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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Basic ChemistryBasic Chemistry
Biochemistry: Essentials for LifeBiochemistry: Essentials for Life
Slide 2.21Slide 2.21Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Organic compounds
• Contain carbon
• Most are covalently bonded
• Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
• Inorganic compounds
• Lack carbon
• Tend to be simpler compounds
• Example: H2O (water)
Important Inorganic CompoundsImportant Inorganic Compounds
Slide 2.22Slide 2.22Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Water
• Most abundant inorganic compounds
• Vital properties
• High heat capacity
• Polarity/solvent properties
• Chemical reactivity
• Cushioning
Important Inorganic CompoundsImportant Inorganic Compounds
Slide 2.23Slide 2.23Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Salts
• Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water
• Vital to many body functions
• Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents
Important Inorganic CompoundsImportant Inorganic Compounds
Slide 2.24Slide 2.24Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Acids
• Can release detectable hydrogen ions
• Bases
• Proton acceptors
• Neutralization reaction
• Acids and bases react to form water and a salt
pHpH
Slide 2.25Slide 2.25Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Measures relative concentration of hydrogen ions
• pH 7 = neutral
• pH below 7 = acidic
• pH above 7 = basic
• Buffers
• Chemicals that can regulate pH change
Figure 2.11
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide 2.26Slide 2.26Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Carbohydrates
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Include sugars and starches
• Classified according to size
• Monosaccharides – simple sugars
• Disaccharides – two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
• Polysaccharides – long branching chains of linked simple sugars
CarbohydratesCarbohydrates
Slide 2.27Slide 2.27Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.12a, b
CarbohydratesCarbohydrates
Slide 2.28Slide 2.28Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.12c
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide 2.29Slide 2.29Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Lipids
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
• Insoluble in water
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide Slide 2.30a2.30a
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Common lipids in the human body
• Neutral fats (triglycerides)
• Found in fat deposits
• Composed of fatty acids and glycerol
• Source of stored energy
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide Slide 2.30b2.30b
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Common lipids in the human body (continued)
• Phospholipids
• Form cell membranes
• Steroids
• Include cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, and some hormones
Slide 2.31Slide 2.31Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.14a, b
LipidsLipids
Slide 2.32Slide 2.32Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.14c
CholesterolCholesterol
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide Slide 2.33a2.33a
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Proteins
• Made of amino acids
• Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide Slide 2.33b2.33b
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Account for over half of the body’s organic matter
• Provides for construction materials for body tissues
• Plays a vital role in cell function
• Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
EnzymesEnzymes
Slide 2.34Slide 2.34Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Act as biological catalysts
• Increase the rate of chemical reactions
Figure 2.16
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide 2.35Slide 2.35Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Nucleic Acids
• Provide blueprint of life
• Nucleotide bases
• A = Adenine
• G = Guanine
• C = Cytosine
• T = Thymine
• U = Uracil
• Make DNA and RNA
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide 2.36Slide 2.36Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Organized by complimentary bases to form double helix
• Replicates before cell division
• Provides instruction for every protein in the body Figure 2.17c
Important Organic CompoundsImportant Organic Compounds
Slide 2.37Slide 2.37Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• Chemical energy used by all cells
• Energy is released by breaking high energy phosphate bond
• ATP is replenished by oxidation of food fuels
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Slide 2.38Slide 2.38Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.18a
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Cells and TissuesCells and Tissues
Cells and TissuesCells and Tissues
Slide 3.1Slide 3.1Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life
Cells are the building blocks of all living things
Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function
Anatomy of the CellAnatomy of the Cell
Slide 3.2Slide 3.2Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Cells are not all the same
All cells share general structures
Cells are organized into three main regions Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane
Figure 3.1a
The NucleusThe Nucleus
Slide 3.3Slide 3.3Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Control center of the cell
Contains genetic material (DNA)
Three regions
Nuclear membrane
Nucleolus
Chromatin Figure 3.1b
Cytoplasmic OrganellesCytoplasmic Organelles
Slide 3.10Slide 3.10Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 3.4
