battery powered solar charging transport final.pdf

7/29/2019 battery powered solar charging transport final.pdf

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Gift Musapatika R095573T Supervisor: Dr Gary Brooking Page 1

UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 3RD YEAR PROJECT

2012

TITLE: ALTERNATIVE ENERGY TRANSPORTATION

VIABILITY IN ZIMBABWE

BY

GIFT MUSAPATIKA

R095573T

PROJECT SUPERVISOR: DR GARY BROOKING

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENTS OF

THE BSc HONOURS DEGREE IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING.


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Table of contents

Title Page

Abstract....................................................................... 3

Acknowledgements....................................................... 4

1.0 Introduction............................................................ 5

1.1Justification............................................................... .........6

1.2 Objectives................................................................. .........7

1.3 Methodology.......................................................................7

2.0 Literature Review.......................................................8

2.1 What is an Electric vehicle (EV)? .....................................8

2.2 Transportation Statistics in Zimbabwe...............................9

2.3 Model Consideration.........................................................10

3.0 EV Parts considerations.............................................113.1 Motors

3.2 Drive train

3.3 Batteries

4.0 Previous studies.........................................................15

5.0 Current motor industry state......................................32

6.0 Market analysis and demand.....................................32

7.0 Discussion.................................................................34

8.0 Conclusion.................................................................38

9.0 References.................................................................39

10.0 Appendix.................................................................40


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ABSTRACT

Battery technology is progressing at an advanced rate. In addition solar power technology

advances have resulted in higher powered and lower cost solutions. In the past solar assisted

transport technology has not proved to be cost effective, however with the new advances, this

may no longer be the case. In particular this may now be a suitable technology to explore for

Zimbabwe given the sunlight as well as the nature of the commuter travel.

In order to get information several sources were used which includes the internet,

questionnaires, industrial visitation and literary books.

The main objective of this project is to study the Zimbabwean transport trends and come up

with a perfect vehicle model for Zimbabwe that can suit the market.

Research has shown that many people in Zimbabwe, in a bid to look for sustainable transport

end up importing the cheap ex-Japanese vehicle because these are less expensive. Only a few

net-worth individuals can afford to buy the brand new vehicles that are being assembled in

Zimbabwe.

In a move to go green, the first step is to gain commuter confidence by introducing the hybrid

vehicles. When people become more convinced that their driving patterns can be satisfied by

an all electric vehicle, then adoption is simplified.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my acknowledgement first to the Almighty for the strength and His

ever true guidance throughout the course of this research. I would also like to thank my

family (The Musapatika family) for the continued support. Special thanks to my supervisor

Dr Gary Brooking for helping me to carry out this research. I do not know what I could have

done without the help and encouragement of all my friends. May God continue to bless each

and every one of them!

For the success of the research, I would like to thank some people who helped me with the

necessary information. These include, staff from Willow vale Mazda motor industry andChloride Battery Zimbabwe.


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1.0INTRODUCTIONThe population of Zimbabwe in both the rural and urban societies is rising increasingly. This

is in line with global urban population growth rate averaging 2 percent annually (compared to

an annual rural growth rate of 0.3 percent). These trends are expected to continue, dominated

by demographic shifts in the developing world. The United Nations predicts that more than

80 percent of population growth in the next ten years will occur in the urban areas of

developing countries.

These trends are placing an enormous strain on transport and mobility in urban areas. The

transport sector, according to the World Resources Institute (2005), accounts for 24.1% ofCO2 emissions worldwide. The carbon dioxide being emitted is responsible for global

warming worldwide. Hence the only major prerequisite for both economic growth and

human welfare in all urban areas is sustainable transport: the development of clean, safe,

reliable, and affordable systems for delivering goods and moving people.

The earlier generations of electric vehicles failed to achieve significant market share due to

poor performance, high cost and short ranges.

It is from this background that it becomes necessary to look at other viable means of

alternative transport such as battery or solar powered vehicles in Zimbabwe which however is

lagging behind in technology compared to other countries.

A sustainable transport system needs to be developed for Zimbabwe.

A sustainable transportation system is that which:

Allows the basic access needs of individuals and societies to be met safely and in a manner

consistent with human and ecosystem health, and with equity within and between

generations,

Is affordable,

Operates efficiently,

Offers choice of transport mode,

Supports a vibrant economy,


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Limits emissions and waste within the planets ability to absorb them,

Minimizes consumption of non -renewable resources,

Limits consumption of renewable resources to the sustainable yield level,

Reuses and recycles its components,

Reduces noise production.

Logically, there are two ways of using technology to reduce fossil fuel use and thus CO2

emissions.

One is to use fuel that contains no or less carbon from fossil fuels.

The other is to use fuels more efficiently.

Technological developments that can contribute to reductions in fossil fuel use by transport

include battery/solar electric vehicles, fuels cells, hybrid electric-ICE vehicles.

For the purpose of this project option a) only will be explored which is to look at the financial

viability or feasibility of the development of battery powered vehicles in Zimbabwe.

1.1 PROJECT JUSTIFICATION

Battery technology is progressing at an advanced rate. In addition solar power technology

advances have resulted in higher powered and lower cost solutions. In the past solar assisted

transport technology has not proved to be cost effective, however with the new advances, this

may no longer be the case. In particular this may now be a suitable technology to explore for

Zimbabwe given the sunlight as well as the nature of the commuter travel.


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1.2 Objectives

In order to fully come up with a conclusion on this topic of consideration the following are

the listed objectives of this project.

1. To study various Zimbabwe commuter trends to get the average speed at which theytravel, the cost budget and range of distances travelled per day

2. Develop a commuter model suitable for the Zimbabwean economy3. Research about battery technological advances and battery specifications in and

outside Zimbabwe

4. Research on average sunlight hours and intensity levels in Zimbabwe5. Research on the advancement in solar technology6. Investigate the various models and solutions for electric vehicles of various sizes7. Draw a conclusion whether this will be a viable project to explore for Zimbabwe

1.3 Methodology

Conducted surveys through questionnaires in public to get an idea of what the market

requires. A copy of the used questionnaires has been attached at the appendix section.

