Bakunin - God and the State Copy.readING OUT LOUD. Reading Technique: Process of Reasoning

8/3/2019 Bakunin - God and the State Copy.readING OUT LOUD. Reading Technique: Process of Reasoning

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GODANDTHESTATE

BYMIKHAILBAKUNIN


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ChapterIWho

is

right,

the

idealists

or

the

materialists?

The

question,

once

stated

in

this

way,

hesitation

becomesimpossible.Undoubtedlytheidealistsarewrongandthematerialistsright.Yes,factsarebeforeideas;yes,theideal,asProudhonsaid,isbutaflower,whoserootliesinthematerialconditionsofexistence.Yes,thewholehistoryofhumanity,intellectualandmoral,politicalandsocial,isbutareflectionofitseconomichistory.

Allbranchesofmodemscience,oftrueanddisinterestedscience,concurinproclaimingthisgrandtruth,fundamentalanddecisive:Thesocialworld,properlyspeaking,thehumanworld inshort,humanity isnothingotherthanthelastandsupremedevelopment atleastonourplanetandasfarasweknow thehighestmanifestationofanimality.Butaseverydevelopmentnecessarilyimpliesanegation,thatofitsbaseorpointofdeparture,humanityisatthesametimeandessentiallythedeliberateandgradualnegationoftheanimalelementinman;anditis

preciselythis

negation,

as

rational

as

it

is

natural,

and

rational

only

because

natural

at

once

historicalandlogical,asinevitableasthedevelopmentandrealizationofallthenaturallawsintheworld thatconstitutesandcreatestheideal,theworldofintellectualandmoralconvictions,ideas.

Yes,ourfirstancestors,ourAdamsandourEves,were,ifnotgorillas,verynearrelativesofgorillas,omnivorous,intelligentandferociousbeasts,endowedinahigherdegreethantheanimalsofanotherspecieswithtwopreciousfaculties thepowertothinkandthedesiretorebel.

Thesefaculties,combiningtheirprogressiveactioninhistory,representtheessentialfactor,thenegativepowerinthepositivedevelopmentofhumananimality,andcreateconsequently

allthat

constitutes

humanity

in

man.

TheBible,whichisaveryinterestingandhereandthereveryprofoundbookwhenconsideredasoneoftheoldestsurvivingmanifestationsofhumanwisdomandfancy,expressesthistruthverynaivelyinitsmythoforiginalsin.Jehovah,whoofallthegoodgodsadoredbymenwascertainlythemostjealous,themostvain,themostferocious,themostunjust,themostbloodthirsty,themostdespotic,andthemosthostiletohumandignityandliberty JehovahhadjustcreatedAdamandEve,tosatisfyweknownotwhatcaprice;nodoubttowhileawayhistime,whichmustweighheavyonhishandsinhiseternalegoisticsolitude,orthathemighthavesomenewslaves.Hegenerouslyplacedattheirdisposalthewholeearth,withallitsfruitsandanimals,andsetbutasinglelimittothiscompleteenjoyment.Heexpresslyforbadethemfromtouchingthefruitofthetreeofknowledge.Hewished,therefore,thatman,destituteofallunderstandingofhimself,shouldremainaneternalbeast,everonallfoursbeforetheeternalGod,hiscreatorandhismaster.ButherestepsinSatan,theeternalrebel,thefirstfreethinkerandtheemancipatorofworlds.Hemakesmanashamedofhisbestialignoranceandobedience;heemancipateshim,stampsuponhisbrowthesealoflibertyandhumanity,inurginghimtodisobeyandeatofthefruitofknowledge.

Weknowwhatfollowed.ThegoodGod,whoseforesight,whichisoneofthedivinefaculties,shouldhavewarnedhimofwhatwouldhappen,flewintoaterribleandridiculousrage;he


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cursedSatan,man,andtheworldcreatedbyhimself,strikinghimselfsotospeakinhisowncreation,aschildrendowhentheygetangry;and,notcontentwithsmitingourancestorsthemselves,hecursedtheminallthegenerationstocome,innocentofthecrimecommittedbytheirforefathers.OurCatholicandProtestanttheologianslookuponthatasveryprofoundandveryjust,preciselybecauseitismonstrouslyiniquitousandabsurd.Then,rememberingthathewasnotonlyaGodofvengeanceandwrath,butalsoaGodoflove,afterhavingtormentedtheexistenceofafewmilliardsofpoorhumanbeingsandcondemnedthemtoaneternalhell,hetookpityontherest,and,tosavethemandreconcilehiseternalanddivinelovewithhiseternalanddivineanger,alwaysgreedyforvictimsandblood,hesentintotheworld,asanexpiatoryvictim,hisonlyson,thathemightbekilledbymen.ThatiscalledthemysteryoftheRedemption,thebasisofalltheChristianreligions.Still,ifthedivineSaviorhadsavedthehumanworld!Butno;intheparadisepromisedbyChrist,asweknow,suchbeingtheformalannouncement,theelectwillnumberveryfew.Therest,theimmensemajorityofthegenerationspresentandtocome,willburneternallyinhell.Inthemeantime,toconsoleus,God,everjust,evergood,handsovertheearthtothegovernmentoftheNapoleonThirds,oftheWilliamFirsts,oftheFerdinandsofAustria,andoftheAlexandersofalltheRussias.

Suchare

the

absurd

tales

that

are

told

and

the

monstrous

doctrines

that

are

taught,

in

the

full

lightofthenineteenthcentury,inallthepublicschoolsofEurope,attheexpresscommandofthegovernment.Theycallthiscivilizingthepeople!Isitnotplainthatallthesegovernmentsaresystematicpoisoners,interestedstupefiesofthemasses?

Ihavewanderedfrommysubject,becauseangergetsholdofmewheneverIthinkofthebaseandcriminalmeanswhichtheyemploytokeepthenationsinperpetualslavery,undoubtedlythattheymaybethebetterabletofleecethem.OfwhatconsequencearethecrimesofalltheTropmannsintheworldcomparedwiththiscrimeoftreasonagainsthumanitycommitteddaily,inbroadday,overthewholesurfaceofthecivilizedworld,bythosewhodaretocallthemselvestheguardiansandthefathersofthepeople?Ireturntothemythoforiginalsin.

Godadmitted

that

Satan

was

right;

he

recognized

that

the

devil

did

not

deceive

Adam

and

Eve

inpromisingthemknowledgeandlibertyasarewardfortheactofdisobediencewhichhebadinducedthemtocommit;for,immediatelytheyhadeatenoftheforbiddenfruit,Godhimselfsaid(seeBible):Behold,manisbecomeasoftheGods,knowingbothgoodandevil;preventhim,therefore,fromeatingofthefruitofeternallife,lesthebecomeimmortallikeOurselves.

Letusdisregardnowthefabulousportionofthismythandconsideritstruemeaning,whichisveryclear.Manhasemancipatedhimself;hehasseparatedhimselffromanimalityandconstitutedhimselfaman;hehasbegunhisdistinctivelyhumanhistoryanddevelopmentbyanactofdisobedienceandscience thatis,byrebellionandbythought.

Threeelementsor,ifyoulike,threefundamentalprinciplesconstitutetheessentialconditions

ofall

human

development,

collective

or

individual,

in

history:

(1)humananimality;

(2)thought;and

(3)rebellion.


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Tothefirstproperlycorrespondssocialandprivateeconomy;tothesecond,science;tothethird,liberty.

Idealistsofallschools,aristocratsandbourgeois,theologiansandmetaphysicians,politiciansandmoralists,religionists,philosophers,orpoets,notforgettingtheliberaleconomists unboundedworshippersoftheideal,asweknow aremuchoffendedwhentoldthatman,with

hismagnificent

intelligence,

his

sublime

ideas,

and

his

boundless

aspirations,

is,

like

all

else

existingintheworld,nothingbutmatter,onlyaproductofvilematter.

Wemayanswerthatthematterofwhichmaterialistsspeak,matterspontaneouslyandeternallymobile,active,productive,matterchemicallyororganicallydeterminedandmanifestedbythepropertiesorforces,mechanical,physical,animal,andintelligent,whichnecessarilybelongtoit thatthismatterhasnothingincommonwiththevilematteroftheidealists.Thelatter,aproductoftheirfalseabstraction,isindeedastupid,inanimate,immobilething,incapableofgivingbirthtothesmallestproduct,acaputmortuum,anuglyfancyincontrasttothebeautifulfancywhichtheycallGod;astheoppositeofthissupremebeing,matter,theirmatter,strippedbythatconstitutesitsrealnature,necessarilyrepresentssupreme

nothingness.

They

have

taken

away

intelligence,

life,

all

its

determining

qualities,

active

relations

orforces,motionitself,withoutwhichmatterwouldnotevenhaveweight,leavingitnothingbutimpenetrabilityandabsoluteimmobilityinspace;theyhaveattributedallthesenaturalforces,properties,andmanifestationstotheimaginarybeingcreatedbytheirabstractfancy;then,interchangingrles,theyhavecalledthisproductoftheirimagination,thisphantom,thisGodwhoisnothing,supremeBeingand,asanecessaryconsequence,havedeclaredthattherealbeing,matter,theworld,isnothing.Afterwhichtheygravelytellusthatthismatterisincapableofproducinganything,notevenofsettingitselfinmotion,andconsequentlymusthavebeencreatedbytheirGod.

AttheendofthisbookIexposedthefallaciesandtrulyrevoltingabsurditiestowhichoneisinevitablyledbythisimaginationofaGod,lethimbeconsideredasapersonalbeing,the

creatorand

organizer

of

worlds;

or

even

as

impersonal,

akind

of

divine

soul

spread

over

the

wholeuniverseandconstitutingthusitseternalprinciple;orlethimbeanidea,infiniteanddivine,alwayspresentandactiveintheworld,andalwaysmanifestedbythetotalityofmaterialanddefinitebeings.HereIshalldealwithonepointonly.

Thegradualdevelopmentofthematerialworld,aswellasoforganicanimallifeandofthehistoricallyprogressiveintelligenceofman,individuallyorsocially,isperfectlyconceivable.Itisawhollynaturalmovementfromthesimpletothecomplex,fromthelowertothehigher,fromtheinferiortothesuperior;amovementinconformitywithallourdailyexperiences,andconsequently inconformityalsowithournaturallogic,withthedistinctivelawsofourmind,whichbeingformedanddevelopedonlybytheaidofthesesameexperiences;is,sotospeak,butthemental,cerebralreproductionorreflectedsummarythereof.

Thesystemoftheidealistsisquitethecontraryofthis.Itisthereversalofallhumanexperiencesandofthatuniversalandcommongoodsensewhichistheessentialconditionofallhumanunderstanding,andwhich,inrisingfromthesimpleandunanimouslyrecognizedtruththattwicetwoarefourtothesublimestandmostcomplexscientificconsiderations admitting,moreover,nothingthathasnotstoodtheseveresttestsofexperienceorobservationofthingsandfacts becomestheonlyseriousbasisofhumanknowledge.


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Veryfarfrompursuingthenaturalorderfromthelowertothehigher,fromtheinferiortothesuperior,andfromtherelativelysimpletothemorecomplex;insteadofwiselyandrationallyaccompanyingtheprogressiveandrealmovementfromtheworldcalledinorganictotheworldorganic,vegetables,animal,andthendistinctivelyhuman fromchemicalmatterorchemicalbeingtolivingmatterorlivingbeing,andfromlivingbeingtothinkingbeing theidealists,obsessed,blinded,andpushedonbythedivinephantomwhichtheyhaveinheritedfromtheology,takepreciselytheoppositecourse.Theygofromthehighertothelower,fromthesuperiortotheinferior,fromthecomplextothesimple.TheybeginwithGod,eitherasapersonorasdivinesubstanceoridea,andthefirststepthattheytakeisaterriblefallfromthesublimeheightsoftheeternalidealintothemireofthematerialworld;fromabsoluteperfectionintoabsoluteimperfection;fromthoughttobeing,orrather,fromsupremebeingtonothing.When,how,andwhythedivinebeing,eternal,infinite,absolutelyperfect,probablywearyofhimself,decideduponthisdesperatesaltomortaleissomethingwhichnoidealist,notheologian,nometaphysician,nopoet,haseverbeenabletounderstandhimselforexplaintotheprofane.Allreligions,pastandpresent,andallthesystemsoftranscendentalphilosophyhingeonthisuniqueandiniquitousmystery.[1]Holymen,inspiredlawgivers,prophets,messiahs,havesearcheditforlife,andfoundonlytormentanddeath.Liketheancientsphinx,ithasdevoured

them,because

they

could

not

explain

it.

