Aviation Classics September 2013

Lockheed Martin 3

The Lockheed F-35 test programme is expandingthe envelope of the different versions of the aircraft

with both US and overseas customers. Here,Commander Eric Buus refuels F-35C CF-2 from

another Lockheed aircraft, a US Navy KC-130T, inturns of up to 45º in the roll axis during Flight 138

on September 13, 2012. Lockheed

Contents8 From the Alco

Hydro-aeroplanecompany to Lockheed

18 Tow Lightning

26 The large andthe small of it

28 Sheer elegance

32 Test flying theLockheed P-80

44 Shooting starsentering the jet age

48 Long range record setter

58 The ultimate interceptor

60 Airliner tosubmarine hunter

64 Transport for the world

72 High altitude Dragon Lady

74 Helicopter developments

76 The big jets

80 The world’s first cabinbusiness jet

82 It’s going HOW fast?

86 Oddities and one offs

88 Small and silent

90 The last airliner

Editor: Tim [email protected]

Publisher: Dan SavageContributors: Luigino Caliaro,Norm DeWitt,

Keith Draycott, David G Powers,Constance Redgrave,Adam Tooby

Designer: Charlotte Pearson& Michael Baumber

Reprographics: Jonathan Schofield

Group production editor: Tim Hartley

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Advertising sales executive: Stuart [email protected] 529455

Subscription manager: Paul DeaconCirculation manager: Steve O’HaraMarketing manager: Charlotte ParkProduction manager: Craig LambPublishing director: Dan SavageCommercial director: Nigel HoleManaging director: Brian Hill

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© 2013 Mortons Media Group Ltd.All rights reserved.No part of thispublication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by anymeans,electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,orany information storage retrieval system without prior permission inwriting from the publisherISBN No 978-1-909128-00-2

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Lockheed Martin test pilot MarkWard made the F-35’s first nightflight on January 18, 2012 inF-35A AF-6. Lockheed Martin

94 Carrier based sub hunter

96 The Father of Stealth

98 Night Hawk

102 Mergers for strength

104 Developing on success

106 Future trainer

108 “It’s not A fighter,it’s THE fighter”

112 The future of air power

118 Sector of success

119 Transports of delight

122 Leading into the future

126 Survivors

6 IN ASSOCIATION WITH: LOCKHEED MARTIN – WE NEVER FORGET WHO WE ARE WORKING FOR

A s anyone who reads this pageknows, it’s the one I have troublewith. Yep, this is the 24th draft,so I am not doing well. As usual,it was an influence completely

outside the research that gave me the key tohow to begin this issue, how to define anddistil the towering legend that is the history ofthis company. With the Mosquito it was MontyPython, with Lockheed Martin it was Gillan,Ian Gillan’s rock band. Again, if you read thispage, you will know that I listen to music orcomedy while I am writing; it frees the mindand lets the details, the facts, become a story.In this case, I was listening to the excellentGlory Road and was humming along to NoEasy Way when I suddenly got it.

Nothing Lockheed Martin has ever donehas been done the easy way. Just look at itstrack record or flick through these pages andyou will see what I mean. Everything hasalways been at the cutting edge of technologyor capability, pushing the edge of the envelopeof manned flight further, higher or faster. TheP-38; a supercharged twin when the norm wassingle-engined. The P-80; the first operationaljet fighter in the US. The F-104; a Mach 2interceptor. The C-130; four turboprops on amedium transport. The U-2 and SR-71; well,words are superfluous. The F-117; with aradar signature the size of a ball bearing. Takea look under the skin of the F-35 for a currentexample. There’s no hydraulic fluid. The fuelis used in the system, called ‘fueldraulic’,instead. The messy, corrosive and

environmentally unfriendly hydraulic fluid isgone, replaced by a liquid you have to put intothe aircraft anyway. How much is that going tosave on weight, storage, handling andmaintenance alone? It’s ideas like this, likeBen Rich using the Blackbird’s fuel as a heatsink, which set Lockheed’s aircraft apart. Aproblem occurs, and Lockheed Martin findsan innovative, elegant, simple way to solve it.

Not taking the easy or accepted route,always finding a solution to a given problemthat doesn’t penalise performance has hadanother effect on the company’s aircraft. Haveyou noticed how many of them are still inservice or production after decades? TheElectra, the basis for the P-3C Orion, first flewin 1957. Today, new wings are being built and anew customer has just come forward topurchase its first. The C-130 will celebrate 60years of continuous production in 2015, theonly replacement for that tough old bird isanother one. The U-2, a Cold War icon, is stilldoing its thing in the upper atmosphere,where it has been loitering since 1955. TheC-5 is slated to see out 70 years of continuousservice after the most recent upgrade. TheF-22 and F-35 are additions to this canon,designed as they are with a lifespan measuredin decades.

Innovation, origination and longevity, not abad record to own. But you can add honestyand integrity to that, as many examples arerecorded in these pages. This reputation hasbeen built on the shoulders of remarkablepeople. Allan and Malcolm Loughead, Robert

and Courtlandt Gross, Hall Hibbard, TonyLeVier, Mac VF Short, John Wassall, WillisHawkins, Milo Burcham, Paul Bevilaqua andof course Kelly Johnson. These and manyothers have built a legacy that is evident in theleadership and workforce of the companytoday. Take a walk through the productionlines in Fort Worth or Marietta, the pride andcommitment of the people there are selfevident. I truly hope I have done everyonewho has worked, and still does, on LockheedMartin aircraft justice in these pages. As thestory reveals, they have more than earned it.

Recently, the F-35, the largest combat aircraftprogramme ever undertaken, seems to havebecome the centre of some controversy, withpeople casting doubt on both the reputation ofthe company and the abilities of the aircraft.Such a ground-breaking development as thisaircraft and its many systems needs time tomature and to fulfil its potential. To those whoseem to have an investment in attacking thisprogramme, I would say one thing. Take a lookat these pages and you will find one constantthat is remarkably clear throughout theirhistory. Lockheed Martin delivers. I suggestyou let them.

Happy 100th birthdayLockheed Martin, I lookforward to where youare going to takeus next.

All best,Tim

Acceleratingtomorrow

The Lockheed Martin F-35, a modernexample of elegance and innovationin engineering. Lockheed Martin

tomorrow – there’s noeasy way


Lockheed Martin as we know it today can trace its roots all the way back to the last days of 1912with the establishment of the Alco Hydro Aeroplane Company in San Francisco by two brothers,Allan and Malcolm Loughead. Their story is a fascinating one, and began the history of one of the

giants of modern aviation.

A Curtiss Model D pusher biplane,the type Allan Loughead first flewsolo in 1910,a remarkableachievement. Editor’s Collection

ALCO HyDRO-AEROpLANECOMpANytoLOCKHEED

Alan and Malcolm Loughead, Robert and Courtlandt Gross, Hall Hibbard and Kelly Johnson

From the

The Loughead F-1 flying boat in flight.The aircraft was a success,mostly used for passenger flights and aerial film work. Lockheed

Allan’s interest in aviation to become hisabiding passion.

The elder brother, Victor, had been trainedas an engineer and was also fascinated byautomobiles and aircraft. He moved toChicago to work for James E Plew, thedistributor for the White Steam CarCompany’s range of automobiles and trucks.Here, Victor published two books, Vehicles ofthe Air in 1909 and Aeroplane Designing forAmateurs in 1910, both of which were to

become standard works for many years.In 1904, Malcolm also joined the White

Steam Car Company in San Francisco as anengineer, followed by Allan in 1906. Victor’semployer was also interested by thepossibilities of aviation, and on Victor’s advicepurchased one of John J Montgomery’s gliderdesigns with a view to adapting it as a poweredaircraft, along with a Curtiss Model D biplane.