Done most research on the internet to get the advancement in electric vehicle technology

around the world and the advancement in battery technology as well.

Industrial visits were also carried out to get the overview of the motor industry state in

Zimbabwe and the current production levels and costs. The industries visited include Willow

vale Mazda Motor industry and Chloride Zimbabwe.

Car sale dealers were also visited, to get the average cost and type of vehicles being afforded

by the customers.


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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE (EV)

An EV is a vehicle powered by batteries and has an electric motor that drives the wheels

instead of an internal combustion engine. The main parts are the electric drive train, battery

pack and an electric motor. The batteries are charged from conventional home electricity or

from other energy sources like solar and wind.

What are the advantages of having an electric vehicle?

There are many environmental benefits and personal perks for having an electric car:

Most electric vehicles can travel up to 100 miles before they need to be charged

No tail pipe exhaust means less greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide

Less oil consumption means no reliance on foreign oil

You can recharge your car whenever its convenient for you

More cost-effective than regular cars because of long-lasting battery use

Cheaper to maintain because they have fewer moving parts

Creates less noise pollution because the engine is silent

Are there any drawbacks?

Even though electric cars offer great advantages over traditional cars, there are some

drawbacks. Electric cars are more expensive than traditional cars because of their unique

batteries, and you often need to plan ahead of time before you go anywhere so that you have

enough time to charge your battery. If you dont plan ahead, then your battery can die out and

you can get stuck in the middle of nowhere!


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2.2 TRANSPORT STATISTICS IN ZIMBABWE

The law in Zimbabwe requires maximum speeds of 80km/hr in wide tarred roads and

60km/hr in narrow roads with some exceptions in highways of around 120km/hr for

motorists.

Basically in Zimbabwe we have two modes of transportation that is private and public

transport.

From the urban population analysis conducted, about 70% use public transport to commute to

and from work and other places. 25% own cars either personal or company vehicle and the

remainder use other means like bicycles etc.

The following tables summarises the results of a survey from both public and private

commuters.

Distance travelled per day (Km) Private % Public %

Below 50 25 0

50-100 35 1

100-150 23 3

150-200 16 10

>200 1 86

Summary

The table shows that a greater percentage of public commuters travel distances greater than

200km each day. From the questionnaires it was found out that the actual range is around

400km a day at an average speed of 80km/h and top speeds of 120km/h. One such

questionnaire is shown in appendix A.

Most private motorists travel distances between 50 and 100 km per day. So a vehicle of a

range of 160km will be good.

Within the city not much luggage is ferried, save for some taxis which transport people from

outside the country. The luggage will be wild, usually around 100-150kg.


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The major weight comes from the people being transported. Usually 6 people commute at a

time (approximately 360kg).

2.3 BEST MODEL FOR ZIMBABWE

From the interviews and research there are certain factors that are considered when one wants

to purchase a vehicle. The factors are:

The intended use- farmers generally want open trucks for carrying their producearound the farm.

Price of the vehicle- most workers in Zimbabwe do not earn high incomes and hencethey import the ex-Japanese vehicle because they are cheaper.

Economy- there are many small vehicles nowadays because of their low fuelconsumption.(engine capacity of less than 1.8 litre are more common)

Durability- many people in Zimbabwe goes to less developed rural areas so they needa vehicle that can safely travel in these dust roads.

Maintainability- the cheaper it is to maintain the vehicle the better.Status in society also plays a role in the decision. However, many people are importing cheap

vehicles from Japan, so there are a variety of makes and sizes. With the improvement in

vehicle economy and engine power, many people prefer large vehicles because they can fit

almost all occasions. Apart from improvement in technology of vehicles, the more common

models of transportation that are gaining popularity in Zimbabwe nowadays are:

The 18-seater kombis, The small Nissan March vehicle and The small NP200 open truck mainly owned by companies.

Generally second hand vehicles sales more on the market nowadays regardless of make.

Many people generally want a vehicle that can accommodate a normal family of four (4), a 4-

door vehicle and one that is less expensive in terms of cost, maintainability, strength,

reliability and comfort ability.


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3.0 ELECTRIC VEHICLE PARTSIn order to come with a rough estimate of the cost of coming up with an electric vehicle it is

important that we explore on the basic components of the vehicle. The advancement in these

individual parts has also played a crucial role in improving the performance of the vehicle.

These principle components are:

Electric motor Drive train Battery Charging system & controller

These parts contribute more to the design of an electric vehicle due to their effect on power

and energy consumption. Let us look at a brief discussion of each one of them.

3.1 Electric motor

For better performance a higher efficient motor is required. The current electric vehicles use

a variety of electric motors which are either DC or AC depending on the designer and use of

the electric vehicle.

In coming up with a proper motor to use the following factors are considered:

Weight

Efficiency

Torque characteristics

Speed variations methods

Cost

On the next page is a brief discussion of the various electric motors.


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DC motor

The DC motor has the merits that it is cheaper and the controller is less complex than an AC

motor.

A DC motor, on the other hand, allows the car to run from "96 to 192 volts." The nice thing

about a DC motor, experts say, is that they are not as expensive as AC motors.

The DC motors we have are:

a. DC series wound motorThe desirable properties are

High start up torque Requires a simpler controller which then is less expensive It is widely used hence it gains user confidence

However it has some disadvantages which are that, it is not good for variable loads (it

becomes a challenge to go uphill) and it is bad to run on no-load.

b. Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC)This is noisy. The noise comes from the brushes and it can cause radio interference because it

does not have a natural filtering effect. Its main use is in motor cycles, those very light

applications.

AC motor

3-phase AC induction motor

This is more desirable and it is now gaining market around the world. An AC motor, is a

three-phase motor that runs on 240 volts AC along with a 300volt battery pack.