Great

philosophers

from

Heraclitus

and

Plato

down

to

Descartes,Spinoza:Leibnitz,Kant,Fichte,Schelling,andHegel,nottomentiontheIndianphilosophers,havewrittenheapsofvolumesandbuiltsystemsasingeniousassublime,inwhichtheyhavesaidbythewaymanybeautifulandgrandthingsanddiscoveredimmortaltruths,buttheyhaveleftthismystery,theprincipalobjectoftheirtranscendentalinvestigations,asunfathomableasbefore.ThegiganticeffortsofthemostWonderfulgeniusesthattheworldhasknown,andwho,oneafteranother,foratleastthirtycenturies,haveundertakenanewthislaborofSisyphus,haveresultedonlyinrenderingthismysterystillmoreincomprehensible.Isittobehopedthatitwillbeunveiledtousbytheroutinespeculationsofsomepedanticdiscipleofanartificiallywarmedovermetaphysicsatatimewhenalllivingandseriousspiritshaveabandonedthatambiguoussciencebornofacompromise historicallyexplicablenodoubt

between

the

unreason

of

faith

and

sound

scientific

reason?

Itisevidentthatthisterriblemysteryisinexplicable thatis,absurd,becauseonlytheabsurdadmitsofnoexplanation.Itisevidentthatwhoeverfindsitessentialtohishappinessandlifemustrenouncehisreason,andreturn,ifhecan,tonaive,blind,stupidfaith,torepeatwithTertullianusandallsincerebelieversthesewords,whichsumuptheveryquintessenceoftheology:Credoquiaabsurdum.Thenalldiscussionceases,andnothingremainsbutthetriumphantstupidityoffaith.Butimmediatelytherearisesanotherquestion:Howcomesanintelligentandwellinformedmanevertofeeltheneedofbelievinginthismystery?

NothingismorenaturalthanthatthebeliefinGod,thecreator,regulator,judge,master,curser,savior,andbenefactoroftheworld,shouldstillprevailamongthepeople,especiallyin

therural

districts,

where

it

is

more

widespread

than

among

the

proletariat

of

the

cities.

The

people,unfortunately,arestillveryignorant,andarekeptinignorancebythesystematiceffortsofallthegovernments,whoconsiderthisignorance,notwithoutgoodreason,asoneoftheessentialconditionsoftheirownpower.Weighteddownbytheirdailylabor,deprivedofleisure,ofintellectualintercourse,ofreading,inshortofallthemeansandagoodportionofthestimulantsthatdevelopthoughtinmen,thepeoplegenerallyacceptreligioustraditionswithoutcriticismandinalump.Thesetraditionssurroundthemfrominfancyinallthesituationsoflife,andartificiallysustainedintheirmindsbyamultitudeofofficialpoisonersofallsorts,priests


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andlaymen,aretransformedthereinintoasortofmentalandmoralbabit,toooftenmorepowerfuleventhantheirnaturalgoodsense.

Thereisanotherreasonwhichexplainsandinsomesortjustifiestheabsurdbeliefsofthepeople namely,thewretchedsituationtowhichtheyfindthemselvesfatallycondemnedbytheeconomicorganizationofsocietyinthemostcivilizedcountriesofEurope.Reduced,

intellectuallyand

morally

as

well

as

materially,

to

the

minimum

of

human

existence,

confined

in

theirlifelikeaprisonerinhisprison,withouthorizon,withoutoutlet,withoutevenafutureifwebelievetheeconomists,thepeoplewouldhavethesingularlynarrowsoulsandbluntedinstinctsofthebourgeoisiftheydidnotfeeladesiretoescape;butofescapetherearebutthreemethods twochimericalandathirdreal.Thefirsttwoarethedramshopandthechurch,debaucheryofthebodyordebaucheryofthemind;thethirdissocialrevolution.HenceIconcludethislastwillbemuchmorepotentthanallthetheologicalpropagandismofthefreethinkerstodestroytotheirlastvestigethereligiousbeliefsanddissolutehabitsofthepeople,beliefsandhabitsmuchmoreintimatelyconnectedthanisgenerallysupposed.Insubstitutingfortheatonceillusoryandbrutalenjoymentsofbodilyandspirituallicentiousnesstheenjoyments,asrefinedastheyarereal,ofhumanitydevelopedineachandall,thesocial

revolutionalone

will

have

the

power

to

close

at

the

same

time

all

the

dram

shops

and

all

the

churches.

Tillthenthepeople.Takenasawhole,willbelieve;and,iftheyhavenoreasontobelieve,theywillhaveatleastaright.

Thereisaclassofpeoplewho,iftheydonotbelieve,mustatleastmakeasemblanceofbelieving.Thisclasscomprisingallthetormentors,alltheoppressors,andalltheexploitersofhumanity;priests,monarchs,statesmen,soldiers,publicandprivatefinanciers,officialsofallsorts,policemen,gendarmes,jailersandexecutioners,monopolists,capitalists,taxleeches,contractorsandlandlords,lawyers,economists,politiciansofallshades,downtothesmallestvendorofsweetmeats,allwillrepeatinunisonthosewordsofVoltaire:

IfGoddidnotexist,itwouldbenecessarytoinventhim.For,youunderstand,thepeoplemusthaveareligion.Thatisthesafetyvalve.

Thereexists,finally,asomewhatnumerousclassofhonestbuttimidsoulswho,toointelligenttotaketheChristiandogmasseriously,rejectthemindetail,buthaveneitherthecouragenorthestrengthnorthenecessaryresolutiontosummarilyrenouncethemaltogether.Theyabandontoyourcriticismallthespecialabsurditiesofreligion,theyturnuptheirnosesatallthemiracles,buttheyclingdesperatelytotheprincipalabsurdity;thesourceofalltheothers,tothemiraclethatexplainsandjustifiesalltheothermiracles,theexistenceofGod.TheirGodisnotthevigorousandpowerfulbeing,thebrutallypositiveGodoftheology.Itisanebulous,diaphanous,illusorybeingthatvanishesintonothingatthefirstattempttograspit;itisa

mirage,an

ignis

fatugs;

that

neither

warms

nor

illuminates.

And

yet

they

hold

fast

to

it,

and

believethat,wereittodisappear,allwoulddisappearwithit.Theyareuncertain,sicklysouls,whohavelosttheirreckoninginthepresentcivilisation,belongingtoneitherthepresentnorthefuture,palephantomseternallysuspendedbetweenheavenandearth,andoccupyingexactlythesamepositionbetweenthepoliticsofthebourgeoisandtheSocialismoftheproletariat.Theyhaveneitherthepowernorthewishnorthedeterminationtofollowouttheirthought,andtheywastetheirtimeandpainsinconstantlyendeavouringtoreconciletheirreconcilable.InpubliclifetheseareknownasbourgeoisSocialists.


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Withthem,oragainstthem,discussionisoutofthequestion.Theyaretoopuny.

Butthereareafewillustriousmenofwhomnoonewilldaretospeakwithoutrespect,andwhosevigoroushealth,strengthofmind,andgoodintentionnoonewilldreamofcallinginquestion.IneedonlycitethenamesofMazzini,Michelet,Quinet,JohnStuartMill.[2]Generousandstrongsouls,greathearts,greatminds,greatwriters,andthefirsttheheroicand

revolutionaryregenerator

of

agreat

nation,

they

are

all

apostles

of

idealism

and

bitter

despisers

andadversariesofmaterialism,andconsequentlyofSocialismalso,inphilosophyaswellasinpolitics.

Againstthem,then,wemustdiscussthisquestion.

First,letitberemarkedthatnotoneoftheillustriousmenIhavejustnamednoranyotheridealisticthinkerofanyconsequenceinourdayhasgivenanyattentiontothelogicalsideofthisquestionproperlyspeaking.Notonehastriedtosettlephilosophicallythepossibilityofthedivinesaltomortale;fromthepureandeternalregionsofspiritintothemireofthematerialworld.Havetheyfearedtoapproachthisirreconcilablecontradictionanddespairedofsolvingitafterthefailuresofthegreatestgeniusesofhistory,orhavetheylookeduponitasalready

sufficientlywell

settled?

That

is

their

secret.

The

fact

is

that

they

have

neglected

the

theoretical

demonstrationoftheexistenceofaGod,andhavedevelopedonlyitspracticalmotivesandconsequences.Theyhavetreateditasafactuniversallyaccepted,and,assuch,nolongersusceptibleofanydoubtwhatever,forsoleproofthereoflimitingthemselvestotheestablishmentoftheantiquityandthisveryuniversalityofthebeliefinGod.

Thisimposingunanimity,intheeyesofmanyillustriousmenandwriterstoquoteonlythemostfamousofthemwhoeloquentlyexpressedit,JosephdeMaistreandthegreatItalianpatriot,GiuseppeMazzini isofmorevaluethanallthedemonstrationsofscience;andifthereasoningofasmallnumberoflogicalandevenverypowerful,butisolated,thinkersisagainstit,somuchtheworse,theysay,forthesethinkersandtheirlogic,foruniversalconsent,the

general

and

primitive

adoption

of

an

idea,

has

always

been

considered

the

most

triumphant

testimonytoitstruth.TheIsentimentofthewholeworld,aconvictionthatisfoundandmaintainedalwaysandeverywhere,cannotbemistaken;itmusthaveitsrootinanecessityabsolutelyinherentintheverynatureofman.Andsinceithasbeenestablishedthatallpeoples,pastandpresent,havebelievedandstillbelieveintheexistenceofGod,itisclearthatthosewhohavethemisfortunetodoubtit,whateverthelogicthatledthemtothisdoubt,areabnormalexceptions,monsters.

Thus,then,theantiquity;anduniversality;ofabeliefshouldberegarded,contrarytoallscienceandalllogic,assufficientandunimpeachableproofofitstruth.Why?

UntilthedaysofCopernicusandGalileoeverybodybelievedthatthesunrevolvedaboutthe

earth.Was

not

everybody

mistaken?

What

is

more

ancient

and

more

universal

than

slavery?

Cannibalismperhaps.Fromtheoriginofhistoricsocietydowntothepresentdaytherehasbeenalwaysandeverywhereexploitationofthecompulsorylabourofthemasses slaves,serfs,orwageworkers bysomedominantminority;oppressionofthepeoplebytheChurchandbytheState.Mustitbeconcludedthatthisexploitationandthisoppressionarenecessitiesabsolutelyinherentintheveryexistenceofhumansociety?TheseareexampleswhichshowthattheargumentofthechampionsofGodprovesnothing.


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Nothing,infact,isasuniversalorasancientastheiniquitousandabsurd;truthandjustice,onthecontrary,aretheleastuniversal,theyoungestfeaturesinthedevelopmentofhumansociety.Inthisfact,too,liestheexplanationofaconstanthistoricalphenomenon namely,thepersecutionofwhichthosewhofirstproclaimthetruthhavebeenandcontinuetobetheobjectsatthehandsoftheofficial,privileged,andinterestedrepresentativesofuniversalandancientbeliefs,andoftenalsoatthehandsofthesamemasseswho,afterhavingtorturedthem,alwaysendbyadoptingtheirideasandrenderingthemvictorious.