Allan Loughead was hired by Plew in 1910to become the mechanic on both aircraft and

F lora Haines Loughead, a highlyregarded journalist and novelist,and her second husband John,had three sons and a daughter,Hope. Of the sons, Victor, the

eldest, was Flora’s son by a previousmarriage, adopted by John Loughead. Theirtwo younger sons were Malcolm, born onNovember 15, 1886, and Allan, born onJanuary 20, 1889, both in Niles, California.

They moved to Santa Barbara after Flora’sdivorce from John, and here the brothersbegan experiments with kites and werefascinated by the gliders of early pioneerssuch as Percy Pilcher, Octave Chanute andlater, John Montgomery.

In 1903, the family moved to a 35 acreranch called Cathedral Oaks near Alma,between San Francisco and Santa Cruz. Itwas here that Allan and Malcolm first beganworking on engines and vehicles, maintainingthe farm equipment as well as Allan buildinghis first racing car. It was the Wrightbrothers’ triumph of that year that deepened

Lockheed Martin 9

moved to Chicago. Here, he quickly became amember of the Aero Club of Illinois, makinghis first flight in George Gates’s home builtpusher biplane. While the Montgomery gliderwas being adapted, the Curtiss Model D wascompleted, but the two pilots hired by Plewcould not get it to fly. In an act he laterdescribed as part nerve and part foolishness,Allan Loughead bet all present he could fly it.After adjusting the 35hp engine, his second

attempt was successful, making severalcircuits of the field before landing safely. Afteronly a few short flights, Allan was a solo pilot,an astounding achievement.The Plew fleet quickly grew to include a

second Curtiss, but after a number of mishapsand repairs, a crash in July 1911, which killedpilot Don Kraemer, convinced Plew toabandon aviation. Allan went on to fly with theInternational Aeroplane ManufacturingCompany as an instructor and exhibition pilot,but an accident during an exhibition at

Hoopeston in Illinois on September 18, 1911,convinced the newly married young pilot thatbuilding his own and better aircraft was theway forward.He began manufacturing parts for his first

design while still living in Chicago, but inearly 1912 he took these parts and returned toSan Francisco. Here, Allan became anautomobile mechanic again to pay the billswhile he and his brother Malcolm worked onthe new aircraft in their spare time in a garageon the corner of Pacific and Polk Streets.Shortage of money was delaying theacquisition of an engine, so, on December 19,1912, the Alco Cab Company of San Franciscoentered into a partnership with the Lougheadbrothers in the Alco Hydro AeroplaneCompany, Alco owner Max Mamlock beingpersuaded to contribute $4000 to the venture.Allan’s design had been originally called

the Loughead Model G so it would not beobvious that it was their first aircraft. With the

new partnership in place this became theALCO No.1, and made its first flight on June15, 1913. A three seat tractor biplane equippedwith a centreline and wingtip floats, theseaplane was very conventional to moderneyes, but highly unusual for the day as most ofthe aircraft produced by Curtiss, Wright andMartin at the time were pusher designs. Theaircraft made three successful flights on thatfirst day, powered by an 80hp Curtiss O V8engine, being launched onto San FranciscoBay from the slipway on Laguna Street.It is worthy of note that earlier, on August

16, 1912, Glenn L Martin had founded his ownaircraft company in a rented church in LosAngeles, after being encouraged to do so byOrville Wright. The Glenn L Martin Companywill return to this story later, in a verydifferent form. The full story of this firm willbe told in a later edition of Aviation Classics.To return to the Alco Hydro Aeroplane

Company, there was a dearth of customers➤

Allan (right) and Malcolm Loughead in thecockpit of the F-1 flying boat. Lockheed

The Loughead F-1A,when converted to alandplane in anattempt to interestthe US Army in theaircraft as a bomber.Lockheed

Allan Loughead shows the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company Model Gto model-turned-actress Audrey Munson during the 1915 Panama-Pacific Exhibition in San Francisco. Lockheed


willing to pay $10 a flight in the seaplane, soMax Mamlock impounded it, telling thebrothers that they could have their aircraftback when they returned his $4000investment. With the Model G in storage,Allan and Malcolm became gold prospectorsfor a while in the hope of raising the money,but Allan soon returned to working as aautomobile mechanic in 1914.Malcolm however, had been firmly bitten

by the aviation bug, and acquired a Curtissbiplane, which he exported to Hong Kong tobegin a new sales and engineering supportbusiness there. The British Royal Navyimpounded the aircraft as contraband, soMalcolm found himself a job as the chiefengineer of the sole aircraft operated byPresident Carranza of Mexico, who at thetime was using it against the rebels led byPancho Villa.However, in 1915, the organisers of the

Panama-Pacific Exposition in San Franciscowere looking for an aircraft to conductpassenger flights as a novel attraction to theevent. Malcolm returned to work with Allan,and along with the financial assistance of PaulMeyer, purchased the Model G back from

Alco. They flew 600 passengers on 10 minuterides over San Francisco Bay in just fivemonths starting in February.With the healthy $4000 profit from the

passenger flights, Allan and Malcolm were outof debt. They moved their operation south toSanta Barbara in early 1916, continuing to flypassengers in the Model G on air experienceand charter flights, as well as providing anaerial film platform for movie companies.The brothers formed the Loughead

Aircraft Manufacturing Company and begandesign and construction of a larger twinengined flying boat, the 10 seat Loughead F-1.They were working in half a rented garage onState Street, the other half of which housed anautomobile repair workshop. A regular visitorto this workshop was a 20-year-olddraughtsman, architect and engineer by thename of Jack Northrop, who had workedthere repairing automobiles to pay his waythrough school.He was soon hired by the Loughead

brothers and began making design drawingsand stress calculations for the F-1, putting thenew company on a sound engineering footing.At the same time Anthony Stadlman was hired

as construction foreman, thus beginning afour man partnership that was to last manyyears and produce some remarkable aircraft.Design and construction of the F-1 was

well advanced by the time the United Statesentered the First World War in 1917, so AllanLoughead travelled to Washington DC in anattempt to interest the US Navy in the aircraft.In this he was unsuccessful, but did get acontract to build two Curtiss HS-2L FlyingBoats under licence and a promise that theNavy would evaluate the F-1 when it wascompleted.The finished F-1 was flown to San Diego

for the promised Navy trials in April 1918,setting a record for the 211 mile flight fromSanta Barbara as it did so. The two CurtissHS-2Ls were completed at about the sametime, meaning that by 1919 the company hadno further work. The F-1 was converted intothe F-1A landplane for a short period in 1918,in an attempt to interest the US Army in it as abomber or transport aircraft, but wasdamaged when an engine failed on take offduring an attempt to set a new record betweenSanta Barbara and Washington DC.The F-1 was returned to its flying boat

The US Navy gave Loughead Aircraft a $90,000 contract to build twoCurtiss-designed HS-2L scout seaplanes, the first of which is seen herein 1918. Lockheed

The Lockheed designers and managers working on a Vega in 1929.Jack Northrop (left), Jerry Vultee (inside the Vega), Bill Henry andAllan Lockheed. Lockheed