The desired properties are:

Continuous power for hill climbing, higher revolutions per minute (RPM), regenerative braking, wide range,


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light weight Overall power.

AC motors are more efficient, and when combined with regenerative braking they are a clear

winner for distance applications,

When used with lead-acid batteries they are more efficient.

Due to the fancy converter system that changes the Direct Current coming out of EV

batteries into an alternating current, AC motors just tend to be a lot more expensive than DC.

Another demerit of an AC motor is the sophisticated exchange system that allows for

regenerative braking.

The following table summarises the motor characteristics.

AC MotorDC Motor

Single-speed transmissionMultispeed transmission

Light weight

Heavier for same power

More expensiveLess expensive

95% efficiency at full load85-95% efficiency at full load

More expensive controllerSimple controller

Motor/controller/inverter more expensiveMotor/controller less expensive

For a medium weight vehicle to travel at 120km/hr a motor of around 80KW and which runs

at 6118rpm is required! This is derived from the Nissan Leaf specifications. The average cost

of this AC electric motor is US$ 4 000


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3.2 Drive train

The energy from the batteries needs to reach the wheels with as little loses as possible. A

drive train that is efficient will then be required. There are several options which are:

Option 1, single motor

In this option a single AC motor is connected to the drive train which would include a 6

speed transmission.

Benefits are good acceleration and it allows a good top speed, handling about the same as

Internal Combustion Engines, easy of conversion.

The Single Motor attached to the standard transmission has the advantages of:

1: much simpler to convert the vehicle

2: very powerful and very efficient single AC motors are available

3: This retains the same 4 wheel drive handling as the original car

4: This can save on weight because more motors also means more controllers, motors +controllers = weight.

5: This will save on energy.

6: You'll have much better control over any kind of torque and revolutions per minute on

your wheels with the Transmission still attached.

Demerits are that there would be more moving parts meaning more things to break.

Option 2, Duel motors

In this option 2 AC motors are used, each one powering its own set of wheels. Benefits are:

better All Wheel Drive handling and better control of what wheels the power is going to, less

moving parts less to break down.

Disadvantages are: possibly less acceleration and lower top speed being locked into one gear,

range may also take a hit and conversion becomes more difficult.


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Option 3 4- Quad motors

In this option 4 AC motors are used, each one connected to its own axle. Benefits are: the

ultimate in All Wheel Drive handling and control, it could even allow tank like turning

abilities by running the right side motors clock wise and the right side counter clock wise it

could literally spin on a dime.

Negatives are that, being locked into a single gear could hurt acceleration, top speed and

range. Furthermore conversion becomes more difficult. 1

3.3 Battery technology

This is the main component that contributes about 25% of the total cost of the electric

vehicle. An electric vehicle battery should have the following characteristics:

High specific energy and energy density High specific power and power density fast charging and deep discharge capabilities Long cycle life and service lines Low self discharging rate and high charging efficiency Safety and cost effectiveness Maintenance free Environmentally sound and recyclable

The battery energy density affects the battery performance in that it determines the amount of

useful energy which can be stored by the battery per unit weight hence; it determines the total

range of the car. The power density gives the rate at which energy is converted into work, per

unit of weight and energy efficiency; hence it determines the acceleration of the car. Battery

cost and expected battery-life are also key considerations, as are safety and environmental

impacts.

There are several battery types and configurations in use today which are:

Lead acid (Deep cycle)


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Lithium-ion batteries Lithium-air batteries Lithium metal polymer

Zinc-air batteries Carbon zinc Nickel-Zinc Nickel-metal-hydride batteries (NiMH) Nickel cadmium (NiCad) Alkaline long life Molten salt (zebra battery)

For the purpose of this project, the more widely used battery packs that offer better service

are discussed. These are:

Lead acid battery

Nickel battery and the various metal combinations

Lithium and all its various configurations

The more recent lithium air battery

3.3.1 Lead-acid battery (deep cycle)

This is the most widely available and the least expensive battery. Electric cars that use lead-

acid batteries usually have a range of 80 miles (128km) or less per charge. The batteries haveenvironmental impacts through their construction, use, disposal or recycling. Lead-acid

battery recycling is popular although an effective pollution control system is needed to reduce

emissions. This battery type also has a short life span of about 3 years, less than the vehicle

itself. One major disadvantage is that it is very heavy compared to other battery types!

Currently in Zimbabwe, this is the only type of battery being manufactured at Chloride

battery.


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3.3.2 Nickel cadmium

This battery can tolerate deep discharge, lasts longer and has a larger number of discharge

cycles. It has a Specific energy of 50Wh/kg, Specific power of 200W/kg, good cycle life

(>1300). This type of battery is one of the most widely used for the battery-electric vehicles

in Europe.

3.3.3 Nickel-metal-hydride battery (NiMH)

These have a higher energy density than lead-acid batteries and can deliver a range of up to120 miles (192km). This battery has a slightly better performance compared to NiCad. It also

has a high charge/discharge rate and long cycle life. The energy density for nickel-metal-

hydride batteries is approximately 250kJ/kg. Generally they have a lower environmental

impact than nickel-cadmium batteries due to the absence of the toxic cadmium. Most

industrial nickel is also recycled due to its high value. The disadvantages are that of having

poor efficiency, high self discharge and poor performance in cold weather.

3.3.4 Nickel-Zinc

These batteries offer attractive features. They are less expensive than lithium-ion batteries of

comparable size. Their energy density is about 70 watt-hours per kilogram, compared to 150

or more for Lithium-ion. They are easier to charge, either on a constant voltage charging

system or a constant current charge, with little overcharge required. The metals used in the

nickel-zinc battery do not present a hazardous waste disposal problem when the battery needs

to be replaced. It does not contain lithium that could cause a fire in case of an accident.

3.3.5 Lithium-ion batteries

This is the most widely used battery for EVs which is made from the naturally occurring

lightweight lithium. The battery uses Lithium-Cobalt as cathode and a Graphite anode.