TousmaterialistsandRevolutionarySocialists,thereisnothingastonishingorterrifyinginthishistoricalphenomenon.Stronginourconscience,inourloveoftruthatallhazards,inthatpassionforlogicwhichofitselfaloneconstitutesagreatpowerandoutsideofwhichthereisnothought;stronginourpassionforjusticeandinourunshakeablefaithinthetriumphofhumanityoveralltheoreticalandpracticalbestialities;strong,finally,inthemutualconfidenceandsupportgiveneachotherbythefewwhoshareourconvictions weresignourselvestoalltheconsequencesofthishistoricalphenomenon,inwhichweseethemanifestationofasociallawasnatural,asnecessary,andasinvariableasalltheotherlawswhichgoverntheworld.

This

law

is

a

logical,

inevitable

consequence

of

the

animal

origin;

of

human

society;

for

in

face

ofallthescientific,physiological,psychological,andhistoricalproofsaccumulatedatthepresentday,aswellasinfaceoftheexploitsoftheGermansconqueringFrance,whichnowfurnishsostrikingademonstrationthereof,itisnolongerpossibletoreallydoubtthisorigin.Butfromthemomentthatthisanimaloriginofmanisaccepted,allisexplained.Historythenappearstousastherevolutionarynegation,nowslow,apathetic,sluggish,nowpassionateandpowerful,ofthepast.Itconsistspreciselyintheprogressivenegationoftheprimitiveanimalityofmanbythedevelopmentofhishumanity.Man,awildbeast,cousinofthegorilla,hasemergedfromtheprofounddarknessofanimalinstinctintothelightofthemind,whichexplainsinawhollynaturalwayallhispastmistakesandpartiallyconsolesusforhispresenterrors.Hehasgoneoutfromanimalslavery,andpassingthroughdivineslavery,atemporaryconditionbetweenhisanimalityandhishumanity,heisnowmarchingontotheconquestandrealisationofhuman

liberty.Whence

it

results

that

the

antiquity

of

abelief,

of

an

idea,

far

from

proving

anything

in

itsfavour,ought,onthecontrary,toleadustosuspectit.Forbehindusisouranimalityandbeforeusourhumanity;humanlight,theonlythingthatcanwarmandenlightenus,theonlythingthatcanemancipateus,giveusdignity,freedom,andhappiness,andrealisefraternityamongus,isneveratthebeginning,but,relativelytotheepochinwhichwelive,alwaysattheendofhistory.Letus,then,neverlookback,letuslookeverforward;forforwardisoursunlight,forwardoursalvation.Ifitisjustifiable,andevenusefulandnecessary,toturnbacktostudyourpast,itisonlyinordertoestablishwhatwehavebeenandwhatwemustnolongerbe,whatwehavebelievedandthoughtandwhatwemustnolongerbelieveorthink,whatwehavedoneandwhatwemustdonevermore.

Somuchforantiquity.Asfortheuniversality;ofanerror,itprovesbutonething thesimilarity,ifnottheperfectidentity,ofhumannatureinallagesandunderallskies.And,sinceitisestablishedthatallpeoples,atallperiodsoftheirlife,havebelievedandstillbelieveinGod,wemustsimplyconcludethatthedivineidea,anoutcomeofourselves,isanerrorhistoricallynecessaryinthedevelopmentofhumanity,andaskwhyandhowitwasproducedinhistoryandwhyanimmensemajorityofthehumanracestillacceptitasatruth.

Untilweshallaccounttoourselvesforthemannerinwhichtheideaofasupernaturalordivineworldwasdevelopedandhadtobedevelopedinthehistoricalevolutionofthehuman


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conscience,allourscientificconvictionofitsabsurditywillbeinvain;untilthenweshallneversucceedindestroyingitintheopinionofthemajority,becauseweshallneverbeabletoattackitintheverydepthsofthehutmanbeingwhereithadbirth.Condemnedtoafruitlessstruggle,withoutissueandwithoutend,weshouldforeverhavetocontentourselveswithfightingitsolelyonthesurface,initsinnumerablemanifestations,whoseabsurditywillbescarcelybeatendownbytheblowsofcommonsensebeforeitwillreappearinanewformnolessnonsensical.Whiletherootofalltheabsurditiesthattormenttheworld,beliefinGod,remainsintact,itwillneverfailtobringforthnewoffspring.Thus,atthepresenttime,incertainsectionsofthehighestsociety,SpiritualismtendstoestablishitselfupontheruinsofChristianity.

Itisnotonlyintheinterestofthemasses,itisinthatofthehealthofourownminds,thatweshouldstrivetounderstandthehistoricgenesis,thesuccessionofcauseswhichdevelopedandproducedtheideaofGodintheconsciousnessofmen.InvainshallwecallandbelieveourselvesAtheists,untilwecomprehendthesecauses,for,untilthen,weshallalwayssufferourselvestobemoreorlessgovernedbytheclamoursofthisuniversalconsciencewhosesecretwehavenotdiscovered;and,consideringthenaturalweaknessofeventhestrongestindividualagainsttheallpowerfulinfluenceofthesocialsurroundingsthattrammelhim,wearealwaysin

dangerof

relapsing

sooner

or

later,

in

one

way

or

another,

into

the

abyss

of

religious

absurdity.

Examplesoftheseshamefulconversionsarefrequentinsocietytoday.

ChapterIIIhavestatedthechiefpracticalreasonofthepowerstillexercisedtodayoverthemassesbyreligiousbeliefs.ThesemysticaltendenciesdonotsignifyinmansomuchanaberrationofmindasadeepdiscontentatHeart.Theyaretheinstinctiveandpassionateprotestofthehumanbeingagainstthenarrowness,theplatitudes,thesorrows,andtheshameofawretchedexistence.Forthismalady,Ihavealreadysaid,thereisbutoneremedy SocialRevolution.

InthemeantimeIhaveendeavoredtoshowthecausesresponsibleforthebirthandhistoricaldevelopmentofreligioushallucinationsinthehumanconscience.HereitismypurposetotreatthisquestionoftheexistenceofaGod,orofthedivineoriginoftheworldandofman,solelyfromthestandpointofitsmoralandsocialutility,andIshallsayonlyafewwords,tobetterexplainmythought,regardingthetheoreticalgroundsofthisbelief.

Allreligions,withtheirgods,theirdemigods,andtheirprophets,theirmessiahsandtheirsaints,werecreatedbythecredulousfancyofmenwhohadnotattainedthefulldevelopmentandfullpossessionoftheirfaculties.Consequently,thereligiousheavenisnothingbutamirageinwhichman,exaltedbyignoranceandfaith,discovershisownimage,butenlargedandreversed thatis,divinized.Thehistoryofreligion,ofthebirth,grandeur,anddeclineofthegodswhohavesucceededoneanotherinhumanbelief,isnothing,therefore,butthedevelopmentofthecollectiveintelligenceandconscienceofmankind.Asfastastheydiscovered,inthecourseoftheirhistoricallyprogressiveadvance,eitherinthemselvesorinexternalnature,apower,aquality,orevenanygreatdefectwhatever,theyattributedthemtotheirgods,afterhavingexaggeratedandenlargedthembeyondmeasure,afterthemannerofchildren,byanactoftheirreligiousfancy.Thankstothismodestyandpiousgenerosityofbelievingandcredulousmen,heavenhasgrownrichwiththespoilsoftheearth,and,bya


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necessaryconsequence, thericherheavenbecame,themorewretchedbecamehumanityandtheearth.Godonceinstalled,hewasnaturallyproclaimedthecause,reason,arbiterandabsolutedisposerofallthings:theworldthenceforthwasnothing,Godwasall;andman,hisrealcreator,afterhavingunknowinglyextractedhimfromthevoid,boweddownbeforehim,worshippedhim,andavowedhimselfhiscreatureandhisslave.

Christianityis

precisely

the

religion

par

excellence,

because

it

exhibits

and

manifests,

to

the

fullestextent,theverynatureandessenceofeveryreligioussystem,whichistheimpoverishment,enslavement,andannihilationofhumanityforthebenefitofdivinity.

Godbeingeverything,therealworldandmanarenothing.Godbeingtruth,justice,goodness,beauty,power,andlife,manisfalsehood,iniquity,evil,ugliness,impotence,anddeath.Godbeingmaster,manistheslave.Incapableoffindingjustice,truth,andeternallifebyhisowneffort,hecanattainthemonlythroughadivinerevelation.Butwhoeversaysrevelationsaysrevealers,messiahs,prophets,priests,andlegislatorsinspiredbyGodhimself;andthese,oncerecognizedastherepresentativesofdivinityonearth,astheholyinstructorsofhumanity,chosenbyGodhimselftodirectitinthepathofsalvation,necessarilyexerciseabsolutepower.

All

men

owe

them

passive

and

unlimited

obedience;

for

against

the

divine

reason

there

is

no

humanreason,andagainstthejusticeofGodnoterrestrialjusticeholds.SlavesofGod,menmustalsobeslavesofChurchandState,insofarastheStateisconsecratedbytheChurch.ThistruthChristianity,betterthanallotherreligionsthatexistorhaveexisted,understood,notexceptingeventheoldOrientalreligions,whichincludedonlydistinctandprivilegednations,whileChristianityaspirestoembraceentirehumanity;andthistruthRomanCatholicism,aloneamongalltheChristiansects,hasproclaimedandrealizedwithrigorouslogic.ThatiswhyChristianityistheabsolutereligion,thefinalreligion;whytheApostolicandRomanChurchistheonlyconsistent,legitimate,anddivinechurch.

Withallduerespect,then,tothemetaphysiciansandreligiousidealists,philosophers,politicians,orpoets:TheideaofGodimpliestheabdicationofhumanreasonandjustice;itis

themost

decisive

negation

of

human

liberty,

and

necessarily

ends

in

the

enslavement

of

mankind,bothintheoryandpractice.

Unless,then,wedesiretheenslavementanddegradationofmankind,astheJesuitsdesireit,asthemmiers,pietists,orProtestantMethodistsdesireit,wemaynot,mustnotmaketheslightestconcessioneithertotheGodoftheologyortotheGodofmetaphysics.Hewho,inthismysticalalphabet,beginswithAwillinevitablyendwithZ;hewhodesirestoworshipGodmustharbornochildishillusionsaboutthematter,butbravelyrenouncehislibertyandhumanity.

IfGodis,manisaslave;now,mancanandmustbefree;then,Goddoesnotexist.

Idefyanyonewhomsoevertoavoidthiscircle;now,therefore,letallchoose.

Isitnecessarytopointouttowhatextentandinwhatmannerreligionsdebaseandcorruptthepeople?Theydestroytheirreason,theprincipalinstrumentofhumanemancipation,andreducethemtoimbecility,theessentialconditionoftheirslavery.Theydishonorhumanlabor,andmakeitasignandsourceofservitude.Theykilltheideaandsentimentofhumanjustice,evertippingthebalancetothesideoftriumphantknaves,privilegedobjectsofdivineindulgence.Theykillhumanprideanddignity,protectingonlythecringingandhumble.Theystifleintheheartofnationseveryfeelingofhumanfraternity,fillingitwithdivinecrueltyinstead.


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Allreligionsarecruel,allfoundedonblood;forallrestprincipallyontheideaofsacrifice thatis,ontheperpetualimmolationofhumanitytotheinsatiablevengeanceofdivinity.Inthisbloodymysterymanisalwaysthevictim,andthepriest amanalso,butamanprivilegedbygrace isthedivineexecutioner.Thatexplainswhythepriestsofallreligions,thebest,themosthumane,thegentlest,almostalwayshaveatthebottomoftheirhearts and,ifnotintheirhearts,intheirimaginations,intheirminds(andweknowthefearfulinfluenceofeitherontheheartsofmen) somethingcruelandsanguinary.

Noneknowallthisbetterthanourillustriouscontemporaryidealists.Theyarelearnedmen,whoknowhistorybyheart;and,astheyareatthesametimelivingmen,greatsoulspenetratedwithasincereandprofoundloveforthewelfareofhumanity,theyhavecursedandbrandedallthesemisdeeds,allthesecrimesofreligionwithaneloquenceunparalleled.TheyrejectwithindignationallsolidaritywiththeGodofpositivereligionsandwithhisrepresentatives,past,present,andonearth.