The remarkably clean andefficient Loughead Model S-1Sportplane of 1918.Northrop

Lockheed Martin 11

configuration in 1919 and used for its originalpurpose, flying passengers and movie work.King Albert and Queen Elisabeth of Belgiumtook a flight to Santa Cruz Island in the F-1,among many notable personalities of the time.In 1919, Jack Northrop began designing a

new light sport aircraft at Loughead, one witha number of innovative features. TonyStadlman had seen a German Albatros D.Vafighter displayed in San Francisco shortlyafter the war’s end, and described themonocoque plywood fuselage construction toJack, who was intrigued. They worked out asystem using two concrete moulds andinflatable balloons. The balloons held wetplywood sheets inside, shaping them to thecontours of the mould while the glue driedand they hardened to permanently retain theshape. The top and bottom halves of thefuselage were thus single pieces, resulting ina very strong yet lightweight structure.The Loughead brothers, Northrop and

Stadlman received a joint patent for themonocoque process, as they had allcontributed. A suitable powerplant for the newdesign was not available, so the ever practicalStadlman designed and built the XL-1, a two-cylinder 25hp water-cooled aero engine. Thewing structure was conventional, what it coulddo was not.Firstly, to enable the S-1 Sport Biplane, as it

was now known, to be easily stored, the wingscould be folded. The lower wings could also berotated around their spar in flight, allowingthem to act as ailerons, flaps and airbrakes,arguably the first use of flaps on an aircraft.Northrop had watched the seagulls at

Santa Barbara twist their wings almostvertically to achieve slow flight for landing,and reasoned that an aircraft with a similarability would have excellent slow flightcharacteristics and a short landing run.He was correct in both respects, as flight

testing in late 1919 revealed. Test pilot GilbertBudwig described the S-1 as the most flyableaircraft he had ever flown, with excellenthandling throughout the speed range, fromthe maximum of 75mph (121kph) to the stallat 25mph (40kph). Hundreds of successfulflights were made, including at an air show inSan Francisco where thousands admired theclean lines of the S-1.Unfortunately, the light aircraft market of

the time was flooded with cheap war surplustypes selling for as little as $300, so no ordersfor the $2500 S-1 were received, forcing theLoughead Aircraft Manufacturing Companyinto liquidation in 1920.

A year earlier, in 1919, Malcolm Lougheadhad developed an idea he had first had as anautomobile mechanic in 1907, the firstversions of which had been built in the barnon the Cathedral Oaks ranch. He invented andpatented a four wheel hydraulic brake systemfor vehicles, and founded the LockheedHydraulic Brake Company.This was the first spelling of their family

name in the more familiar phonetic form,which came about because Malcolm was fedup with being called Log-head. Many motormanufacturers were soon using Lockheedbrakes and the company opened subsidiariesabroad, firstly in Britain and France. This wasa huge success and Malcolm employed Allanas his California sales manager between 1920and 1922, after which Allan went into realestate sales in the Hollywood area. Despitethe financial success of this venture, Allan’sfirst love was aviation, and in 1926 he wasready to return. Meanwhile, Malcolm wentfrom strength to strength in the hydraulicbrake business, eventually selling thecompany to Bendix in 1932.All this while, Allan kept in contact with

Anthony Stadlman and Jack Northrop, who wasnow working as a designer for Douglas Aircraft.Allan’s friend and accountant, Kenneth Jay,introduced him to Fred S Keeler, a successfullocal brick and ceramics manufacturer, whoagreed to finance a new company.The Lockheed Aircraft Company, named

because of the success of the brake companywith that spelling, was founded between FredKeeler as president, Allan Loughead as vicepresident, Jack Northrop as chief engineer➤

The lower wings of the S-1 could rotatearound their spars, to act as airbrakes or flapsor for folding the aircraft to fit in a garage.Northrop

On April 15-16, 1928, famed Australianexplorer George Hubert Wilkins, along with USpilot Carl Ben Eielson, carried out the firsttrans-arctic flight, flying from Point Barrow,Alaska, to Spitzbergen,Norway, in 20 hours.The duo flew this Vega 1, shown at theLockheed factory in Burbank,California, fittedwith skis. Lockheed

The open cockpit mailplane versionof the Vega called the Lockheed AirExpress. Editor’s Collection

The penultimate Lockheed Altair built,constructors number 213. Lockheed

The Lockheed Sirius 8A was purchased by anumber of record breaking pilots, includingthis one which belonged to CharlesLindbergh. Lockheed

A Lockheed Electra 10A of British Airways.TheElectra sold to 37 airlines worldwide.Lockheed


and Kenneth Jay as general manager inDecember 1926. Anthony Stadlman wasbrought back into the new company as shopsuperintendent, completing the old team.They began work in January 1927 using a

converted garage in Hollywood to build adesign Jack Northrop had been working onprivately. This used the monocoqueconstruction of the S-1’s fuselage to enclose afour seat cabin. The high wing was free ofstruts and extremely efficient, the 225hpWright Whirlwind nine-cylinder radial enginegiving the aircraft a cruising speed of 120mph(193kph), a performance which allowed theaircraft to set no fewer than 34 endurance andspeed records during its stellar career. I usethe word stellar advisedly, as the aircraft wasthe first of a series of Lockheed designsnamed after stars, the Lockheed Vega.On July 4, 1927, in a hayfield in Inglewood,

test pilot Eddie Bellande took the LockheedVega on its maiden flight. Bellande’s reactionwas ecstatic, the aircraft being a real pleasureto fly. The first Vega was purchased byWilliam Randolph Hearst at the request of hisair enthusiast daughter-in-law, Blanche WilburKing, and named Golden Eagle. It wasentered in the Dole Race of August 1927 fromOakland to Honolulu in Hawaii, but sadly

disappeared en route.Before this tragedy occurred, Captain

George Hubert Wilkins had seen the aircrafton a test flight and was much impressed. Heordered the third Vega off the production lineand equipped it for Arctic exploration. In April1928, Wilkins and pilot Carl Ben Eielsoncompleted a flight from Point Barrow, Alaskato the island of Spitzbergen.The performance of the Vega was further

highlighted at the 1928 National Air Races inCleveland, Ohio, when the type won everyspeed event. Every famous record breaking,long distance and racing pilot of the timewanted the aircraft, including Wiley Post,Amelia Earhart, Roscoe Turner and JimmyDoolittle. In March 1928 the company had tomove to a new facility in Burbank in order tomeet the demand for Vegas. By the end of theyear, 68 of the type had been built to an orderbook that exceeded $1 million. AllanLoughead had a runaway success on hishands and by April 1929 the Burbank factorywas efficiently building five new aircraft aweek with a staff of less than 300.The four seat cabin of the original Vega

was considered too small by the airlines, whopressed for an expanded version with at leastsix passenger seats. On top of this, a request

for a low wing seaplane version, to be calledthe Lockheed Explorer, and an open cockpitmailplane version of the aircraft called theLockheed Air Express meant that the designand engineering work was increasing at thenew company.Gerard ‘Jerry’ Freebairn Vultee, an

engineer Jack Northrop knew from his days atDouglas, was hired in early 1928 to assist inthis work. One interesting note from the Vegastory is the use of a seaplane Vega by theteam of Wilkins and Eielson to explore thecontinent of Antarctica in December 1928,naming the Lockheed Mountains theydiscovered there after the builder of theirreliable machine.However, despite the new models of the