Lithium-ion batteries are widely preferred for electric car use due to their high energydensities and lightweight which results in a superior range per charge of around 250-300


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miles (400-480km). Lithium is also reusable. They also have a low discharge/charge rate of

approximately 5% per month which means quick acceleration cannot take place. To prolong

the life of a lithium-ion battery, it should be charged early and often, it should never be

depleted below its minimum voltage and should be kept cool but not frozen.

It has a downfall of having a short life cycle and significant degradation with age. The

cathode is toxic and the battery can pose a fire risk if punctured or charged improperly. This

battery is the one in the Chevrolet Volt EV.

3.3.6 Lithium metal polymer

It contains no liquid or paste electrolyte. The electrolyte is in a polymer film. This results in a

light weight battery that requires little maintenance making it more suitable for electric

vehicles.

The merits of lithium battery are:

Lithium lasts longer.

A lithium pack will last you something like 10-12 years. This brings the price down to the

point where it costs the same as, or even less than, a comparable lead acid battery pack.

Lithium is lighter.

A 144 volt system with 200 AH will have around 720 lbs (326.6Kg) worth of lithium

batteries, Compared with 1500 lbs (680.4Kg) or so of lead.

Lithium mining is environmentally gentle and human friendly.

Lithium likes speed.

LiFePO4 is safer lithium.

LiFePO4 is tolerant of deeper discharge. (This might be one of the best qualities of lithium)

Experts say, another benefit to switching from lead to lithium - aside from weight loss - is the

DOD (depth of discharge) that lithium batteries will tolerate. Lead batteries shouldn't be

taken below 50% DOD. So lithium not only has a higher energy density, but it has a deeper

use of stored energy. Basically lithium will always provide more useable energy than lead.

3.3.7 Molten salt (zebra battery)

This uses a molten salt (Chloroaluminate (NaAlCl4) sodium) as the electrolyte. It has a very

high energy density of 120Wh/kg, a good specific energy of 100Wh/Kg and has a reasonable


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series resistance better than NiMH and some lithium batteries. The battery must be heated for

use to 270 degrees. It has poor power density


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react with oxygen in the air that's pulled in as needed, making them lightweight and compact.

One of the project's goals is a lightweight 500-mile (800km) battery for a family car.

Jeff Dahn, a professor of materials science at Dalhousie University, in Nova Scotia said

however, one of the main challenges in making lithium metal-air batteries is that "air isn't just

oxygen. Since where there is air there is moisture, the humidity kills the lithium metal.

When lithium metal meets water, an explosive reaction ensues. These batteries will require

protective membranes that exclude water but let in oxygen, and are stable over time.3

The following table summarises the properties of the above discussed electric vehicle

batteries.

BATTERY TYPE Number of

cycles

Energy

density

(wh/kg)

Power

(w/kg)

Charge/discharge

efficiency %

Durability

(years)

Lead acid 500-1000 30-40 180-400 70-92 3

Carbon-zinc 36

NiMH 1350 70 1500 66 N/A

NiCad 1350 60 500 70-90 N/A

Lithium-ion 1000 160 1800 99.9 2-3

Lithium-polymer 130-200 2800 99.8 N/A

Molten salt 1000 125 150-220 92.5 8+

Ni-Zinc 300 60-70 900 65

Two other factors should also be considered, which are: the self-discharge rate, which causes

the charge to diminish over time, and the cycle life of the batteries (the number of times the

batteries can undergo a deep discharge and still accept charge). The batteries listed above

perform well in those categories.4

The battery specification calculations and weight is shown in appendix B.
http://fizz.phys.dal.ca/~dahn/jeffDahn.htmlhttp://fizz.phys.dal.ca/~dahn/jeffDahn.html


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3.3.10 Battery cost

One of the major challenges of batteries is their cost. However, with increased production,

soon the cost will be reduced.

According to the Bloomberg New energy finance research, lithium battery packs fell 14%

from $800/KWh to $689/KWh as production exceeded demand. This reduction is 30% from

the one in 2009. Some models require from 16-85kwh of energy which would cost from

$11 200 to $ 34 000. This is only 25% of vehicle cost hence the vehicle would cost between $

44 800 and $136 000. Currently the battery manufacturing companies in USA are producing

a surplus of 10GWh enough to power 400 000 electric vehicles. This is expected to increase

to 17GWh by the end of 2013. The cost of batteries is then expected to be $150/KWh in USA

by 2013.5

From the Fords focus electric model, the total cost of a battery pack ranges from $12 000-

$15 000 per car for a $22 000 car. The car has a battery with a capacity of 23kwh and

weighing between 600 and 700 pounds (272 and 318kg). The car costs $39 200, has a battery

cost of $552- $650/KWh and a mileage range of 76 miles (122km). This car can be fully

charged in 3 hrs on its 240V charger. The USA government is pushing for the reduction in

battery cost to around $300/KWh. 6

3.3.11 Battery industry in Zimbabwe

Chloride Battery is one of the biggest battery manufacturing companies in Zimbabwe. At the

moment they are only manufacturing lead- acid batteries. The types being manufactured

include automotive and standby batteries. They manufacture basically four different sizes of

batteries with a change in height of container that holds the acid electrolyte. These sizes are

324mm, 394mm, 447mm and 512mm. Depending on the Ah the length varies from (64-337)

mm. The width varies from 159-162mm.


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The company also carried out a research on whether it is viable to start manufacturing lithium

batteries in Zimbabwe and the conclusion they drew was that, the project would require a lot

of capital and considering the market at the moment, it meant the project would have a low

rate of return.

To get the actual costs of manufacturing lead-acid batteries in Zimbabwe, a quotation for a

24KWh battery was obtained from Battery Chloride. The actual specifications are 120V,

200Ah.