TheGodwhomtheyadore,orwhomtheythinktheyadore,isdistinguishedfromtherealgodsofhistorypreciselyinthis thatheisnotatallapositivegod,definedinanywaywhatever,

theologically

or

even

metaphysically.

He

is

neither

the

supreme

being

of

Robespierre

and

J.

J.

Rousseau,northepantheisticgodofSpinoza,noreventheatonceimmanent,transcendental,andveryequivocalgodofHegel.Theytakegoodcarenottogivehimanypositivedefinitionwhatever,feelingverystronglythatanydefinitionwouldsubjecthimtothedissolvingpowerofcriticism.Theywillnotsaywhetherbeisapersonalorimpersonalgod,whetherhecreatedordidnotcreatetheworld;theywillnotevenspeakofhisdivineprovidence.Allthatmightcompromisehim.TheycontentthemselveswithsayingGodandnothingmore.But,then,whatistheirGod?Notevenanidea;itisanaspiration.

Itisthegenericnameofallthatseemsgrand,good,beautiful,noble,humantothem.Butwhy,then,dotheynotsay,Man.Ah!becauseKingWilliamofPrussiaandNapoleonIII,andalltheircompeersarelikewisemen:whichbothersthemverymuch.Realhumanitypresentsa

mixtureof

all

Ithat

is

most

sublime

and

beautiful

with

all

that

is

vilest

and

most

monstrous

in

theworld.Howdotheygetoverthis?Why,theycallonedivineandtheotherbestial,representingdivinityandanimalityastwopoles,betweenwhichtheyplacehumanity.Theyeitherwillnotorcannotunderstandthatthesethreetermsarereallybutone,andthattoseparatethemistodestroythem.

Theyarenotstrongonlogic,andonemightsaythattheydespiseit.Thatiswhatdistinguishesthemfromthepantheisticalanddeisticalmetaphysicians,andgivestheirideasthecharacterofapracticalidealism,drawingitsinspirationmuchlessfromtheseveredevelopmentofathoughtthanfromtheexperiences,Imightalmostsaytheemotions,historicalandcollectiveaswellasindividual,oflife.Thisgivestheirpropagandaanappearanceofwealthandvitalpower,butanappearanceonly;forlifeitselfbecomessterilewhenparalyzedbyalogicalcontradiction.

Thiscontradictionlieshere:theywishGod,andtheywishhumanity.Theypersistinconnectingtwotermswhich,onceseparated,cancometogetheragainonlytodestroyeachother.Theysayinasinglebreath:Godandthelibertyofman,Godandthedignity,justice,equality,fraternity,prosperityofmen regardlessofthefatallogicbyvirtueofwhich,ifGodexists,allthesethingsarecondemnedtononexistence.For,ifGodis,heisnecessarilytheeternal,supreme,absolutemaster,and,ifsuchamasterexists,manisaslave;now,ifheisaslave,neitherjustice,norequality,norfraternity,norprosperityarepossibleforhim.Invain,


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flyinginthefaceofgoodsenseandalltheteachingsofhistory,dotheyrepresenttheirGodasanimatedbythetenderestloveofhumanliberty:amaster,whoeverhemaybeandhoweverliberalhemaydesiretoshowhimself,remainsnonethelessalwaysamaster.Hisexistencenecessarilyimpliestheslaveryofallthatisbeneathhim.Therefore,ifGodexisted,onlyinonewaycouldheservehumanliberty byceasingtoexist.

Ajealous

lover

of

human

liberty,

and

deeming

it

the

absolute

condition

of

all

that

we

admire

andrespectinhumanity,IreversethephraseofVoltaire,andsaythat,ifGodreallyexisted,itwouldbenecessarytoabolishhim.

Theseverelogicthatdictatesthesewordsisfartooevidenttorequireadevelopmentofthisargument.Anditseemstomeimpossiblethattheillustriousmen,whosenamessocelebratedandsojustlyrespectedIhavecited,shouldnothavebeenstruckbyitthemselves,andshouldnothaveperceivedthecontradictioninwhichtheyinvolvethemselvesinspeakingofGodandhumanlibertyatonce.Tohavedisregardedit,theymusthaveconsideredthisinconsistencyorlogicallicensepracticallynecessarytohumanityswellbeing.

Perhaps,too,whilespeakingoflibertyassomethingveryrespectableandverydearintheir

eyes,they

give

the

term

ameaning

quite

different

from

the

conception

entertained

by

us,

materialistsandRevolutionarySocialists.Indeed,theyneverspeakofitwithoutimmediatelyaddinganotherword,authority awordandathingwhichwedetestwithallourheart.

Whatisauthority?Isittheinevitablepowerofthenaturallawswhichmanifestthemselvesinthenecessaryconcatenationandsuccessionofphenomenainthephysicalandsocialworlds?Indeed,againsttheselawsrevoltisnotonlyforbidden itisevenimpossible.Wemaymisunderstandthemornotknowthematall,butwecannotdisobeythem;becausetheyconstitutethebasisandfundamentalconditionsofourexistence;theyenvelopus,penetrateus,regulateallourmovements,thoughts,andacts;evenwhenwebelievethatwedisobeythem,weonlyshowtheiromnipotence.

Yes,weareabsolutelytheslavesoftheselaws.Butinsuchslaverythereisnohumiliation,or,rather,itisnotslaveryatall.Forslaverysupposesanexternalmaster,alegislatoroutsideofhimwhomhecommands,whiletheselawsarenotoutsideofus;theyareinherentinus;theyconstituteourbeing,ourwholebeing,physically intellectually,andmorally:welive,webreathe,weact,wethink,wewishonlythroughtheselaws.Withoutthemwearenothing,wearenot.Whence,then,couldwederivethepowerandthewishtorebelagainstthem?

Inhisrelationtonaturallawsbutonelibertyispossibletoman thatofrecognizingandapplyingthemonaneverextendingscaleinconformitywiththeobjectofcollectiveandindividualemancipationorhumanizationwhichhepursues.Theselaws,oncerecognized,exerciseanauthoritywhichisneverdisputedbythemassofmen.Onemust,forinstance,beat

bottomeither

afool

or

atheologian

or

at

least

ametaphysician,

jurist,

or

bourgeois

economist

torebelagainstthelawbywhichtwicetwomakefour.Onemusthavefaithtoimaginethatfirewillnotburnnorwaterdrown,except,indeed,recoursebehadtosomesubterfugefoundedinitsturnonsomeothernaturallaw.Buttheserevolts,or,rather,theseattemptsatorfoolishfanciesofanimpossiblerevolt,aredecidedly,theexception;for,ingeneral,itmaybesaidthatthemassofmen,intheirdailylives,acknowledgethegovernmentofcommonsense thatis,ofthesumofthenaturallawsgenerallyrecognized inanalmostabsolutefashion.


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Thegreatmisfortuneisthatalargenumberofnaturallaws,alreadyestablishedassuchbyscience,remainunknowntothemasses,thankstothewatchfulnessofthesetutelarygovernmentsthatexist,asweknow,onlyforthegoodofthepeople.Thereisanotherdifficulty namely,thatthemajorportionofthenaturallawsconnectedwiththedevelopmentofhumansociety,whicharequiteasnecessary,invariable,fatal,asthelawsthatgovernthephysicalworld,havenotbeendulyestablishedandrecognizedbyscienceitself.

Oncetheyshallhavebeenrecognizedbyscience,andthenfromscience,bymeansofanextensivesystemofpopulareducationandinstruction,shallhavepassedintotheconsciousnessofall,thequestionoflibertywillbeentirelysolved.Themoststubbornauthoritiesmustadmitthatthentherewillbenoneedeitherofpoliticalorganizationordirectionorlegislation,threethingswhich,whethertheyemanatefromthewillofthesovereignorfromthevoteofaparliamentelectedbyuniversalsuffrage,andevenshouldtheyconformtothesystemofnaturallaws whichhasneverbeenthecaseandneverwillbethecase arealwaysequallyfatalandhostiletothelibertyofthemassesfromtheveryfactthattheyimposeuponthemasystemofexternalandthereforedespoticlaws.

The

liberty

of

man

consists

solely

in

this:

that

he

obeys

natural

laws

because

he

has

himself

recognizedthemassuch,andnotbecausetheyhavebeenexternallyimposeduponhimbyanyextrinsicwillwhatever,divineorhuman,collectiveorindividual.

Supposealearnedacademy,composedofthemostillustriousrepresentativesofscience;supposethisacademychargedwithlegislationforandtheorganizationofsociety,andthat,inspiredonlybythepurestloveoftruth,itframesnonebutlawsinabsoluteharmonywiththelatestdiscoveriesofscience.Well,Imaintain,formypart,thatsuchlegislationandsuchorganizationwouldbeamonstrosity,andthatfortworeasons:first,thathumanscienceisalwaysandnecessarilyimperfect,andthat,comparingwhatithasdiscoveredwithwhatremainstobediscovered,wemaysaythatitisstillinitscradle.Sothatwerewetotrytoforcethepracticallifeofmen,collectiveaswellasindividual,intostrictandexclusiveconformitywiththe

latestdata

of

science,

we

should

condemn

society

as

well

as

individuals

to

suffer

martyrdom

on

abedofProcrustes,whichwouldsoonendbydislocatingandstiflingthem,lifeeverremaininganinfinitelygreaterthingthanscience.

Thesecondreasonisthis:asocietywhichshouldobeylegislationemanatingfromascientificacademy,notbecauseitunderstooditselftherationalcharacterofthislegislation(inwhichcasetheexistenceoftheacademywouldbecomeuseless),butbecausethislegislation,emanatingfromtheacademy,wasimposedinthenameofasciencewhichitveneratedwithoutcomprehending suchasocietywouldbeasociety,notofmen,butofbrutes.ItwouldbeasecondeditionofthosemissionsinParaguaywhichsubmittedsolongtothegovernmentoftheJesuits.Itwouldsurelyandrapidlydescendtotheloweststageofidiocy.

Butthere

is

still

athird

reason

which

would

render

such

agovernment

impossible

namely

thatascientificacademyinvestedwithasovereignty,sotospeak,absolute,evenifitwerecomposedofthemostillustriousmen,wouldinfalliblyandsoonendinitsownmoralandintellectualcorruption.Eventoday,withthefewprivilegesallowedthem,suchisthehistoryofallacademies.Thegreatestscientificgenius,fromthemomentthathebecomesanacademician,anofficiallylicensedsavant,inevitablylapsesintosluggishness.Heloseshisspontaneity,hisrevolutionaryhardihood,andthattroublesomeandsavageenergycharacteristicofthegrandestgeniuses,evercalledtodestroyoldtotteringworldsandlaythe


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foundationsofnew.Heundoubtedlygainsinpoliteness,inutilitarianandpracticalwisdom,whathelosesinpowerofthought.Inaword,hebecomescorrupted.

Itisthecharacteristicofprivilegeandofeveryprivilegedpositiontokillthemindandheartofmen.Theprivilegedman,whetherpoliticallyoreconomically,isamandepravedinmindandheart.Thatisasociallawwhichadmitsofnoexception,andisasapplicabletoentirenationsas

toclasses,

corporations,

and

individuals.

It

is

the

law

of

equality,

the

supreme

condition

of

libertyandhumanity.Theprincipalobjectofthistreatiseispreciselytodemonstratethistruthinallthemanifestationsofhumanlife.

Ascientificbodytowhichhadbeenconfidedthegovernmentofsocietywouldsoonendbydevotingitselfnolongertoscienceatall,buttoquiteanotheraffair;andthataffair,asinthecaseofallestablishedpowers,wouldbeitsowneternalperpetuationbyrenderingthesocietyconfidedtoitscareevermorestupidandconsequentlymoreinneedofitsgovernmentanddirection.