Vega being produced, Jack Northrop saw thatthere was no interest in developing entirelynew designs and construction techniques whilethe company had such a success on it hands,and he was brimming with new ideas. Both heand Kenneth Jay left Lockheed in the middle of1928 in order to found their own company.Gerard Vultee took over as chief engineer

at Lockheed and continued the work ofdeveloping the range of aircraft. The newSirius, Altair and Orion designs wereproduced, all of which used the monocoquefuselage construction technique and similarwings, the Orion being one of the fastestaircraft in the world when it first flew in 1931.Fifteen of the Lockheed Model 8 Sirius

were built between 1929 and 1930 in both twoand four seat versions, the first being forCharles Lindbergh as an exploration aircraft.Four of the Siriuses were converted to Model8D Altairs, and an additional six were builtfrom new, three of which were used by the USArmy and US Navy as staff transport aircraft.The Model 9 Orion was the ultimatedevelopment of the design, 35 being built from1931 in eight versions as airliners and racingaircraft with a six seat enclosed cabin for the

Movie stars Douglas Fairbanks, Sr.,Mary Pickford,Maurice Chevalier (along with a friend of his)pose by one of six Lockheed Model 9 Orion airliners operated by Varney Speed Lanes.WalterVarney was one of the aviation pioneers who bought the Lockheed company from the defunctDetroit Aircraft Corporation. Lockheed

A Lockheed Model 14 SuperElectra showing the Fowler flapsin the extended position, increasingthe wing area, lift and drag to effectivelylower the landing speed. Lockheed

Walter Varney, who could be said to havebeen responsible for the Lockheed weknow today, seen here in more relaxedtimes. Via Emmett Forbes

Lockheed Martin 13

passengers and a separate cockpit for the pilot.In October 1934, the US Government

issued new regulations regarding airlineoperations that banned single engined andsingle pilot aircraft from flying passengers andat night. This meant the Orion was no longerable to operate in its intended role and thetype was quickly disposed of. At least 12 ofthese aircraft were used as transports duringthe Spanish Civil War and one was used bythe USAAF as the UC-85 military transport.One other aircraft was to be derived from

the Altair, the Detroit-Lockheed XP-900, a twoseat fighter and attack aircraft which was laterdesignated the YP-24. Designed by RobertWoods of the Detroit Aircraft Corporation,successful trials led to an order for nineprototypes, five fighters and four attackaircraft. An accident with the prototype andthe financial crisis which will be relatedshortly meant the project was shelved in 1931,only to be resurrected when Woods joined theConsolidated Aircraft Corporation anddeveloped the design into the ConsolidatedY1P-25, then later the P-30, P-30A and A-11fighters and attack aircraft.This success attracted the attention of the

Detroit Aircraft Corporation (DAC) itself, andin July 1929 it convinced Fred Keeler, theinvestor behind the Lockheed company andthe 51% majority shareholder, to sell hisshares and the company assets to DAC, whichat the time was acquiring aviation companiesacross the US.Allan Loughead was against the sale to

DAC from the start, but was outvoted by theboard members. He had no choice but toresign from his own company on June 3, 1931,selling his DAC stock for the going rate of $23a share. This was to prove a wise move, as thestock market crash of October 1929 reducedthe DAC shares to 12.5 cents each and byOctober 27, 1931, both the DAC and theLockheed Aircraft Corporation, as it was nowknown, were declared bankrupt and placed inreceivership. A skeleton staff produced twomore Orions and an Altair under theleadership of general manager Carl Squier,➤

ALLAN LOUGHEAD AFTER LOCKHEEDAfter his resignation,Allan Loughead moved to Glendale in California and formed theLockheed Brothers Aircraft Corporation along with his brother Malcolm.Here theyproduced a twin engined aircraft similar to the Vega,but with a pair of 130hpMenasco B-6 Buccaneer six-cylinder inline engines in the nose.

These were set close together to minimise the asymmetric thrust and the resultantdirectional control problems in the event of an engine failure. Known as the Olympic-Duo or Duo-6, the test flights were encouraging, especially the engine-outperformance,but the aircraft was destroyed in an accident at Rosamond Dry Lake.With no aircraft and limited capital, the company folded in 1934. Incidentally, thatsame year he also legally changed his name to Lockheed, tired of the constantmispronunciation of the Scottish original spelling.

Allan Lockheed also attempted to raise the capital to buy the Lockheed AircraftCorporation from the receivers.After he had raised only $50,000 he gave up theattempt, considering that amount to be insufficient, not realising the successfulpurchasers had bid only $40,000.After the closure of the Lockheed Brothers AircraftCorporation,Allan spent two years as a consultant to various firms and businesses,before forming the Alcor Aircraft Corporation in San Francisco in 1937.

This new company produced the Alcor C.6.1 Junior Transport, a six passenger andtwo crew twin engined aircraft. It was similar to the Duo-6, but had a low wing and aretractable undercarriage, the close mounted engines in the nose being two 260hpMenasco C6S-4 six-cylinder units.The prototype first flew on March 6, 1938,and againshowed great promise, but on June 27, just before completion of the certification trials,the aircraft crashed during a high speed dive trial.The pilot and passenger were ableto bail out, but the aircraft sank in the Golden Gate.

The loss of the prototype and the lack of funding forced Lockheed to pay off thecreditors and close the doors in 1939. It was his last attempt at founding an aircraftcompany, having been so close to success so often.His brothers,Victor and Malcolmwere to pursue other ambitions, and were never to return to aviation.

With war looming,Allan Lockheed continued to produce design ideas for a widerange of military aircraft, before, in 1941,becoming vice president of the Berkey & GayFurniture Company in Grand Rapids,Michigan.Here,he was the general manager ofthe Aviation Division and Director of Aircraft Engineering,and in August that year wasappointed to the US Cargo Plane Committee by US Commerce Secretary Jesse H.Jones.The committee drew up plans and designs for a new cargo aircraft for theDefense Supplies Corporation which were accepted in early 1942. In October 1942,Allan moved to the Aircraft Division of Grand Rapids Store Equipment Company,actingas general manager of the company which made parts for fighters for the US Navy.

Postwar, Lockheed returned to the real estate business, again finding success in thisfield.He also worked as an aviation consultant part time,and to his delight wasinvited to return to the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation in that role during the 1950s.Allan assisted Phil Juergens in the production of the Lockheed history Of Men andStars and moved to Tucson,Arizona in 1961. Retired there, but still acting as aconsultant, one of the great pioneers and visionaries of aviation sadly died of livercancer on May 28, 1969.His legacy continues today in aircraft that match theinnovation and world beating capabilities of his own creations.

The Alcor Aircraft Corporations AlcorC.6.1 Junior Transport prior to its fatefulhigh speed dive trial. Editor’s Collection

Robert EllesworthGross pictured in1935. Lockheed

The LockheedBrothers AircraftCorporation builtjust one aircraft,the Olympic-Duoor Duo-6. Editor’sCollection


but the doors were finally closed on June16, 1932.Only five days after the doors were closed

on the Lockheed factory, on June 2, 1932, agroup of investors purchased the companyand its assets for $40,000, the bid being thesole offer for the company. The investors,Walter T Varney, Mr and Mrs CyrilChappellet, R C Walker and Thomas FortuneRyan III were led by San Franciscoinvestment broker and businessman RobertEllesworth Gross.The interest this group had in buying the

company was initiated by Walter Varney.Varney was a California based aviationpioneer who had already set up a successfulair mail company, Varney Air Service, in 1926.In 1930, after the acquisition of five othersmaller companies, he sold his muchexpanded business to the United Aircraft andTransport Corporation (UAT), which alongwith their other airline companies wasrenamed United Air Lines.This became an independent business

when UAT was broken up in the wake of the

1934 air mail scandal and US Governmentanti-trust laws. Varney Air Service had beenlooking at the new Lockheed designs for highspeed air mail use, so was familiar with thecompany’s fortunes. On hearing of thebankruptcy, Varney contacted his friendsRobert and his brother, CourtlandtSherrington ‘Cort’ Gross, in order to make anoffer for the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation.Varney and the Gross brothers re-

established and reorganised the company atBurbank Airport. Lloyd C Stearman was madepresident and general manager, assisted byformer general manager Carl Squier in therole of vice president and sales manager.Robert Gross was treasurer and CyrilChappellet secretary. The new design teamwas headed by another former Lockheedemployee, Richard Von Hake, as chiefdesigner. The assistant chief engineer was aman who was to figure greatly in the fortunesof the new company, Hall Livingstone Hibbard.Hall Hibbard was born in Kansas on July