Another factor which can help to improve Electric vehicle design is vehicle mass which can

be reduced by using advanced materials, improving component design and joiningtechniques, and reducing vehicle size or engine size. Concept cars have been demonstrated

with masses 30 to 40% below those of conventional cars of similar make.

3.3.12 Charging of electric vehicles

Electric vehicles are charged by plugging onto a power source which may be the

conventional power grid (Z.E.S.A. for Zimbabwe) or another alternative power source which

may be solar or any other.

Some examples of charging ports are shown below.

.

Commercial battery charging station (240 V, 40 A), Home battery charging station

(240 V, 40A) [EV-Charge America, 2011]


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Solar powered battery charging station [EV-Charge America, 2011]

The charging station being used determines the time taken to fully charge the vehicle.

3.3.13 Electricity Generation And Grid Impacts

Currently there are severe power shortages in the country resulting in massive load shedding.

The current power production as at 01 June 2012 is as follows for all the power stations in the

country.

Power station MW produced

Hwange 340

Kariba 740

Munyati 30

Bulawayo 30

Harare 20

Imports 75

Total 1235

The current supply demand is 2,200MW; hence there is a deficit of 965MW of energy.

Adding electric vehicles to this already deficit grid system poses an added strain to the power

company hence, alternative power sources have to be explored. Solar energy might be one of

the best options!


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3.3.14 Solar Energy Alternative

In Zimbabwe we have sunshine from morning till evening most of the days. The trends are as

follows.

Zimbabwe has high irradiation averaging 20MJ/m2

A study of the current technological advancement in PVC system is hence important at this

stage. The technological advancement is mainly in the orientation and the materials used in

coming up with the PVC design. Some solar panels rather than being flat for example, are

flexible and convert more energy per unit length.

Solar technology is advancing. Below are some of the ways in which solar technology is

advancing. The advancement is mainly in the power output and the reduction in cost with the

increase in complexity of the technology.

Third-Generation Solar Cells - Traditional solar cell converts sunlight energy into electricity

through the use of silicon and thin films made of CdTe (cadmium telluride) and CIGS

(copper indium gallium Selenide). Both are expensive to process and mass produce. Third-

generation solar cells are being made from a variety of new materials besides silicon that is

more cost effective.

Sensor Solar Panelsthese are flat sheets of packaged, interconnected assembly of solar cells

which has a mechanism to track the sun. This concentrated sensor technology amplifies the

sun's power 500 to 1,000 times, generating 25 kilowatts of electricity at its peak hour.

Stirling Energy System (SES)this uses a more refined design with reduced number of parts,

making the system more robust while fitted better for the desert environment than the

concentrated photovoltaic systems that needs water to operate. Stirling Engine uses thermal

energy to heat a gas, which expands to push a piston. As the gas starts to cool, it contracts and

cycles an engine. The engine has shown 30 percent efficiency, superior to the 20 percent of

most current PV systems.

High-Performance Photovoltaic - Still in the projects by the National Renewable Energy

Laboratory (NREL), but expected to enable process of high-efficiency technologies toward

commercial-prototype products aims to explore the ultimate performance of PV technologies


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to double their sunlight-to-electricity conversion efficiencies. This project is still under

investigation for a wide range of complex issues, initial modelling, baseline experiments and

other advanced concepts.7

There are various ways PVC cells can be made. Below are some of the discussed ways in

which PVC has been improved to come up with more efficient systems.

Pokeberries: The red dye from pokeberries can be used to coat fibre-based solar cells. It is a

good absorber and helps the solar cell capture more sunlight to turn into solar power.

Pokeberries can be grown in any climate, so people living in developing countries can easily

cultivate the plant and make affordable solar power possible. Nanotech Centre scientists haveused the red dye made from pokeberries to coat their efficient and inexpensive fibber-based

solar cells. The dye acts as an absorber, helping the cells tiny fibres trap more sunlight to

convert into power.

Thin-film technology: This tech uses micro-reactors to reduce waste and lower costs.

Cow brain protein: An abundance of an important protein provides the framework for better

batteries and solar cells.

Highly-efficient solar concentrator design: A new design collects more rays with thousands

of small lenses on a single sheet.

Silicon ink-based solar cells: Start up Innovalight set a record for efficiency at 19 percent

conversion efficiency. The company has more than 60 silicon ink-related patents.

Solar fuels: These use concentrated solar radiation to drive high-temperature endothermic

reactions to improve efficiencies.

Giant gravel batteries: Such batteries could be used to store energy when the sun goes down.

Concentrated solar power plants: As mentioned above, highly photovoltaic solar cells can

generate electricity. It can also supply the need for renewable sources of desalinated water.

The largest solar-power tower in the world. This structure runs on the sun and air and does

not need water to generate electricity.
http://www.labspaces.net/103364/Purple_Pokeberries_Hold_Secret_to_Affordable_Solar_Power_Worldwidehttp://www.physorg.com/news190984617.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news191006013.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news191159758.htmlhttp://www.fastcompany.com/1629923/innovalight-sets-silicon-ink-solar-cell-efficiency-recordhttp://www.innovalight.com/http://www.smartplanet.com/people/blog/pure-genius/solar-concentrators-research-on-making-solar-power-cheaper/3521/http://www.smartplanet.com/people/blog/pure-genius/solar-concentrators-research-on-making-solar-power-cheaper/3521/http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/apr/26/gravel-batteries-renewable-energy-storagehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/apr/27/sahara-europe-solar-powerhttp://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw-act/csiro-harnesses-sun-and-air-to-generate-electricity/story-e6freuzi-1225859646538http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw-act/csiro-harnesses-sun-and-air-to-generate-electricity/story-e6freuzi-1225859646538http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw-act/csiro-harnesses-sun-and-air-to-generate-electricity/story-e6freuzi-1225859646538http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/apr/27/sahara-europe-solar-powerhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/apr/26/gravel-batteries-renewable-energy-storagehttp://www.smartplanet.com/people/blog/pure-genius/solar-concentrators-research-on-making-solar-power-cheaper/3521/http://www.innovalight.com/http://www.fastcompany.com/1629923/innovalight-sets-silicon-ink-solar-cell-efficiency-recordhttp://www.physorg.com/news191159758.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news191006013.htmlhttp://www.physorg.com/news190984617.htmlhttp://www.labspaces.net/103364/Purple_Pokeberries_Hold_Secret_to_Affordable_Solar_Power_Worldwide


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Some of the ways other countries are using solar technology are discussed below.