Butthatwhichistrueofscientificacademiesisalsotrueofallconstituentandlegislativeassemblies,eventhosechosenbyuniversalsuffrage.Inthelattercasetheymayrenewtheir

composition,it

is

true,

but

this

does

not

prevent

the

formation

in

afew

years

time

of

abody

of

politicians,privilegedinfactthoughnotinlaw,who,devotingthemselvesexclusivelytothedirectionofthepublicaffairsofacountry,finallyformasortofpoliticalaristocracyoroligarchy.WitnesstheUnitedStatesofAmericaandSwitzerland.

Consequently,noexternallegislationandnoauthority one,forthatmatter,beinginseparablefromtheother,andbothtendingtotheservitudeofsocietyandthedegradationofthelegislatorsthemselves.

DoesitfollowthatIrejectallauthority?Farfrommesuchathought.Inthematterofboots,Irefertotheauthorityofthebootmaker;concerninghouses,canals,orrailroads,Iconsultthatofthearchitectorengineer.ForsuchorsuchspecialknowledgeIapplytosuchorsuchasavant.ButIallowneitherthebootmakernorthearchitectnorthesavanttoimposehisauthorityuponme.Ilistentothemfreelyandwithalltherespectmeritedbytheirintelligence,theircharacter,theirknowledge,reservingalwaysmyincontestablerightofcriticismcensure.Idonotcontentmyselfwithconsultingauthorityinanyspecialbranch;Iconsultseveral;Icomparetheiropinions,andchoosethatwhichseemstomethesoundest.ButIrecognizenoinfallibleauthority,eveninspecialquestions;consequently,whateverrespectImayhaveforthehonestyandthesincerityofsuchorsuchanindividual,Ihavenoabsolutefaithinanyperson.Suchafaithwouldbefataltomyreason,tomyliberty,andeventothesuccessofmyundertakings;itwouldimmediatelytransformmeintoastupidslave,aninstrumentofthewillandinterestsofothers.

IfIbow

before

the

authority

of

the

specialists

and

avow

my

readiness

to

follow,

to

acertain

extentandaslongasmayseemtomenecessary,theirindicationsandeventheirdirections,itisbecausetheirauthorityisimposeduponmebynoone,neitherbymennorbyGod.OtherwiseIwouldrepelthemwithhorror,andbidthedeviltaketheircounsels,theirdirections,andtheirservices,certainthattheywouldmakemepay,bythelossofmylibertyandselfrespect,forsuchscrapsoftruth,wrappedinamultitudeoflies,astheymightgiveme.

Ibowbeforetheauthorityofspecialmenbecauseitisimposeduponmebymyownreason.Iamconsciousofmyinabilitytograsp,inallitsdetailsandpositivedevelopments,anyverylarge


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portionofhumanknowledge.Thegreatestintelligencewouldnotbeequaltoacomprehensionofthewhole.Thenceresults,forscienceaswellasforindustry,thenecessityofthedivisionandassociationoflabor.IreceiveandIgive suchishumanlife.Eachdirectsandisdirectedinhisturn.Thereforethereisnofixedandconstantauthority,butacontinualexchangeofmutual,temporary,and,aboveall,voluntaryauthorityandsubordination.

Thissame

reason

forbids

me,

then,

to

recognize

afixed,

constant,

and

universal

authority,

becausethereisnouniversalman,nomancapableofgraspinginthatwealthofdetail,withoutwhichtheapplicationofsciencetolifeisimpossible,allthesciences,allthebranchesofsociallife.Andifsuchuniversalitycouldeverberealizedinasingleman,andifbewishedtotakeadvantagethereoftoimposehisauthorityuponus,itwouldbenecessarytodrivethismanoutofsociety,becausehisauthoritywouldinevitablyreducealltheotherstoslaveryandimbecility.Idonotthinkthatsocietyoughttomaltreatmenofgeniusasithasdonehitherto;butneitherdoIthinkitshouldindulgethemtoofar,stilllessaccordthemanyprivilegesorexclusiverightswhatsoever;andthatforthreereasons:first,becauseitwouldoftenmistakeacharlatanforamanofgenius;second,because,throughsuchasystemofprivileges,itmighttransformintoacharlatanevenarealmanofgenius,demoralizehim,anddegradehim;and,finally,becauseit

wouldestablish

amaster

over

itself.

Tosumup.Werecognize,then,theabsoluteauthorityofscience,becausethesoleobjectofscienceisthementalreproduction,aswellconsideredandsystematicaspossible,ofthenaturallawsinherentinthematerial,intellectual,andmorallifeofboththephysicalandthesocialworlds,thesetwoworldsconstituting,infact,butoneandthesamenaturalworld.Outsideofthisonlylegitimateauthority,legitimatebecauserationalandinharmonywithhumanliberty,wedeclareallotherauthoritiesfalse,arbitraryandfatal.

Werecognizetheabsoluteauthorityofscience,butwerejecttheinfallibilityanduniversalityofthesavant.Inourchurch ifImaybepermittedtouseforamomentanexpressionwhichIsodetest:ChurchandStatearemytwobtesnoires inourchurch,asintheProtestantchurch,

wehave

achief,

an

invisible

Christ,

science;

and,

like

the

Protestants,

more

logical

even

than

the

Protestants,wewillsufferneitherpope,norcouncil,norconclavesofinfalliblecardinals,norbishops,norevenpriests.OurChristdiffersfromtheProtestantandChristianChristinthis thatthelatterisapersonalbeing,oursimpersonal;theChristianChrist,alreadycompletedinaneternalpast,presentshimselfasaperfectbeing,whilethecompletionandperfectionofourChrist,science,areeverinthefuture:whichisequivalenttosayingthattheywillneverberealized.Therefore,inrecognizingabsolutescienceastheonlyabsoluteauthority,weinnowaycompromiseourliberty.

Imeanbythewordsabsolutescience,whichwouldreproduceideally,toitsfullestextentandinallitsinfinitedetail,theuniverse,thesystemorcoordinationofallthenaturallawsmanifestedbytheincessantdevelopmentoftheworld.Itisevidentthatsuchascience,the

sublimeobject

of

all

the

efforts

of

the

human

mind,

will

never

be

fully

and

absolutely

realized.

OurChrist,then,willremaineternallyunfinished,whichmustconsiderablytakedowntheprideofhislicensedrepresentativesamongus.AgainstthatGodtheSoninwhosenametheyassumetoimposeuponustheirinsolentandpedanticauthority,weappealtoGodtheFather,whoistherealworld,reallife,ofwhichhe(theSon)isonlyatooimperfectexpression,whilstwerealbeings,living,working,struggling,loving,aspiring,enjoying,andsuffering,areitsimmediaterepresentatives.


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But,whilerejectingtheabsolute,universal,andinfallibleauthorityofmenofscience,wewillinglybowbeforetherespectable,althoughrelative,quitetemporary,andveryrestrictedauthorityoftherepresentativesofspecialsciences,askingnothingbetterthantoconsultthembyturns,andverygratefulforsuchpreciousinformationastheymayextendtous,onconditionoftheirwillingnesstoreceivefromusonoccasionswhen,andconcerningmattersaboutwhich,wearemorelearnedthanthey.Ingeneral,weasknothingbetterthantoseemenendowedwithgreatknowledge,greatexperience,greatminds,and,aboveall,greathearts,exerciseoverusanaturalandlegitimateinfluence,freelyaccepted,andneverimposedinthenameofanyofficialauthoritywhatsoever,celestialorterrestrial.Weacceptallnaturalauthoritiesandallinfluencesoffact,butnoneofright;foreveryauthorityoreveryinfluenceofright,officiallyimposedassuch,becomingdirectlyanoppressionandafalsehood,wouldinevitablyimposeuponus,asIbelieveIhavesufficientlyshown,slaveryandabsurdity.

Inaword,werejectalllegislation,allauthority,andallprivileged,licensed,official,andlegalinfluence,eventhougharisingfromuniversalsuffrage,convincedthatitcanturnonlytotheadvantageofadominantminorityofexploitersagainsttheinterestsoftheimmensemajorityinsubjectiontothem.

ThisisthesenseinwhichwearereallyAnarchists.

Themodernidealistsunderstandauthorityinquiteadifferentway.Althoughfreefromthetraditionalsuperstitionsofalltheexistingpositivereligions,theyneverthelessattachtothisideaofauthorityadivine,anabsolutemeaning.Thisauthorityisnotthatofatruthmiraculouslyrevealed,northatofatruthrigorouslyandscientificallydemonstrated.Theybaseittoaslightextentuponquasiphilosophicalreasoning,andtoalargeextentalsoonsentiment,ideally,abstractlypoetical.Theirreligionis,asitwere,alastattempttodiviniseallthatconstituteshumanityinmen.

Thisisjusttheoppositeoftheworkthatwearedoing.Onbehalfofhumanliberty,dignityand

prosperity,

we

believe

it

our

duty

to

recover

from

heaven

the

goods

which

it

has

stolen

and

returnthemtoearth.They,onthecontrary,endeavouringtocommitafinalreligiouslyheroiclarceny,wouldrestoretoheaven,thatdivinerobber,finallyunmasked,thegrandest,finestandnoblestofhumanityspossessions.Itisnowthefreethinkersturntopillageheavenbytheiraudaciouspietyandscientificanalysis.

Theidealistsundoubtedlybelievethathumanideasanddeeds,inordertoexercisegreaterauthorityamongmen,mustbeinvestedwithadivinesanction.Howisthissanctionmanifested?Notbyamiracle,asinthepositivereligions,butbytheverygrandeurofsanctityoftheideasanddeeds:whateverisgrand,whateverisbeautiful,whateverisnoble,whateverisjust,isconsidereddivine.Inthisnewreligiousculteverymaninspiredbytheseideas,bythesedeeds,becomesapriest,directlyconsecratedbyGodhimself.Andtheproof?Heneedsnonebeyond

thevery

grandeur

of

the

ideas

which

he

expresses

and

the

deeds

which

he

performs.

These

are

soholythattheycanhavebeeninspiredonlybyGod.

Such,insofewwords,istheirwholephilosophy:aphilosophyofsentiments,notofrealthoughts,asortofmetaphysicalpietism.Thisseemsharmless,butitisnotsoatall,andtheveryprecise,verynarrowandverybarrendoctrinehiddenundertheintangiblevaguenessofthesepoeticformsleadstothesamedisastrousresultsthatallthepositivereligionsleadto namely,themostcompletenegationofhumanlibertyanddignity.


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Toproclaimasdivineallthatisgrand,just,noble,andbeautifulinhumanityistotacitlyadmitthathumanityofitselfwouldhavebeenunabletoproduceit thatis,that,abandonedtoitself,itsownnatureismiserable,iniquitous,base,andugly.Thuswecomebacktotheessenceofallreligion inotherwords,tothedisparagementofhumanityforthegreatergloryofdivinity.Andfromthemomentthatthenaturalinferiorityofmanandhisfundamentalincapacitytorisebyhisowneffort,unaidedbyanydivineinspiration,tothecomprehensionofjustandtrueideas,areadmitted,itbecomesnecessarytoadmitalsoallthetheological,political,andsocialconsequencesofthepositivereligions.FromthemomentthatGod,theperfectandsupremebeing,ispositedfacetofacewithhumanity,divinemediators,theelect,theinspiredofGodspringfromtheearthtoenlighten,direct,andgoverninhisnamethehumanrace.

MaywenotsupposethatallmenareequallyinspiredbyGod?Then,surely,thereisnofurtheruseformediators.Butthissuppositionisimpossible,becauseitistooclearlycontradictedbythefacts.Itwouldcompelustoattributetodivineinspirationalltheabsurditiesanderrorswhichappear,andallthehorrors,follies,basedeeds,andcowardlyactionswhicharecommitted,intheworld.Butperhaps,then,onlyafewmenaredivinelyinspired,thegreatmenofhistory,thevirtuousgeniuses,astheillustriousItaliancitizenandprophet,GiuseppeMazzini,

calledthem.