25, 1903, and grew up with a passion for howmachines worked. In 1925, he achieved a

bachelor’s degree in mathematics and physicsat the College of Emporia, after which hespent two years studying in post-graduatecourses at the now famous MassachusettsInstitute of Technology.On returning to Kansas, he found that

Lloyd Stearman had established StearmanAircraft at Wichita, and joined the newlyformed company as a draughtsman in 1927.From Stearman Aircraft, Hibbard moved tothe Viking Flying Boat Company of NewHaven, Connecticut, where he worked on aflying boat, the FBA 17. The company was avictim of the Great Depression, and althoughthis meant the young Hibbard was suddenlyunemployed, while working at Viking he hadmet its owner, Robert E Gross, so Hibbardwas well known to two of the directors of thenew Lockheed Aircraft Corporation.The first work undertaken at the reopened

factory was to complete the construction of fourVegas, one Altair and 17 Orions. The earlierLockheed designs had been of all woodenconstruction with streamlined monocoquefuselages. The Detroit Aircraft Corporation hadchanged the specification and built a number ofOrions with all metal fuselages. These metalaircraft had a performance edge over their all-wood counterparts, as well as a number ofpractical advantages.The initial plan was to build a 10 seat single

engined all metal transport as the first newdesign, but Robert Gross was convinced a twinengined aircraft was the way forward, with aperformance to exceed that of the rival Boeing247 and Douglas DC-2. Hibbard led the designteam on the new aircraft, known as the Model10, which had two crew and 10 passenger

seats. Models were sent to theUniversity of Michigan fortesting in their wind tunnel byProfessor Edward Stalker and

his students. It was here the othergreat future designer of the new company wasto be found, studying aeronauticalengineering, Clarence Leonard Johnson.Johnson was born on February 27, 1910, in

the Michigan mining town of Ishpeming, hisparents having emigrated there from Malmöin Sweden. The grinding poverty his familylived in was a source of personal shame toJohnson, who from an early age was driven tosucceed by his frugal upbringing. His name,

Kelly Johnson on his first task for Lockheed, studying the model of the original Model 10 designin the wind tunnel at the University of Michigan. Lockheed

Hall Hibbard, the man behind Lockheed’swide ranging success. Lockheed

A Lockheed Hudson Mk I of11 Squadron of the RoyalCanadian Air Force. RCAF

Lockheed Martin 15

Clarence, was ridiculed at school, with hisclassmates referring to him as ‘Clara’. Neverone to take his troubles to anyone else andever the pragmatist, Johnson took directaction against his tormentors, tripping onetaunting classmate so viciously that it brokehis leg. He was ‘Clara’ no more.

A popular song of the time, Kelly With TheGreen Neck Tie provided his next nickname.Clarence became Kelly to his peers, a namethat was to stick for the rest of his life. Whileat school his passion for aviation began, thefirst aircraft he designed was for acompetition in 1923, winning him a prize atthe tender age of 13.

After high school and college in Flint,Michigan, Johnson attended the University ofMichigan at Ann Arbor, studying for amaster’s degree in aeronautical engineering.While at the university, he was one of thestudent assistants working on the wind tunnelmodels of the Lockheed Model 10. The earlydesign had a single fin and rudder on the rearfuselage, but Johnson’s testing showed that itwas directionally unstable.

His findings were ignored by his professor,who reported none of the problems Johnsondiscovered to Lockheed. What happened nextreveals much about Kelly Johnson’s pragmaticand no-nonsense character. In 1933, havingcompleted his degree successfully, Johnsontook a job as a tool designer with theLockheed Corporation.

Having successfully made it in through thefront door so to speak, Johnson immediatelytook his wind tunnel results and conclusionsto Hall Hibbard and convinced him that hewas right about the instability. Hibbard senthim back to the university to conduct moretests, during which Johnson modified thedesign to incorporate the twin fin and rudderlayout familiar today. He also modified thewing fillets at the fuselage joint and madenumerous other improvements, all of whichcontributed to the success of the Model 10.Such a direct approach to the problems of thedesign brought the 23-year-old Johnson to theattention of the Lockheed directors in adramatic fashion, and with Hibbard’srecommendation Johnson was promoted toaeronautical engineer with immediate effect.

While this development work on the newand highly risky Model 10 was going on,

Lloyd Stearman decided to leave Lockheed tobegin his own company, so in 1933 HallHibbard became the chief designer withRobert Gross taking over as president onDecember 15, 1934. Just prior to this, thedesign work of Hibbard and Johnson hadreached fruition when the Model 10, nownamed Electra, made its first flight onFebruary 23, 1934.

Marshall Headle, the test pilot, found it tobe a delight to fly. Mention must be made ofthe vision of Robert Gross in insisting on thetwin engined design, as of course in October1934 the previously mentioned ban on singleengined passenger aircraft by the USGovernment had just come into force.

To develop the Electra, Lockheed hadspent $139,400, a considerable risk for thedepressed period, but the fast and easy to flyaircraft was an instant success, perfectlyplaced as it was to fill the gap left by the singleengined aircraft. The first 10 Electras were

delivered in 1934, taking the new companyinto profit for the first time with the delivery of36 more in 1935. Robert Gross’s great gamblehad paid off handsomely, Lockheed was togrow from this point to become one of thelargest aircraft manufacturers in the world.

From 332 employees in 1934, by 1940 thishad grown to 7000 and one year later to 16,898.Additional plant at Burbank that had beenrented was now purchased as the companyexpanded to fill it, but this was just thebeginning, Lockheed also set up a subsidiarycompany, initially known as AiRover, but laterto find fame as the Vega Aircraft Corporation.

A total of 37 airlines in 15 countriesworldwide bought the Electra, as well as thearmed forces of the US and seven othercountries in South America and Europe, with149 built before production ended on July 18,1941. The success of the Electra enabled thedevelopment of the smaller Model 12 ElectraJunior. This had six passenger seats in a➤

AIROVERTOVEGAThe Lockheed AircraftCorporation was showinghealthy profits by August 17,1937, and was developingboth airliners and militarydesigns. Realising thatmilitary aircraft would takeover much of its capacity,Lockheed founded a whollyowned subsidiary on thisdate, the AiRover Company,also based at Burbank, butwith its own buildings.

This company wasintended to maintain Lockheed’s interest and capabilities in civil aircraft as themilitary orders grew and the threat of war loomed. In December 1937 it completed amodified Lockheed Altair powered by a pair of nose mounted Menasco enginesdriving a single propeller, known as the Unitwin powerplant.

This was intended as a test bed for a new five seat feederliner, the Starliner, theprototype of which first flew on April 22, 1939,but did not attract any orders. Prior tothis flight, the AiRover company was renamed the Vega Airplane Company in 1938and construction began of a new 750,000 sq ft (70,000 sq m) factory on a site abouta mile from the original Lockheed plant.