USA

In USA they have come up with solar charging stations capable of producing enough energy

to charge some electric vehicles while they are parked. The station below produces is capable

of simultaneously charging 4 electric cars.

Solar powered battery charging station [EV-Charge America, 2011]

Ford made a deal!

Since electric cars are not all that green if they charge off a dirty coal grid, Ford teamed up

with SunPower to offer to its Focus EV customers a chance to install a 2.5-kilowatt rooftop

solar array that can produce 3,000 kilowatt hours of electricity annually, which would be

sufficient to drive 1,000 miles (1609Km) a month. This is at a price of $10, 000.8


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4.0PREVIOUS STUDIES ON EVs

At the moment we have no electric vehicles in Zimbabwe but there has been some designs

done on electric vehicles at UZ. One has been the design of an electric bus outside the

engineering faculty and the other a small two door vehicle at the Engineering workshop.

Other projects were also done to improve it by way of redesigning some of the parts. One

such recent project on the improvement of the electric bus was done in 2002 by Knowledge

Kuzhangaira, an electrical engineering student.

4.1 Designs in other countries

Most developed countries are into green fuel powered vehicles, for example, USA has a goal

from 2010 onwards, of increasing the number of electric vehicles, including buses and

commercial vehicles, being phased into transport plans around the world. The development

and improvement of battery technology is leading to a wide range of options coming to the

market. While some manufacturers explore fuel cell technology, the emphasis is on

electric/hybrid for the coming decade as there will be transition from petroleum as a source of

energy. However, battery-powered vehicles are forecast to make up less than 2.5% of the

world's fleet in 2015. There are currently 880 million vehicles on the roads; with 98% being

internal combustion vehicles and are contributing 40% of the planet's greenhouse gases.

UGANDA

The students at Makerere University made a Kiira EV at a cost of US$35, 000. The picture

below is the electric vehicle being test driven in Ugandan capital, Kampala. It was test driven

for about 4km at 65km/hr. The project was a success because of the injection of research

capital of about US$5 million for the University, inclusive of all other university research

projects.


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Despite this breakthrough and considering the economic situation of the country, there has

been some serious criticism from the public as they thought it was a waste of the resources

that could have been channelled to increase the food security in the country. Uganda is a

developing country just like Zimbabwe.

The Kiira EVDesign Specifications

2-Seater Electric Car 3000mm long, wheel base 2175mm, 1600mm wide and 1500mm high Front wheel Drive Aluminum-alloy chassis Target Speed 60 km/hr and Range 50 Km Curb and Cargo weight is 500kgs and 200kgs respectively

USA

Basically in Europe there is a wide range of motor manufacturing companies that are

exploring and leading in this new vehicle technology!

In USA a program to develop high-density, low cost batteries for EV and hybrid vehicles are

funded. This is done by the funding of the large scale production of lithium-ion battery

technology. The major hindrance in the uptake of the batteries lies in the size, cost, weight,

durability and safety of the battery. The US Department of Energy has funded researches byuniversities, federal laboratories and private sectors over new types of batteries.
http://cedat.mak.ac.ug/?page_id=133http://cedat.mak.ac.ug/?page_id=133http://cedat.mak.ac.ug/?page_id=133


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Major car manufacturing companies like Toyota, Ford, Nissan, etc are now embarking on

producing these green fuel cars. The only challenge is that the upfront costs are high.

The following electric vehicles are in the market.

Tesla

Released in 2009 900 pounds (408.2Kg) Li-cobalt battery pack Vehicle Cost US$109 000 Range 244mile range Acceleration 60mph in 4s

Coda sedan from Coda automotive

Lithium-ion battery pack (33.8kwh, 333V Lifecycle 8yrs, can be fully charged in6hrs)

Range 90-120miles Top speed 80mph Cost US$45 000


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Nissan leafspecifications

Cost US$36 171

The 2010/2011 Nissan Leaf is a medium-size hatchback that seats 4 adults and has a range of

more than 160km (100 miles) on a full charge, based on an urban driving cycle (US LA4). A

24 kWh pack of laminated Lithium-ion batteries from Nissan JV AESC delivers output of

more than 90kW to power a synchronous AC motor delivering 80 kW (107 hp) of power and

torque of 280 Nm (207 lb-ft). Top speed is 140 km/h (90 mph). The Nissan Leaf can be

charged up to 80% of its full capacity in just under 30 minutes with a quick charger. Charging

at home through a 200V outlet is estimated to take approximately 8 hours.9

Viability of Electric vehicles in South Africa

BMW launched a mini electric vehicle in South Africa as a trial (Dec 2011). There are 600

test vehicles of this type around the world, with real customers. This vehicle can accelerate

from 0 to 80km/h in 6 seconds. A feedback from one customer showed that for the travelled8,000km, a bill of R850 of electricity was charged.

To get a better comparison, let us take a March vehicle make with a fuel consumption of

4.7L/100km and compare the fuel cost with the BMW mini electric vehicle.

For the same range of 8,000km a March needs

4.7

100 8000 = 376
http://www.post1.net/lowem/entry/nissan_nec_to_make_hybridhttp://www.post1.net/lowem/entry/nissan_nec_to_make_hybrid


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Now the cost of a litre of petrol is US$ 1.42, therefore the cost of fuel becomes,

3761.42 = $ 533.92

At a current conversion rate of US$1: R8.33

US$533.92 is approximately R4 447.55 on fuel (the minimum possible).