Immediately

inspired

by

God

himself

and

supported

upon

universal

consent

expressedbypopularsuffrage DioePopolo; suchastheseshouldbecalledtothegovernmentofhumansocieties.[3]

ButhereweareagainfallenbackundertheyokeofChurchandState.Itistruethatinthisneworganization,indebtedforitsexistence,likealltheoldpoliticalorganisations,tothegraceofGod,butsupportedthistime atleastsofarasformisconcerned,asanecessaryconcessiontothespiritofmoderntimes,andjustasinthepreamblesoftheimperialdecreesofNapoleonIII. onthe(pretended)willofthepeople,theChurchwillnolongercallitselfChurch;itwillcallitselfSchool.Whatmattersit?OnthebenchesofthisSchoolwillbeseatednotchildrenonly;therewillbefoundtheeternalminor,thepupilconfessedlyforeverincompetenttopasshisexaminations,risetotheknowledgeofhisteachers,anddispensewiththeirdiscipline the

people.[4]

TheStatewillnolongercallitselfMonarchy;itwillcallitselfRepublic:butitwillbenonethelesstheState thatis,atutelageofficiallyandregularlyestablishedbyaminorityofcompetentmen,menofvirtuousgeniusortalent,whowillwatchandguidetheconductofthisgreat,incorrigible,andterriblechild,thepeople.TheprofessorsoftheSchoolandthefunctionariesoftheStatewillcallthemselvesrepublicans;buttheywillbenonethelesstutors,shepherds,andthepeoplewillremainwhattheyhavebeenhithertofromalleternity,aflock.Bewareofshearers,forwherethereisaflocktherenecessarilymustbeshepherdsalsotoshearanddevourit.

Thepeople,inthissystem,willbetheperpetualscholarandpupil.Inspiteofitssovereignty,

whollyfictitious,

it

will

continue

to

serve

as

the

instrument

of

thoughts,

wills,

and

consequently

interestsnotitsown.Betweenthissituationandwhatwecallliberty,theonlyrealliberty,thereisanabyss.Itwillbetheoldoppressionandoldslaveryundernewforms;andwherethereisslaverythereismisery,brutishness,realsocialmaterialism,amongtheprivilegedclassesaswellasamongthemasses.


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Indefyinghumanthingstheidealistsalwaysendinthetriumphofabrutalmaterialism.Andthisforaverysimplereason:thedivineevaporatesandrisestoitsowncountry,heaven,whilethebrutalaloneremainsactuallyonearth.

Yes,thenecessaryconsequenceoftheoreticalidealismispracticallythemostbrutalmaterialism;not,undoubtedly,amongthosewhosincerelypreachit theusualresultasfaras

theyare

concerned

being

that

they

are

constrained

to

see

all

their

efforts

struck

with

sterility

butamongthosewhotrytorealisetheirpreceptsinlife,andinallsocietysofarasitallowsitselftobedominatedbyidealisticdoctrines.

Todemonstratethisgeneralfact,whichmayappearstrangeatfirst,butwhichexplainsitselfnaturallyenoughuponfurtherreflection,historicalproofsarenotlacking.

Comparethelasttwocivilisationsoftheancientworld theGreekandtheRoman.Whichisthemostmaterialistic,themostnatural,initspointofdeparture,andthemosthumanlyidealinitsresults?UndoubtedlytheGreekcivilisation.Whichonthecontrary,isthemostabstractlyidealinitspointofdeparture sacrificingthemateriallibertyofthemantotheideallibertyofthecitizen,representedbytheabstractionofjudiciallaw,andthenaturaldevelopmentof

humansociety

to

the

abstraction

of

the

State

and

which

became

nevertheless

the

most

brutal

initsconsequences?TheRomancivilisation,certainly.ItistruethattheGreekcivilisation,likealltheancientcivilisations,includingthatofRome,wasexclusivelynationalandbasedonslavery.But,inspiteofthesetwoimmensedefects,theformernonethelessconceivedandrealisedtheideaofhumanity;itennobledandreallyidealisedthelifeofmen;ittransformedhumanherdsintofreeassociationsoffreemen;itcreatedthroughlibertythesciences,thearts,apoetry,animmortalphilosophy,andtheprimaryconceptsofhumanrespect.Withpoliticalandsocialliberty,itcreatedfreethought.AtthecloseoftheMiddleAges,duringtheperiodoftheRenaissance,thefactthatsomeGreekemigrantsbroughtafewofthoseimmortalbooksintoItalysufficedtoresuscitatelife,liberty,thought,humanity,buriedinthedarkdungeonofCatholicism.Humanemancipation,thatisthenameoftheGreekcivilisation.Andthenameof

theRoman

civilisation?

Conquest,

with

all

its

brutal

consequences.

And

its

last

word?

The

omnipotenceoftheCaesars.Whichmeansthedegradationandenslavementofnationsandofmen.

Todayeven,whatisitthatkills,whatisitthatcrushesbrutally,materially,inallEuropeancountries,libertyandhumanity?ItisthetriumphoftheCaesarianorRomanprinciple.

Comparenowtwomoderncivilisations theItalianandtheGerman.Thefirstundoubtedlyrepresents,initsgeneralcharacter,materialism;thesecond,onthecontrary,representsidealisminitsmostabstract,mostpure,andmosttranscendentalform.Letusseewhatarethepracticalfruitsoftheoneandtheother.

Italyhas

already

rendered

immense

services

to

the

cause

of

human

emancipation.

She

was

thefirsttoresuscitateandwidelyapplytheprincipleoflibertyinEurope,andtorestoretohumanityitstitlestonobility:industry,commerce,poetry,thearts,thepositivesciences,andfreethought.Crushedsincebythreecenturiesofimperialandpapaldespotism,anddraggedinthemudbyhergoverningbourgeoisie,shereappearstoday,itistrue,inaverydegradedconditionincomparisonwithwhatsheoncewas.AndyethowmuchshediffersfromGermany!InItaly,inspiteofthisdecline temporaryletushope onemayliveandbreathehumanly,surroundedbyapeoplewhichseemstobebornforliberty.Italy,evenbourgeoisItaly,canpoint


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withpridetomenlikeMazziniandGaribaldi..InGermanyonebreathestheatmosphereofanimmensepoliticalandsocialslavery,philosophicallyexplainedandacceptedbyagreatpeoplewithdeliberateresignationandfreewill.Herheroes IspeakalwaysofpresentGermany,notoftheGermanyofthefuture;ofaristocratic,bureaucratic,politicalandbourgeoisieGermany,notoftheGermanyoftheproltaires herheroesarequitetheoppositeofMazziniandGaribaldi:theyareWilliamI.,thatferociousandingenuousrepresentativeoftheProtestantGod,Messrs,BismarckandMoltke,GeneralsManteuffelandWerder.InallherinternationalrelationsGermany,fromthebeginningofherexistence,hasbeenslowly,systematicallyinvading,conquering,everreadytoextendherownvoluntaryenslavementintotheterritoryofherneighbours;and,sinceherdefinitiveestablishmentasaunitarypower,shehasbecomeamenace,adangertothelibertyofentireEurope.TodayGermanyisservilitybrutalandtriumphant.

Toshowhowtheoreticalidealismincessantlyandinevitablychangesintopracticalmaterialism,oneneedsonlytocitetheexampleofalltheChristianChurches,and,naturally,firstofall,thatoftheApostolicandRomanChurch.Whatistheremoresublime,intheidealsense,moredisinterested,moreseparatefromalltheinterestsofthisearth,thanthedoctrine

ofChrist

preached

by

that

Church?

And

what

is

there

more

brutally

materialistic

than

the

constantpracticeofthatsameChurchsincetheeighthcentury,fromwhichdatesherdefinitiveestablishmentasapower?WhathasbeenandstillistheprincipalobjectofallhercontestswiththesovereignsofEurope?Hertemporalgoods,herrevenuesfirst,andthenhertemporalpower,herpoliticalprivileges.Wemustdoherthejusticetoacknowledgethatshewasthefirsttodiscover,inmodernhistory,thisincontestablebutscarcelyChristiantruththatwealthandpower,theeconomicexploitationandthepoliticaloppressionofthemasses,arethetwoinseparabletermsofthereignofdivineidealityonearth:wealthconsolidatingandaugmentingpower,powereverdiscoveringandcreatingnewsourcesofwealth,andbothassuring,betterthanthemartyrdomandfaithoftheapostles,betterthandivinegrace,thesuccessoftheChristianpropagandism.Thisisahistoricaltruth,andtheProtestantChurchesdonotfailtorecogniseiteither.Ispeak,ofcourse,oftheindependentchurchesofEngland,America,andSwitzerland,notofthesubjectedchurchesofGermany.Thelatterhavenoinitiativeoftheirown;theydowhattheirmasters,theirtemporalsovereigns,whoareatthesametimetheirspiritualchieftains,orderthemtodo,ItiswellknownthattheProtestantpropagandism,especiallyinEnglandandAmerica,isveryintimatelyconnectedwiththepropagandismofthematerial,commercialinterestsofthosetwogreatnations;anditisknownalsothattheobjectsofthelatterpropagandismisnotatalltheenrichmentandmaterialprosperityofthecountriesintowhichitpenetratesincompanywiththeWordofGod,butrathertheexploitationofthosecountrieswithaviewtotheenrichmentandmaterialprosperityofcertainclasses,whichintheirowncountryareverycovetousandverypiousatthesametime.

Inaword,itisnotatalldifficulttoprove,historyinhand,thattheChurch,thatallthe

Churches,Christian

and

non

Christian,

by

the

side

of

their

spiritualistic

propagandism,

and

probablytoaccelerateandconsolidatethesuccessthereof,haveneverneglectedtoorganisethemselvesintogreatcorporationsfortheeconomicexploitationofthemassesundertheprotectionandwiththedirectandspecialblessingofsomedivinityorother;thatalltheStates,whichoriginally,asweknow,withalltheirpoliticalandjudicialinstitutionsandtheirdominantandprivilegedclasseshavebeenonlytemporalbranchesofthesevariousChurcheshavelikewisehadprincipallyinviewthissameexploitationforthebenefitoflayminoritiesindirectlysanctionedbytheChurch;finallyandingeneral,thattheactionofthegoodGodandofallthe


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divineidealitiesonearthhasendedatlast,alwaysandeverywhere,infoundingtheprosperousmaterialismofthefewoverthefanaticalandconstantlyfamishingidealismofthemasses.

Wehaveanewproofofthisinwhatweseetoday.WiththeexceptionofthegreatheartsandgreatmindswhomIhavebeforereferredtoasmisled,whoaretodaythemostobstinatedefendersofidealism?Inthefirstplacesallthesovereigncourts.InFrance,untillately,

NapoleonIII.

and

his

wife,

Madame

Eugnie;

all

their

former

ministers,

courtiers,

and

ex

marshals,fromRouherandBazainetoFleuryandPitri;themenandwomenofthisimperialworld,whohavesocompletelyidealisedandsavedFrance;theirjournalistsandtheirsavants theCssagnacs,theGirardins,theDuvernois,theVeuillots,theLeverriers,theDumas;theblackphalanxofJesuitsandJesuitessesineverygarb;thewholeupperandmiddlebourgeoisieofFrance;thedoctrinaireliberals,andtheliberalswithoutdoctrine theGuizots,theThiers,theJulesFavres,thePelletans,andtheJulesSimons,allobstinatedefendersofthebourgeoisieexploitation.InPrussia,inGermany,WilliamI.,thepresentroyaldemonstratorofthegoodGodonearth;allhisgenerals,allhisofficers,Pomeranianandother;allhisarmy,which,stronginitsreligiousfaith,hasjustconqueredFranceinthatidealwayweknowsowell.InRussia,theCzarandhiscourt;theMouravieffsandtheBergs,allthebutchersandpiousproselytersofPoland.