Courtlandt Gross became president of Vega,and was to oversee mass productionof such Lockheed aircraft as the Ventura,Harpoon,and Neptune,as well as 2750Boeing B-17Fs and Gs as part of the Boeing,Vega and Douglas team.The VegaAircraft Corporation,as it was now known,was absorbed back into Lockheed onNovember 30, 1943, the factory becoming Lockheed Plant A-1.

The cockpit of a Lockheed 12A Electra Junior,in this case a military C-40A of the US Army AirForce, in 1942.US Air Force

A Lockheed 12A Electra Junior modified for use as a gunnery trainer for the Royal NetherlandsEast Indies Air Force. Lockheed

The Vega Starliner originallyhad a single fin and rudder,later replaced with the morefamiliar Lockheed twin findesign as seen here.Lockheed


scaled down version of the Electra airframe,but was powered by the same pair of 450hpPratt and Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior engines.

Intended as a VIP transport and feederliner, it first flew on June 27, 1936, and 130were built, many for private owners, but 17airlines in North and South America andEurope also purchased the type. Ninedifferent military versions of the Model 12were also built and served with the armedforces of the US and seven other nations as atransport, as well as a bombing and gunnerytrainer variant built for the Royal NetherlandsEast Indies Air Force fitted with a turret in therear fuselage and bomb racks.

Although successful, both of these aircraftwere to be eclipsed by the next development,the larger 14 passenger Lockheed Model 14Super Electra. Hibbard and Johnsonexpanded the Electra fuselage, but kept thewing short with high loading to increase thecruising speed. To reduce the take offdistance and keep the landing speed withinacceptable levels, Fowler flaps were fittedwhich increased the effective wing area,providing additional lift as well as drag whendeployed. Lockheed built 114 Super Electras,powered by a pair of 750hp Pratt and WhitneyR-1690 Hornet or 760hp Wright SGR-1820Cyclone radials.

Interestingly, 64 more were built underlicence by Tachikawa in Japan, which alsopurchased 20 directly from Lockheed, withanother 121 being produced by Kawasaki witha longer fuselage and larger rear cargo doors.The prototype of the sleek airliner was flownfor the first time by Marshall Headle on July29, 1937, and again, the Model 14 was to provepopular worldwide. Twenty-six airlinesoperated the Super Electra in 17 countriesfrom Australia to the UK, with the armedforces of Canada, Japan, South Africa and theUS also acquiring the type as a transport.

In February 1938 a study was made toconvert the Super Electra to a militaryreconnaissance aircraft and light bomber. Amock-up was completed to show to the British

Purchasing Commission in April, who inviteda delegation to London to discuss the aircraftwith the Air Ministry. A twin gun Boulton Paulmid-upper turret was added, along with aglazed nose for the navigator and twin .303Browning machine gun nose armament.

A fuselage bomb bay was included withthe ability to carry up to 750lb (340kg) ofbombs or depth charges for anti-submarinemissions. The engines were also upgraded to apair of 1100hpWright GR-1820 Cyclones. Acontract was signed on June 23, 1938, for 200 ofthe new aircraft, designated the Model B14Land named HudsonMk.1. The contactstipulated that as many as possible were to bedelivered up to December 1939, to a maximumof 250 aircraft.

The first flight of a modified Model 14 tookplace on December 10, 1938, with deliveries tothe RAF beginning on February 15 thefollowing year. The Burbank factory steppedup to the challenge with a will, and met thecontract extension of 250 aircraft with nearlytwo months to spare. From then until May1943, 2941, Hudsons were produced in eightmajor variants, mostly with differing enginesand armament, the Hudson Mk.V and VIbeing powered by the 1200hp Pratt andWhitney R-1830 Twin Wasp.

These aircraft were to serve around theworld, with the air forces of Australia, Brazil,

Canada, China, Ireland, Israel, theNetherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, SouthAfrica and the United Kingdom. The US ArmyAir Force also used the type extensively as atroop transport (A-28A, A-29A and later C-63),gunnery and navigation trainer (AT-18 and -18A) and photographic survey platform(A-29A) as well as the original roles ofmaritime patrol and light bomber (A-28).

The US Navy also used 20 ex-RAF HudsonMk.IIIs as the PBO-1. The Hudson was one ofthe workhorses of the early years of theSecond World War, an aircraft which was fast,adaptable, reliable and most importantly,available in numbers. Three of its claims tofame during the war are, firstly, an RAFLockheed Hudson Mk.1 became the first UKbased RAF aircraft to shoot down an enemyaircraft, over Jutland on October 8, 1939,when a patrol by 224 Squadron met a DornierDo 18D flying boat.

Secondly, submarine U-570 was badlydamaged by a Hudson of 269 Squadronoperating from Iceland on August 27, 1941,becoming the first submarine to surrender toan aircraft. It was later taken in tow by RoyalNavy ships and was impressed into service asHMS Graph. RAF Hudsons later received ASVradar and many were armed with underwingrocket projectiles to make them moreeffective in the anti-submarine role.

A Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar of Alaska Star Airlines,circa 1948.Most Lodestars built were military transports,finding a second life as airliners postwar. Lockheed

An immaculately restored Lockheed PV-2Harpoon at the Palm Springs Air Museum inCalifornia.Constance Redgrave

Lockheed Martin 17

Lastly, a US Navy PBO-1 Hudson of VP-82became the first American aircraft to sink anenemy submarine when it attacked U-656 offNewfoundland. One little known role of theHudson was with the RAF’s 161 Squadron inthe UK and 257 Squadron in Burma, whooperated the type on clandestine missionswith the Special Operations Executive andother intelligence organisations.

Although a tremendous military success,the initial sales of the Model 14 Super Electraas an airliner were disappointing, as it was incompetition with the larger DC-3. To addressthis, the fuselage was stretched by 5ft 6in(1.68m) to accommodate 18 passengers and acrew of three. The new aircraft wasdesignated the Model 18 and named Lodestarto differentiate it from the Super Electra in theeyes of customers, although the first twoModel 18s were in fact modified from theearlier aircraft. It first flew on September 21,1939, first entering service with Mid-Continent Airlines in March 1940. The extraseats made the operating costs similar to thatof the DC-3, but with the high performance ofthat Lockheed aircraft were famous for.

A variety of engines were availabledepending on customer needs, including the1200hp versions of the Pratt and WhitneyTwin Wasp and Wright Cyclone.Unfortunately many US airlines werecommitted to the DC-3 and only 31 weresold at home, but it was a different matterabroad, where 84 were sold to major airlinesfrom the UK to New Zealand. A great manyof these aircraft were impressed intomilitary service, the various versions beingdesignated C-56 and C-57 by the USAAF andR5O by the US Navy, where they were usedas transports.

Two purpose built military transports, theC-59 and C-60 were used by the US forces (theUS Navy and Marine Corps designation beingR5O-5 and -6) and by the RAF as the LodestarMk.I and II, the latter version being equippedas a paratroop transport. Altogether 625Model 18s were built, being used postwar byairlines worldwide. Several were also modifiedas VIP transports, some ending their careersas jump aircraft for parachute clubs and as

agricultural aircraft equipped with aerialspraying equipment.

As with the Model 14 and the Hudson, amilitary version of the Model 18 wasdeveloped beyond the Lodestar transportaircraft, the Lockheed proposal being sent tothe British Air Ministry in September 1939. Atwo, later four, .303 browning machine gunmid upper turret was added, along with twoflexible nose mounted guns in the noseglazing for use by the navigator.