This means that you have (R4 447.55 -R850=R3 597.55) extra on fuel.

So the amount of fuel saved is:

3597.55

4447.55 100% = 80.9%

This is however a test car! They are manufacturing one that will be sold to the public by

around 2014 which will obviously be better.

South Africa also developed locally an electric car in 2008. It was exhibited at the Paris

motor show. The Zero emission Joule is a 6-seater; multipurpose car that was designed by

Cape Town based Optimal Energy Association with legendary South African automotive

designer Keith Helfet. It uses a Lithium-ion battery pack that can power the vehicle for a total

range of 200km per charge and has an on-board charger which can be plugged on a 220Volt-home outlet. The Joule electric vehicle can be fully charged in 7 hours. This vehicle has a

regenerative braking technology.

Furthermore Eskom confirmed that South African grid has enough capacity to supply

electrical energy to millions of electric cars without affecting the customer base or requiring

additional infrastructure. Eskom has a vast amount of excess energy between 11pm and 6 am.

This allows these electric vehicles to be used more easily in the country. 10

So we see that there is a lot going on in the world of electric vehicles around the globe!

However the countries that are successfully embarking on this project are developed

countries with more stable economies. In Uganda only a test car was manufactured and not

on a national capacity to sell unlike USA for example, where electric vehicles are already on

the market.


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4.2 CURRENT MOTOR INDUSTRY POSITION

At the moment in Zimbabwe, Quest Motor Corporation and Willow vale Mazda Motor

industries are the only car assembling plants. We do not manufacture vehicles in Zimbabwe.

This is due to the fact that, there is need of extensive capital required to buy the machinery to

start to design and manufacture, and there are no personnel with adequate training to design

the vehicles. The later factor is, because there are no institutions offering the courses in

automotive engineering for example.

Willow vale Mazda Motor has the capacity to assemble any car but, at the moment they are

doing 3 makes which are: BT50 single cab, BT50 double cab and Mazda 3.

The current vehicle costs are as follows:

BT50 Single cab $26 000

BT50 Double cab $40 000

Mazda 3 $23 400

At these prices not many individuals can afford. Hence only corporate companies afford to

buy these vehicles for their top executive and some company operations.

5.0MARKET ANALYSIS AND MARKET CONCEPTThe sale of brand new vehicles is generally a credit sale. Due to the high prices of vehicles,

few can afford to buy with cash. A loan from a bank payable over a reasonable period of time

makes the purchase of brand new vehicles possible.

Three factors govern the purchasing of a brand new vehicle, which are:

I. High income levelsDue to the now reviving economy, not many earn salaries above US$ 1500. High incomes

means people can afford to repay the loans from the banks.

II. Liquidity + creditDue to the high cost of brand new vehicles, cash purchase is not possible, so there is need of

a loan. The more stable the economy the greater the loans available for disposal.


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III. Affordable financing-Here, we are talking of the interest rates on loans. In Zimbabwe many banks are offering

loans at around 18-30% interest against an ideal of


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6.0DISCUSSIONFrom the above mentioned factors, a model vehicle for Zimbabwe is difficult to come up

with, because people are after all-purpose vehicles. But for urban travelling only a 150km

range vehicle meets a greater percentage of the motorists.

A top speed of 120km/hr will suffice as many do not exceed this around the crowded CBDs.

This vehicle should be able to carry at most 6 people. Considering the weight of an average

human being to be 70kg, the total passenger weight would amount to 420kg.

To cater for these specifications a certain battery power and motor is required.

The total vehicle mass however should not exceed 1800Kg for better vehicle performance.

Considering the battery weight and possible weight, the chassis and electric motor should not

exceed a total weight of 1200Kg together.

In order to safely meet the range and speed of the vehicle a Lithium ion battery technology is

the best because of its above mention merits. However this is more expensive and not readily

available in Zimbabwe than a deep cycle lead acid battery. This is because lead acid batteries

are the only batteries being manufactured in Zimbabwe.

A more efficient yet cheaper motor is desirable. In Zimbabwe few companies manufacture

suitable electric motors for electric vehicles; hence it becomes more difficult to get one.

Generally a 3-phase electric motor is more expensive yet has many desirable functions like its

possibility to support regenerative breaking which extends the vehicle range by way of

generating electricity on breaking.

A single drive train is suitable as it is cost effective and yet adequately meets the design

specifications.

The Toyota Prius is a hybrid vehicle which has solar modules added to it to improve range. The

solar modules are rated at 200-300 watts, and this power is utilized to charge a supplemental

battery. With the solar roof, the Toyota Prius can operate up to 20 miles per day in electric mode.

The system costs $2000-$4000 and the payback time is said to be 2-3 years.

So we can improve the range or reduces the size of the batteries used on our make but at the

expense of total vehicle cost.


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Solar panels can also be used in building solar charging stations even at home, like what Ford

is proposing. The cost now is still high as seen from the deal Ford made with SunPower.

The major setbacks for adoption of electric vehicles are:

The high upfront cost of EVs due to the high battery costs and the charging systemwhich needs to be set up for example the above mention vehicle which costs US$22

000 if running on Internal Combustion Engine versus the US$39 200 for the

equivalent electric vehicle.

The market reluctance to change its lifestyle- many people are used to travel freeanywhere anytime without mainly proper planning that is required for an electric

vehicle.

Current power shortages in the country- as indicated earlier, there is a deficit of965MW of energy which is resulting in load shedding around the country. Hence, the

electric vehicle no longer qualify as a sustainable transportation system as discussed

in the introduction. If there is no electricity then the following day one has to find an

alternative transport.

People do not want to be restricted in terms of distance that can be covered percharge, even though they travel far much less distances,

People generally earn low incomes in Zimbabwe. This means the more expensive yetlimiting electric vehicle is not affordable to a greater number of commuters.

The cost of establishing solar charging stations is still high. This is to allow chargingof the EVs away at home, usually in car parks.