Everywhere,in

short,

religious

or

philosophical

idealism,

the

one

being

but

the

more

or

less

free

translationoftheother,servestodayastheflagofmaterial,bloody,andbrutalforce,ofshamelessmaterialexploitation;while,onthecontrary,theflagoftheoreticalmaterialism,theredflagofeconomicequalityandsocialjustice,israisedbythepracticalidealismoftheoppressedandfamishingmasses,tendingtorealisethegreatestlibertyandthehumanrightofeachinthefraternityofallmenontheearth.

Whoaretherealidealists theidealistsnotofabstraction,butoflife,notofheaven,butofearth andwhoarethematerialists?

Itisevidentthattheessentialconditionoftheoreticalordivineidealismisthesacrificeoflogic,ofhumanreason,therenunciationofscience.Wesee,further,thatindefendingthe

doctrinesof

idealism

one

finds

himself

enlisted

perforce

in

the

ranks

of

the

oppressors

and

exploitersofthemasses.Thesearetwogreatreasonswhich,itwouldseem,shouldbesufficienttodriveeverygreatmind,everygreatheart,fromidealism.Howdoesithappenthatourillustriouscontemporaryidealists,whocertainlylackneithermind,norheart,norgoodwill,andwhohavedevotedtheirentireexistencetotheserviceofhumanity howdoesithappenthattheypersistinremainingamongtherepresentativesofadoctrinehenceforthcondemnedanddishonoured?

Theymustbeinfluencedbyaverypowerfulmotive.Itcannotbelogicorscience,sincelogicandsciencehavepronouncedtheirverdictagainsttheidealisticdoctrine.Nomorecanitbepersonalinterests,sincethesemenareinfinitelyaboveeverythingofthatsort.Itmust,then,beapowerfulmoralmotive.Which?Therecanbebutone.Theseillustriousmenthink,nodoubt,

thatidealistic

theories

or

beliefs

are

essentially

necessary

to

the

moral

dignity

and

grandeur

of

man,andthatmaterialistictheories,onthecontrary,reducehimtothelevelofthebeasts.

Andifthetruthwerejusttheopposite!

Everydevelopment,Ihavesaid,impliesthenegationofitspointofdeparture.Thebasisorpointofdeparture,accordingtothematerialisticschool,beingmaterial,thenegationmustbenecessarilyideal.Startingfromthetotalityoftherealworld,orfromwhatisabstractlycalled


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matter,itlogicallyarrivesattherealidealisation thatis,atthehumanisation,atthefullandcompleteemancipationofsociety.Percontra;andforthesamereason,thebasisandpointofdepartureoftheidealisticschoolbeingideal,itarrivesnecessarilyatthematerialisationofsociety,attheorganizationofabrutaldespotismandaniniquitousandignobleexploitation,undertheformofChurchandState.Thehistoricaldevelopmentofmanaccordingtothematerialisticschool,isaprogressiveascension;intheidealisticsystemitcanbenothingbutacontinuousfall.

Whateverhumanquestionwemaydesiretoconsider,wealwaysfindthissameessentialcontradictionbetweenthetwoschools.Thus,asIhavealreadyobserved,materialismstartsfromanimalitytoestablishhumanity;idealismstartsfromdivinitytoestablishslaveryandcondemnthemassestoanendlessanimality.Materialismdeniesfreewillandendsintheestablishmentofliberty;idealism,inthenameofhumandignity,proclaimsfreewill,andontheruinsofeverylibertyfoundsauthority.Materialismrejectstheprincipleofauthority,becauseitrightlyconsidersitasthecorollaryofanimality,andbecause,onthecontrary,thetriumphofhumanity,theobjectandchiefsignificanceofhistory,canberealisedonlythroughliberty.Inaword,youwillalwaysfindtheidealistsintheveryactofpracticalmaterialism,whileyouwillsee

thematerialists

pursuing

and

realising

the

most

grandly

ideal

aspirations

and

thoughts.

History,inthesystemoftheidealists,asIhavesaid,canbenothingbutacontinuousfall.Theybeginbyaterriblefall,fromwhichtheyneverrecover bythesaltomortale;fromthesublimeregionsofpureandabsoluteideaintomatter.Andintowhatkindofmatter!Notintothematterwhichiseternallyactiveandmobile,fullofpropertiesandforces,oflifeandintelligence,asweseeitintherealworld;butintoabstractmatter,impoverishedandreducedtoabsolutemiserybytheregularlootingofthesePrussiansofthought,thetheologiansandmetaphysicians,whohavestrippeditofeverythingtogiveeverythingtotheiremperor,totheirGod;intothematterwhich,deprivedofallactionandmovementofitsown,represents,inoppositiontothedivineidea,nothingbutabsolutestupidity,impenetrability,inertiaandimmobility.

Thefall

is

so

terrible

that

divinity,

the

divine

person

or

idea,

is

flattened

out,

loses

consciousnessofitself,andnevermorerecoversit.Andinthisdesperatesituationitisstillforcedtoworkmiracles!Forfromthemomentthatmatterbecomesinert,everymovementthattakesplaceintheworld,eventhemostmaterial,isamiracle,canresultonlyfromaprovidentialintervention,fromtheactionofGoduponmatter.AndtherethispoorDivinity,degradedandhalfannihilatedbyitsfall,liessomethousandsofcenturiesinthisswoon,thenawakensslowly,invainendeavouringtograspsomevaguememoryofitself,andeverymovethatitmakesinthisdirectionuponmatterbecomesacreation,anewformation,anewmiracle.Inthiswayitpassesthroughalldegreesofmaterialityandbestiality first,gas,simpleorcompoundchemicalsubstance,mineral,itthenspreadsovertheearthasvegetableandanimalorganizationtillitconcentratesitselfinman.Hereitwouldseemasifitmustbecomeitself

again,

for

it

lights

in

every

human

being

an

angelic

spark,

a

particle

of

its

own

divine

being,

the

immortalsoul.

Howdiditmanagetolodgeathingabsolutelyimmaterialinathingabsolutelymaterial;howcanthebodycontain,enclose,limit,paralysepurespirit?This,again,isoneofthosequestionswhichfaithalone,thatpassionateandstupidaffirmationoftheabsurd,cansolve.Itisthegreatestofmiracles.Here,however,wehaveonlytoestablishtheeffects,thepracticalconsequencesofthismiracle.


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Afterthousandsofcenturiesofvaineffortstocomebacktoitself,Divinity,lostandscatteredinthematterwhichitanimatesandsetsinmotion,findsapointofsupport,asortoffocusforselfconcentration.Thisfocusismanhisimmortalsoulsingularlyimprisonedinamortalbody.Buteachmanconsideredindividuallyisinfinitelytoolimited,toosmall,toenclosethedivineimmensity;itcancontainonlyaverysmallparticle,immortallikethewhole,butinfinitelysmallerthanthewhole.Itfollowsthatthedivinebeing,theabsolutelyimmaterialbeing,mind,isdivisiblelikematter.Anothermysterywhosesolutionmustbelefttofaith.

IfGodentirecouldfindlodgmentineachman,theneachmanwouldbeGod.WeshouldhaveanimmensequantityofGods,eachlimitedbyalltheothersandyetnonethelessinfinite acontradictionwhichwouldimplyamutualdestructionofmen,animpossibilityoftheexistenceofmorethanone.Asfortheparticles,thatisanothermatter;nothingmorerational,indeed,thanthatoneparticleshouldbelimitedbyanotherandbesmallerthanthewhole.Only,hereanothercontradictionconfrontsus.Tobelimited,tobegreaterandsmallerareattributesofmatter,notofmind.Accordingtothematerialists,itistrue,mindisonlytheworkingofthewhollymaterialorganismofman,andthegreatnessorsmallnessofminddependsabsolutelyonthegreaterorlessmaterialperfectionofthehumanorganism.Butthesesameattributesof

relativelimitation

and

grandeur

cannot

be

attributed

to

mind

as

the

idealists

conceive

it,

absolutelyimmaterialmind,mindexistingindependentofmatter.Therecanbeneithergreaternorsmallernoranylimitamongminds,forthereisonlyonemind God.Toaddthattheinfinitelysmallandlimitedparticleswhichconstitutehumansoulsareatthesametimeimmortalistocarrythecontradictiontoaclimax.Butthisisaquestionoffaith.Letuspasson.

HerethenwehaveDivinitytornupandlodged,ininfinitelysmallparticles,inanimmensenumberofbeingsofallsexes,ages,races,andcolours.Thisisanexcessivelyinconvenientandunhappysituation,forthedivineparticlesaresolittleacquaintedwitheachotherattheoutsetoftheirhumanexistencethattheybeginbydevouringeachother.Moreover,inthemidstofthisstateofbarbarismandwhollyanimalbrutality,thesedivineparticles,humansouls,retainasitwereavagueremembranceoftheirprimitivedivinity,andareirresistiblydrawntowardstheir

whole;they

seek

each

other,

they

seek

their

whole.

It

is

Divinity

itself,

scattered

and

lost

in

the

naturalworld,whichlooksforitselfinmen,anditissodemolishedbythismultitudeofhumanprisonsinwhichitfindsitselfstrewn,that,inlookingforitself,itcommitsfollyafterfolly.

Beginningwithfetishism,itsearchesforandadoresitself,nowinastone,nowinapieceofwood,nowinarag.Itisquitelikelythatitwouldneverhavesucceededingettingoutoftherag,iftheother;divinitywhichwasnotallowedtofallintomatterandwhichiskeptinastateofpurespiritinthesublimeheightsoftheabsoluteideal,orinthecelestialregions,hadnothadpityonit.

Hereisanewmystery thatofDivinitydividingitselfintotwohalves,bothequallyinfinite,ofwhichone GodtheFather staysinthepurelyimmaterialregions,andtheother GodtheSon

falls

into

matter.

We

shall

see

directly,

between

these

two

Divinities

separated

from

each

other,continuousrelationsestablished,fromabovetobelowandfrombelowtoabove;andtheserelations,consideredasasingleeternalandconstantact,willconstitutetheHolyGhost.Such,initsveritabletheologicalandmetaphysicalmeaning,isthegreat,theterriblemysteryoftheChristianTrinity.

Butletuslosenotimeinabandoningtheseheightstoseewhatisgoingonuponearth.


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GodtheFather,seeingfromtheheightofhiseternalsplendourthatthepoorGodtheSon,flattenedoutandastoundedbyhisfall,issoplungedandlostinmatterthatevenhavingreachedhumanstatehehasnotyetrecoveredhimself,decidestocometohisaid.Fromthisimmensenumberofparticlesatonceimmortal,divine,andinfinitelysmall,inwhichGodtheSonhasdisseminatedhimselfsothoroughlythathedoesnotknowhimself,GodtheFatherchoosesthosemostpleasingtohim,pickshisinspiredpersons,hisprophets,hismenofvirtuousgenius,thegreatbenefactorsandlegislatorsofhumanity:Zoroaster,Buddha,Moses,Confucius,Lycurgus,Solon,Socrates,thedivinePlato,andaboveallJesusChrist,thecompleterealisationofGodtheSon,atlastcollectedandconcentratedinasinglehumanperson;alltheapostles,SaintPeter,SaintPaul,SaintJohnbeforeall,ConstantinetheGreat,Mahomet,thenCharlemagne,GregoryVIIDante,and,accordingtosome,Lutheralso,VoltaireandRousseau,RobespierreandDanton,andmanyothergreatandholyhistoricalpersonages,allofwhosenamesitisimpossibletorecapitulate,butamongwhomI,asaRussian,begthatSaintNicholasmaynotbeforgotten.

ThenwehavereachedatlastthemanifestationofGoduponearth.ButimmediatelyGodappears,manisreducedtonothing.Itwillbesaidthatheisnotreducedtonothing,sinceheis

himselfaparticle

of

God.

Pardon

me!