A ventral gunner’s position was fittedunder the fuselage just forward of thetailplane, mounting another pair of .303Brownings and giving the rear fuselage adistinctive step which identifies these aircraftfrom the earlier Model 18s. The pilot had apair of fixed forward firing .50 cal Browningsin the nose, and the under fuselage had anenlarged bomb bay which could carry 2500lb(1134kg) of bombs or depth charges.

The engines were upgraded to the 1850hpPratt and Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp tworow radial, the RAF ordering 300 in May 1940as the Ventura Mk.I, increasing the order byan additional 375 aircraft later that year. Theprototype first flew on July 31, 1941, withdeliveries beginning in September. Initiallyused by the RAF’s Bomber Command fordaylight raids, these proved too costly withoutadequate fighter escort, so the Venturas weretransferred to Coastal Command as maritimepatrol aircraft, with a number going to theCanadian and South African air forces.

An upgraded version of the Ventura, with2000hp Double Wasps and a 3000lb (1361kg)bomb load, called the Ventura Mk.II by theRAF, began a series of developments of theoriginal design. These were also used by theUSAAF as the B-34 and RB-34 Lexington,along with a version powered by the 1700hpWright R-2600 Twin Cyclone intended as anarmed reconnaissance aircraft, originallydesignated O-56 but later known as the RB-34B then the RB-37.

Only 18 of these aircraft were delivered froman order for 550, the remainder going to the USNavy from December 1942 as the PV-1 formaritime patrol and anti-submarine missions.Fitted with the ASD-1 search radar for this role,

the PV-1s were also used as bomber leadersand interestingly, as stop gap night fighters inthe Aleutian and Solomon Islands. A smallnumber of PV-1s were modified as a long rangereconnaissance aircraft with additional cameras,designated as PV-1Ps. The PV-1 underwent amajor redesign for the US Navy with a wing ofincreased area, larger fuel capacity and anincreased bomb load to 4000lb (1814kg).

Armament was also increased to five, latereight, nose mounted .50 cal machine guns andprovision to carry eight 5in (127mm) rocketsunder the wings. An order for 500 was placedby the US Navy on June 30, 1943, known asthe PV-2 and named Harpoon, the prototypeflying for the first time on December 3, 1943.A wing redesign was necessitated bywrinkling occurring on the early productionversions. This delayed the entry into servicein numbers, 69 aircraft with modified wingsbeing delivered by the end of 1944, the earlierproduction aircraft being used as trainers.

The Harpoons were used as ground attackand anti-shipping aircraft until the end of theSecond World War after which they weresupplied to US Navy Reserve Units and thearmed forces of Italy, Japan, the Netherlands,Peru and Portugal. Like the Hudson, a numberof aircraft were converted to VIP transportspostwar, under the names Super Ventura,Howard 350 and 500 and the Eldorado 700 inthe 1950s and 60s. These were the lastdevelopments of the Lockheed twin enginedtransport design that started with the Model 10of 1934, a remarkable record of achievement asboth a civil and military aircraft.

At the same time as all these developmentswere being undertaken, Lockheed wasworking on two other aircraft which were tomake the company a household name. Thefirst of these was the P-38 Lightning twinengined fighter, the entire story of which istold in Aviation Classics Issue 14. One littleknown use of the P-38 is described later in thismagazine, as is the story of the second of thetwo designs, the most beautiful propellerdriven airliner ever built, the LockheedConstellation. The company that began bytaking a risk was about to become a worldleader. ■ Words: Tim Callaway

Showing its civilian transport ancestry is this Lockheed R5O-5 Lodestar ofthe US Navy (note the misspelled name on the nose), a military transportand the ultimate development of the original Electra design.This one is ondisplay at the March Field Air Museum.Constance Redgrave


T here was a time in the 1930swhen there was little or nointerest in military glideroperations in America. OneAmerican officer was to have a

huge impact upon the early days of theAmerican glider program. Robert (Bob)Cardenas was born in Merida, in the YucatanPeninsula of Mexico, and arrived in thebirthplace of naval aviation less than 20 yearsafter Glenn Curtiss had first opened hisoperation at North Island, off San Diego Bay.Cardenas said: “I came to San Diego with

my parents in 1925, I was five years old. Itwas a different world in those days, therewere no big arguments about immigration,the border was open. My father hadgraduated from the University of New Yorkand was an American citizen.“He had gone to Yucatan to start a hemp

rope business and became quite wealthy. Buthe contracted a serious disease and in thosedays the government would take you to a safehouse… a place to die. My mother being ofIrish extraction, she hired three nuns to helpwith him and the house and hired fourpistoleras to protect them. When theFederales came to pick him up, she wouldn’tlet them take him. With the help of the nuns,

they brought him around. But by the time herecovered, with the corruption that is stillprevalent in Mexico, he had lost everything.“When we arrived in San Diego, we didn’t

have much. As a sign of the times, theprincipal of Washington Grammar School inSan Diego, in an area now known as LittleItaly, had a letter sent to my parents. ‘This isto advise you that no child will graduatefrom Washington Grammar School until heor she can read, write, and speak English.’We were still operating in those days withGod given common sense.”Having assimilated fully into the American

culture and English language, Cardenasexcelled in his classes. By the time Bob hadgotten into high school, he wasalready getting

involved with aviation.“I graduated from San Diego High School

in 1937,” he said.“The Consolidated Aircraft Company here

had a group of loyal employees, mastermachinists and really skilled guys. They allbuilt their own gliders and they all as a groupwanted about a month off to go to the highdesert and have their glider meets.“Consolidated struck a deal with the San

Diego School District that they would acceptJuniors and Seniors to replace these guys. Wedidn’t get paid too much, but nobody worriedabout that, so I was workingwith them.

LightningTow

American glider development andthe use of the Lockheed P-38

The full story of the Lockheed P-38 is covered in detail in Issue 14 of AAvviiaattiioonn CCllaassssiiccss, detailing thedevelopment and operational history of this remarkable fighter. However, in conversation with testpilot General Robert Cardenas, historian and journalist Norm DeWitt discovered there was anuntold chapter in the history of the P-38. We are delighted to detail the use of the P-38 as glider tughere, along with the amazing career of General Cardenas.

The Waco CG-4A became thestandard US military glider in theSecond World War, despite somemisgivings as to the suitability ofits nose clamshell door loading

and unloading system.USAF

A late model Lockheed P-38tows a Waco CG-4A gliderduring trials.Cardenas

Lockheed Martin 19

“They would individually go up to TorreyPines and fly their gliders, and a bunch of usended up helping them up there. Finally oneday Johnny Robinson, who was one of the fewGold-C pilots said ‘hey kid, come on’. In thosedays there were no glider pilot ratings in theUnited States. The only licence you could getwas through the Federation AeronautiqueInternationale, and there was the C ratingwhen you first started, then the Silver-C, theGold-C, and the Diamond-C. To get the Gold-Cyou had to stay aloft for four or five hours,cover a certain distance, return to the samepoint, and gain 10,000ft from point of release.”

The Gold-C rating was a true competencytest for glider proficiency.

“He told me that I’d done pretty good onmy last ride, and he wanted me to take it up,”Cardenas said. “He said be careful on thelaunch, look right and left and as soon as thecliff disappears, turn hard right and follow thecoast. That was my first flight in a glider. Itwas a homemade glider, and it was prettygood. While we were there, a lot of peopleused to come to Torrey Pines from all overthe county to use those cliffs.