There is need of training personnel to manufacture the vehicles as this is a newtechnology in Zimbabwe. Programs like automotive engineering have to be

introduced in the colleges or universities in Zimbabwe.

The cost of securing proper machinery is still very high. This is contrasted by the lowrate of return due to the small market.

One of the best models on the market so far is the Nissan leaf which has the specifications

mentioned earlier. To get an estimate of break even for electric vehicles we will use this


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vehicle together with a vehicle of similar comparable specifications. Let us compare the two

vehicles below for 20 000km. The Nissan leaf has a 24KWh battery pack.

Make Nissan leaf Nissan micra 1.2litre petrol

Vehicle price $36 171 $ 12 900

Fuel consumption US$0.15/KWh $1.42/litre

Range per charge 24KWh/160km 4.7L/100km

Cost per range $3.60 (24x0.15) $6.67 (1.42x4.7)

For 20 000km $720 (20000/100x3.60) $1 334 (20000/100x6.67)

From these calculations the break even occurs when:

36171 + 3.60 = 12900 + 6.67

Solving this equation we have

= 7580

At $3.60 we travel 100km, so for 3.60x7580 we travel 7580x100= 75 800km

So the break even is 75 800km.

For a motorist who travel say 100km a day for 365 days

Total mileage per annum is 100x365= 36 500km

So this car pays back after

75800

36500= 2.077

So the breakeven period for an electric vehicle is favourable!

This means after about 2 years you will be saving on fuel!


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7.0ConclusionConsidering the above arguments and discussions a perfect model for Zimbabwe would be

one that has the following components:

A maximum speed of 100km/hr is best as this is hardly attained in the urban areas dueto traffic jams during the day. More so because of technical limitations such as battery

voltage required to reach this maximum speed.

From the survey conducted the best model for Zimbabwe is one that is cheap sincemany people are low income earners. The reason why light vehicles are gaining

popularity in Zimbabwe is because these are less expensive to buy, maintain and run.

They are also very economic as they have very efficient fuel consumption. So

basically this lessens the challenge of trying to come up with a model that can

perfectly meet the market.

This project becomes viable provided the following conditions are rectified;

Electricity generation is improved to cater for the new technology since building ofsolar charging stations is expensive for our economy at the moment.

Funding is found to set up the machinery and to train the personnel to manufacturethese vehicles

The economy has improved so salaries are increased. This means more people canafford

Bank loans are increased both in amount and tenure. Intensive awareness of the effect of ICE engines to the environment specifically in

connection with global warming,

Because people are not ready to have second cars until after many years, one that fits all

occasions is the best to start with. A plug in hybrid vehicle meets the market needs more in

that it defines peoples travelling trends. Though this is more complex and hence more

expensive than an all-electric vehicle, it is cost effective in that for short ranges a battery can

be used, for example all urban driving! Yet when one wants to travel a longer distance he/she

can safely rely on its combustion engine. This is a better entering wage for an all-electricvehicle to be introduced further on.


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8.0REFERENCESInternet sites

1 http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php/drive-train-3-options-

8327.html(22/05/2012)

2 Source:The Cost of Energy (http://s.tt/19kqD)

3Retrieved 24/04/12 onhttp://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/

4(www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12 )

5(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-

bnef-says.html-accesed 24/04/20126(http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-

vehicle-batteries/25933 accessed Tuesday 24/04/2012)

703/5/2012,http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118

8http://www.mnn.com/green-tech/transportation/blogs/new-ford-focus-to-come-with-solar-

panels-for-your-home22/05

9http://www.post1.net/lowem/entry/2010_nissan_leaf_electric_car_specifications_107hp_24k

wh_lithium_ion_batteries_100_mile_range

10(www.southafrica.info/business/trends/newbusiness/joule-061008.htm) the joule: Africas

first all electric car.
http://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqDhttp://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118http://www.southafrica/http://www.southafrica/http://www.southafrica/http://www.southafrica/http://ezinearticles.com/?5-Key-Advances-in-Solar-Technology&id=3653118http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/smart-takes/fords-ceo-reveals-true-cost-of-electric-vehicle-batteries/25933%20accessed%20Tuesday%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-16/battery-prices-for-electric-vehicles-fall-14-bnef-says.html-accesed%2024/04/2012http://www.allaboutbatteries.com/electric_cars.html-17/4/12http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/22780/http://s.tt/19kqDhttp://s.tt/19kqD


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9.0APPENDIXAppendix A

Top speed of a vehicle is determined by the voltage available from the battery pack. For a

pick up 120V is sufficient to travel at 120km/hr according to

http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php?t=11709

Range

This is governed by the energy from the battery pack.

A medium sized car needs about 640Wh/km and efficiency is around 400Wh/km.

To get total Wh required to travel a range of 200km we need

200x400= 80KWh

For a lead acid with 50% DOD, total battery energy required is 2X

This becomes 160Kwh

The battery rating is Volts x Ah

Therefore the Ah required= 160/120

=1 333Ah

This size of this battery weighs around 67kg/battery x 12batteries =804kg!
http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php?t=11709http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php?t=11709http://www.diyelectriccar.com/forums/showthread.php?t=11709


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APPENDIX B

Review of Alternative Energy transportation viability

in Zimbabwe Project

QEUSTIONNARE

Vehicle type / make.............................................................................

What is the average distance that you travel each day? ............................ Km

What time do you usually travel? __________________________________

How much carriage/luggage do you carry (if applicable)? ......................

For how much was your vehicle bought? ...............

The average costs in maintaining/servicing your vehicle per annum are.........................

How much fuel do you fill each day? .........................

The average speed you travel at is.....................................

Engine power

If you where to buy a vehicle what make would you prefer and why?

For how much would you buy? $

Do you think having an electric vehicle powered by batteries will be something worth?

______________________ at what cost are you ready to go for it?

If no please explain why...

______________________________________________________

Documents

battery powered solar charging transport final.pdf