Cellular Physiology:Cellular Physiology:Membrane TransportMembrane Transport
Slide 3.20Slide 3.20Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Membrane Transport – movement of substance into and out of the cell
Transport is by two basic methods Passive transport
No energy is required
Active transport
The cell must provide metabolic energy
Solutions and TransportSolutions and Transport
Slide 3.21Slide 3.21Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or more components Solvent – dissolving medium
Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a solution
Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol
Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the cell
Selective PermeabilitySelective Permeability
Slide 3.22Slide 3.22Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The plasma membrane allows some materials to pass while excluding others
This permeability includes movement into and out of the cell
Passive Transport ProcessesPassive Transport Processes
Slide 3.23Slide 3.23Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Diffusion Particles tend to distribute themselves
evenly within a solution
Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or down a concentration gradient
Figure 3.8
Passive Transport ProcessesPassive Transport Processes
Slide Slide 3.24a3.24a
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Types of diffusion
Simple diffusion
Unassisted process
Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores
Passive Transport ProcessesPassive Transport Processes
Slide Slide 3.24b3.24b
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Types of diffusion
Osmosis – simple diffusion of water
Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane
Facilitated diffusion
Substances require a protein carrier for passive transport
Diffusion through the Plasma Diffusion through the Plasma MembraneMembrane
Slide 3.25Slide 3.25Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 3.9
Passive Transport ProcessesPassive Transport Processes
Slide 3.26Slide 3.26Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Filtration
Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
A pressure gradient must exist
Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high pressure area to a lower pressure area
Active Transport ProcessesActive Transport Processes
Slide 3.27Slide 3.27Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion They may be too large
They may not be able to dissolve in the fat core of the membrane
They may have to move against a concentration gradient
Two common forms of active transport Solute pumping
Bulk transport
Active Transport ProcessesActive Transport Processes
Slide Slide 3.28a3.28a
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Solute pumping
Amino acids, some sugars and ions are transported by solute pumps
ATP energizes protein carriers, and in most cases, moves substances against concentration gradients
Active Transport ProcessesActive Transport Processes
Slide Slide 3.29a3.29a
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Bulk transport Exocytosis
Moves materials out of the cell
Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
Vesicle migrates to plasma membrane
Vesicle combines with plasma membrane
Material is emptied to the outside
Active Transport ProcessesActive Transport Processes
Slide Slide 3.30a3.30a
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Bulk transport
Endocytosis
Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a membranous vescicle
Types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis – cell eating
Pinocytosis – cell drinking
Cell Life CycleCell Life Cycle
Slide 3.31Slide 3.31Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Cells have two major periods
Interphase
Cell grows
Cell carries on metabolic processes
Cell division
Cell replicates itself
Function is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes
DNA ReplicationDNA Replication
Slide 3.32Slide 3.32Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division into two cells
Occurs toward the end of interphase
DNA uncoils and each side serves as a template
Figure 3.13
Events of Cell DivisionEvents of Cell Division
Slide 3.33Slide 3.33Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Mitosis Division of the nucleus
Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
Cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm
Begins when mitosis is near completion
Results in the formation of two daughter cells
Stages of MitosisStages of Mitosis
Slide Slide 3.34a3.34a
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Interphase
No cell division occurs
The cell carries out normal metabolic activity and growth
Prophase
First part of cell division
Centromeres migrate to the poles
Stages of MitosisStages of Mitosis
Slide Slide 3.34b3.34b
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Metaphase
Spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that are aligned in the center of the cell
Stages of MitosisStages of Mitosis
Slide 3.35Slide 3.35Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Anaphase
Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles
The cell begins to elongate
Telophase
Daughter nuclei begin forming
A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to form
Stages of MitosisStages of Mitosis
Slide Slide 3.36a3.36a
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 3.14; 1
Stages of MitosisStages of Mitosis
Slide Slide 3.36b3.36b
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 3.14; 2
Protein SynthesisProtein Synthesis
Slide 3.37Slide 3.37Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein
Proteins have many functions
Building materials for cells
Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
RNA is essential for protein synthesis