Iadmit

that

aparticle

of

adefinite,

limited

whole,

howeversmallitbe,isaquantity,apositivegreatness.Butaparticleoftheinfinitelygreat,comparedwithit,isnecessarilyinfinitelysmall,Multiplymilliardsofmilliardsbymilliardsofmilliards theirproductcomparedtotheinfinitelygreat,willbeinfinitelysmall,andtheinfinitelysmallisequaltozero.Godiseverything;thereforemanandalltherealworldwithhim,theuniverse,arenothing.Youwillnotescapethisconclusion.

Godappears,manisreducedtonothing;andthegreaterDivinitybecomes,themoremiserablebecomeshumanity.Thatisthehistoryofallreligions;thatistheeffectofallthedivineinspirationsandlegislations.InhistorythenameofGodistheterribleclubwithwhichalldivinelyinspiredmen,thegreatvirtuousgeniuses,havebeatendowntheliberty,dignity,reason,andprosperityofman.

WehadfirstthefallofGod.Nowwehaveafallwhichinterestsusmore thatofman,causedsolelybytheapparitionofGodmanifestedonearth.

Seeinhowprofoundanerrorourdearandillustriousidealistsfindthemselves.IntalkingtousofGodtheypurpose,theydesire,toelevateus,emancipateus,ennobleus,and,onthecontrary,theycrushanddegradeus.WiththenameofGodtheyimaginethattheycanestablishfraternityamongmen,and,onthecontrary,theycreatepride,contempt;theysowdiscord,hatred,war;theyestablishslavery.ForwithGodcomethedifferentdegreesofdivineinspiration;humanityisdividedintomenhighlyinspired,lessinspired,uninspired.AllareequallyinsignificantbeforeGod,itistrue;but,comparedwitheachother,somearegreaterthanothers;notonlyinfact whichwouldbeofnoconsequence,becauseinequalityinfactis

lostin

the

collectivity

when

it

cannot

cling

to

some

legal

fiction

or

institution

but

by

the

divine

rightofinspiration,whichimmediatelyestablishesafixed,constant,petrifyinginequality.Thehighlyinspiredmustbelistenedtoandobeyedbythelessinspired,andthelessinspiredbytheuninspired.Thuswehavetheprincipleofauthoritywellestablished,andwithitthetwofundamentalinstitutionsofslavery:ChurchandState.

Ofalldespotismsthatofthedoctrinaires;orinspiredreligionistsistheworst.TheyaresojealousofthegloryoftheirGodandofthetriumphoftheirideathattheyhavenoheartleftfor


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thelibertyorthedignityoreventhesufferingsoflivingmen,ofrealmen.Divinezeal,preoccupationwiththeidea,finallydryupthetenderestsouls,themostcompassionatehearts,thesourcesofhumanlove.Consideringallthatis,allthathappensintheworldfromthepointofviewofeternityoroftheabstractidea,theytreatpassingmatterswithdisdain;butthewholelifeofrealmen,ofmenoffleshandbone,iscomposedonlyofpassingmatters;theythemselvesareonlypassingbeings,who,oncepassed,arereplacedbyotherslikewisepassing,butnevertoreturninperson.Alonepermanentorrelativelyeternalinmenishumanity,whichsteadilydeveloping,growsricherinpassingfromonegenerationtoanother.Isayrelatively;eternal,because,ourplanetoncedestroyed itcannotfailtoperishsoonerorlater,sinceeverythingwhichhasbegunmustnecessarilyend ourplanetoncedecomposed,toserveundoubtedlyasanelementofsomenewformationinthesystemoftheuniverse,whichaloneisreallyeternal,whoknowswhatwillbecomeofourwholehumandevelopment?Nevertheless,themomentofthisdissolutionbeinganenormousdistanceinthefuture,wemayproperlyconsiderhumanity,relativelytotheshortdurationofhumanlife,aseternal.Butthisveryfactofprogressivehumanityisrealandlivingonlythroughitsmanifestationsatdefinitetimes,indefiniteplaces,inreallylivingmen,andnotthroughitsgeneralidea.

Thegeneral

idea

is

always

an

abstraction

and,

for

that

very

reason,

in

some

sort

anegation

of

reallife.IhavestatedintheAppendixthathumanthoughtand,inconsequenceofthis,sciencecangraspandnameonlythegeneralsignificanceofrealfacts,theirrelations,theirlaws inshort,thatwhichispermanentintheircontinualtransformations butnevertheirmaterial,individualside,palpitating,sotospeak,withrealityandlife,andthereforefugitiveandintangible.Sciencecomprehendsthethoughtofthereality,notrealityitself;thethoughtoflife,notlife.Thatisitslimit,itsonlyreallyinsuperablelimit,becauseitisfoundedontheverynatureofthought,whichistheonlyorganofscience.

Uponthisnaturearebasedtheindisputablerightsandgrandmissionofscience,butalsoitsvitalimpotenceandevenitsmischievousactionwhenever,throughitsofficiallicensedrepresentatives,itarrogantlyclaimstherighttogovernlife.Themissionofscienceis,by

observationof

the

general

relations

of

passing

and

real

facts,

to

establish

the

general

laws

inherentinthedevelopmentofthephenomenaofthephysicalandsocialworld;itfixes,sotospeak,theunchangeablelandmarksofhumanitysprogressivemarchbyindicatingthegeneralconditionswhichitisnecessarytorigorouslyobserveandalwaysfataltoignoreorforget.Inaword,scienceisthecompassoflife;butitisnotlifeitself.Scienceisunchangeable,impersonal,general,abstract,insensible,likethelawsofwhichitisbuttheidealreproduction,reflectedormental thatiscerebral(usingthiswordtoremindusthatscienceitselfisbutamaterialproductofamaterialorgan,thebrain).Lifeiswhollyfugitiveandtemporary,butalsowhollypalpitatingwithrealityandindividuality,sensibility,sufferings,joys,aspirations,needs,andpassions.Italonespontaneouslycreatesrealthingsand;beings.Sciencecreatesnothing;itestablishesandrecognisesonlythecreationsoflife.Andeverytimethatscientificmen,

emergingfrom

their

abstract

world,

mingle

with

living

creation

in

the

real

world,

all

that

they

proposeorcreateispoor,ridiculouslyabstract,bloodlessandlifeless,stillborn,likethehomunculuscreatedbyWagner,thepedanticdiscipleoftheimmortalDoctorFaust.Itfollowsthattheonlymissionofscienceistoenlightenlife,nottogovernit.

Thegovernmentofscienceandofmenofscience,evenbetheypositivists,disciplesofAugusteComte,or,again,disciplesofthedoctrinaire;schoolofGermanCommunism,cannotfailtobeimpotent,ridiculous,inhuman,cruel,oppressive,exploiting,maleficent.Wemaysayofmenofscience,assuch,whatIhavesaidoftheologiansandmetaphysicians:theyhaveneither


25/45

sensenorheartforindividualandlivingbeings.Wecannotevenblamethemforthis,foritisthenaturalconsequenceoftheirprofession.Insofarastheyaremenofscience,theyhavetodealwithandcantakeinterestinnothingexceptgeneralities;thatdothelaws[...]

[Threepages

of

the

manuscript

are

missing]

[...]theyarenotexclusivelymenofscience,butarealsomoreorlessmenoflife.

ChapterIIINevertheless,wemustnotrelytoomuchonthis.Thoughwemaybewellnighcertainthata

savant;would

not

dare

to

treat

aman

today

as

he

treats

arabbit,

it

remains

always

to

be

feared

thatthesavants;asabody,ifnotinterferedwith,maysubmitlivingmentoscientificexperiments,undoubtedlylesscruelbutnonethelessdisagreeabletotheirvictims.Iftheycannotperformexperimentsuponthebodiesofindividuals,theywillasknothingbetterthantoperformthemonthesocialbody,andthatwhatmustbeabsolutelyprevented.

Intheirexistingorganisation,monopolisingscienceandremainingthusoutsideofsociallife,thesavants;formaseparatecaste,inmanyrespectsanalogoustothepriesthood.ScientificabstractionsistheirGod,livingandrealindividualsaretheirvictims,andtheyaretheconsecratedandlicensedsacrificers.

Sciencecannotgooutsideofthesphereofabstractions.Inthisrespectitisinfinitelyinferior

toart,

which,

in

its

turn,

is

peculiarly

concerned

also

with

general

types

and

general

situations,

butwhichincarnatesthembyanartificeofitsowninformswhich,iftheyarenotlivinginthesenseofreallifenonethelessexciteinourimaginationthememoryandsentimentoflife;artinacertainsenseindividualizesthetypesandsituationswhichitconceives;bymeansoftheindividualitieswithoutfleshandbone,andconsequentlypermanentandimmortal,whichithasthepowertocreate,itrecallstoourmindstheliving,realindividualitieswhichappearanddisappearunderoureyes.Art,then,isasitwerethereturnofabstractiontolife;science,onthecontrary,istheperpetualimmolationoflife,fugitive,temporary,butreal,onthealtarofeternalabstractions.

Scienceisasincapableofgraspingtheindividualityofamanasthatofarabbit,beingequallyindifferenttoboth.Notthatitisignorantoftheprincipleofindividuality:itconceivesitperfectlyasaprinciple,butnotasafact.Itknowsverywellthatalltheanimalspecies,includingthehumanspecies,havenorealexistenceoutsideofanindefinitenumberofindividuals,bornanddyingtomakeroomfornewindividualsequallyfugitive.Itknowsthatinrisingfromtheanimalspeciestothesuperiorspeciestheprincipleofindividualitybecomesmorepronounced;theindividualsappearfreerandmorecomplete.Itknowsthatman,thelastandmostperfectanimalofearth,presentsthemostcompleteandmostremarkableindividuality,becauseofhispowertoconceive,concrete,personify,asitwere,inhissocialandprivateexistence,theuniversallaw.Itknows,finally,whenitisnotvitiatedbytheologicalormetaphysical,politicalor


26/45

judicialdoctrinairisme,orevenbyanarrowscientificpride,whenitisnotdeaftotheinstinctsandspontaneousaspirationsoflife itknows(andthisisitslastword)thatrespectformanisthesupremelawofHumanity,andthatthegreat,therealobjectofhistory,itsonlylegitimateobjectisthehumanizationandemancipation,therealliberty,theprosperityandhappinessofeachindividuallivinginsociety.For,ifwewouldnotfallbackintotheliberticidalfictionofthepublicwelfarerepresentedbytheState,afictionalwaysfoundedonthesystematicsacrificeofthepeople,wemustclearlyrecognizethatcollectivelibertyandprosperityexistonlysofarastheyrepresentthesumofindividuallibertiesandprosperities.

Scienceknowsallthesethings,butitdoesnotandcannotgobeyondthem.Abstractionbeingitsverynature,itcanwellenoughconceivetheprincipleofrealandlivingindividuality,butitcanhavenodealingswithrealandlivingindividuals;itconcernsitselfwithindividualsingeneral,butnotwithPeterorJames,notwithsuchorsuchaone,who,sofarasitisconcerned,donot,cannot,haveanyexistence.Itsindividuals,Irepeat,areonlyabstractions.

Now,historyismade,notbyabstractindividuals,butbyacting,livingandpassingindividuals.Abstractionsadvanceonlywhenborneforwardbyrealmen.Forthesebeingsmade,notinidea

only,

but

in

reality

of

flesh

and

blood,

science

has

no

heart:

it

considers

them

at

most

as

material

forintellectualandsocialdevelopment.WhatdoesitcarefortheparticularconditionsandchancefateofPeterorJames?Itwouldmakeitselfridiculous,itwouldabdicate,itwouldannihilateitself,ifitwishedtoconcernitselfwiththemotherwisethanasexamplesinsupportofitseternaltheories.Anditwouldberidiculoustowishittodoso,foritsmissionliesnotthere.Itcannotgrasptheconcrete;itcanmoveonlyinabstractions.Itsmissionistobusyitselfwiththesituationandthegeneralconditionsoftheexistenceanddevelopment,eith

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