing / 45



Inaddition to the problemof developing sufficientlycontrolled environments, there are problems of

selectingreinforcers,of designingandimplementingeffective schedules, and of designingeffective eco-

logical structures. Solutions to these problems canbenefit from an eclectic research approach. Thetrial and error approachof the radical behavioristsderived from their research with animals can beuseful, but is only one approach. In addition,analysis of historical data on the effectiveness ofvarious marketingtactics in generatingdesired be-haviors and laboratory or field experiments usingdifferent types of reinforcersis needed. Moreover,cognitively-orientedapproaches which rely on ver-bal reports may offer insights into these questions.Of course, the most important practical issue re-

quires cost-benefit analysis. While the bottom linewill be the ultimate test, the BMP does lead tothe analysis of the sequence of behaviors whichis expected to lead to purchase or to other desired

behavior. These outcomes can be defined and mea-sured more precisely with current technology thancan attitudes, needs, etc. Thus it is likely thatresearch to test the BMP will have a clear actionorientationas well as permit measurement of suc-cess at a number of intermediatesteps.

ConclusionsThis paper has attempted to provide an overviewof behavior modification and investigate its appli-cability to marketing. While it appears that manymarketing actics currently employed are quite con-sistent with the BMP, these tactics appear to havebeen derived in an ad hoc manner. A more systema-

tic application of the BMP to marketing may wellprovide insights for the development of improvedtactics andoverall strategiesandfor describinghowthepurchase-consumptionprocess works. Althoughmarketingacademics and practitionersmay be re-luctant to view marketing as a technology for

modifying and controllingconsumer behavior, it isclear that marketingtactics which are fully consis-tent with this perspective will continue to be imple-mented. In terms of consumer behavior research,it will undoubtedlybe some time before researchers

actively catalog andsampleelements of the externalenvironment

given the predilectiontoward the studyof internal processes. In any case, the BMP mayprovide a clear understanding hat one of the majorde facto functions of marketing in our society isthe modification of behavior.

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