“A whole bunch of us from San DiegoHigh School had joined the 251st CoastArtillery National Guard. We didn’t have anyweapons but we had a lot of campingequipment and trucks, so we’d have a balland get 30 bucks a month.

“Also, the deal with Consolidated at thetime, was that of the group that started, basedupon grades they would pick six of them to besent to San Diego state teachers’ college (laterSan Diego State University) for two years, andin 1939, I had finished my second year. Ofthose six, they would select one to upgradeand give him a Cal Tech scholarship. ThenHitler overran Poland.

“So, in 1939, two things happened. In onehand I’ve got a Cal Tech scholarship coming,and in the other hand I had a letter saying‘Welcome private, we’re going to thePhilippines’. I got as far as Hawaii with thegroup, where I met a young 2nd Lieutenant.He was looking at my paperwork and said‘Cardenas what in the hell are you doing here?Dammit man, I’m looking at your record hereand you’ve got two years of college. Except fora few of us here from West Point, my otherofficers have no college and you are anembarrassment to be a private walking aroundwith two years of college. Sign these papersand I’ve got to get you out of here, this is yourapplication to the Flying Cadets, because youqualify having had two years of college’.

“Does that mean I have to fly, sir? He said‘Yes, and I see they hurl you off a cliff in anairplane without an engine, so you can’t be

afraid.’ I said ‘Sir, what I fly is not dangerous.The other type of aircraft with engines,propellers and fuel tanks are dangerous’. Hecursed me, and told me to sign, so I signed.”

Bob Cardenas did not know it at the time, buthaving signed up for the Flying Cadets wouldsoon lead him back into his beloved gliders.

“I showed up at the Allan Hancock Collegeof Aeronautics in Santa Maria, California,” hesaid. “The Flying Cadet program faced about a70% washout rate. You really had to produce. Ofcourse, you have a good voice talking to youand a bad voice talking to you. When I arrivedthere my bad voice was telling me ‘don’t sweatit Cardenas, if you get washed out you’ll go toCal Tech’. So, I wasn’t trying very hard.

“One day over the Santa Maria valley, myinstructor stop cocked the throttle. If youlearn from the beginning glider flying, thereare two immutable truths that you live with.➤

Early P-38s underconstruction at Burbank.The production line wasto be properly establishedby these small earlyproduction batches.Tillamook Air Museum

The first ever graduating class from the US Army glidingschool at Twentynine Palms,California.Cardenas

First, you never know exactly where you aregoing to land, and second, you don’t knowwhere you are going to stop.“So, every couple of minutes I’d look at the

ground to see which way the wind wasblowing, it’s just nature for a glider pilot.When he stopped the throttle, I turned intothe wind, and set up the glide speed andpicked a place up ahead where I thought Icould land and marked that against thecanopy. Keep up that glide speed and if thespot you wanted to land went below that mark,you were going to make it. I thought he wasgoing to restart the engine, but he never did.So, I landed out in this farmer’s pasture. Heclimbed down, saying ‘you little son-of-a-bitch,come down here. Where did you learn how todo what you just did?’ So I explained to himthat I’d been flying gliders. He asked if I wastrying to wash out and I told him ‘no sir’, but

felt I had to tell him about the potentialscholarship. He said ‘Son, you’ve got toomuch skill; I’m not going to let you wash out’.So, I graduated.”Lieutenant Cardenas got his first post

graduation assignment in Texas.He said: “I wound up as an instructor at

Kelly Field in San Antonio. It was one of thebest jobs in the world, as you get to fly all thetime. One day our section chief came in andlooked around the room asking ‘anybody inhere know how to fly a glider?’ Well, I was tooyoung and inexperienced… you should neverraise your hand. I violated the one rule an oldsergeant in the National Guard had once toldme… never volunteer. Anyway, he said,‘here’s a new set of orders. You are going outto Twentynine Palms, California to open upthe first glider pilot school’.”Small wonder the American planners were

finally taking note of the youth glider clubs inGermany. The Treaty of Versailles hadforbidden the use of powered flight inGermany, so the entire German aviationculture reverted to using gliders. Eventuallymuch of this became part of the Hitler Youthmovement, and their future generation ofaviators was assured. Gliding had evenbecome a demonstration sport at the 1936Berlin Olympic Games.In May 1940 this paid obvious dividends for

Germany when the ‘impregnable’ Belgianfortress of Eben-Emael was taken by a gliderforce of only 56 soldiers, equipped with highexplosives. When compared to the killing fieldthat ensued around the Liege Forts during theGerman siege of 1914, it was clear the rules ofengagement had changed, and America was farbehind. Twentynine Palms was to become thehome of the Army Air Corps Glider School.

The remarkable General Robert Cardenaswith some of the aircraft he flew during hislong and illustrious career.Via Norm DeWitt

The famous cliffs near Torrey Pines gliding sitewhere the young Robert Cardenas began hisinterest in aviation working as ground crew.Editor’s collection

Three time US National Soaring championRichard du Pont developed the snatch systemfor recovering mailbags initially.Cardenas

Snatch trials to collect landed glidersfrom the air were conducted by RobertCardenas in the P-38, such as in therare colour picture where a trainingglider is used.The poles supported theglider tow cable to enable the tug tocatch it with its trailing line with a leadweight on the end, the white object onthe right of this picture.Cardenas

Lockheed Martin 21

Cardenas said: “Twentynine Palms was adry lake with a mountain range, it was perfectfor gliders. I had beautiful buildings, a hangerwith a tow plane, four winches, each with8000ft of cable, a dining hall, a swimmingpool… but no gliders. I asked the civilian whowas running it ‘where are the gliders?’

“He said ‘Lieutenant, we’ve been trying toget them’. There were no such things asmilitary gliders back then. Well, hell…

“I read in the Los Angeles newspaper thatthe President had appointed Richard du Pontto run a national glider programme, like theyalready had in Germany. I wondered if thatwas the rich guy who used to come to TorreyPines, so I sat down and wrote him a letter tohis NY address… ‘Dear Dick, I’m out here inhog heaven, got all this… but you’re in chargeand I need gliders. If I had about $5000 I couldget five gliders with instructors from theglider gang out here’.

“About two or three weeks later, thisairplane lands on the lake bed and this tallcolonel gets out. He asks me ‘Lieutenant,where is your commanding officer?’ I told himthat I was the only military here. He said ‘It’sobvious you aren’t West Point’. So, I said‘What makes it so obvious, sir?’ I hadn’t beenaround much.

“Then he said, ‘If you were West Point youwould know that you don’t write over the headof your military superiors to civilians. Youwrote a letter. I’m Colonel Fred R Dent Jr., andI’m the chief of the aircraft laboratory at WrightField. You said in your letter if you had $5000you could get five gliders with instructors…well son, I brought my chequebook’.

“So, I called Johnny Robinson. ‘HeyJohnny, I can offer each of you $200 a month,all the food you can eat and all the beer youcan drink, all the flying… but I need fivegliders with instructors and I need them now.Dent had stayed there to observe.

“The obvious happened since he saw meperform a small miracle getting these gliders,and later my orders came in from Colonel

Dent to come back to the Aircraft Laboratoryin Dayton, Ohio. Pearl Harbor had happenedwhile I was at Twentynine Palms.

“Colonel Dent had been charged withdeveloping Invasion Gliders for D-Day andwhat kind of airplane would tow them. WrightField is entirely surrounded by population andnot a very good place to have a glider testbase. So, about 60 miles to the Northeast,Wilmington and Clinton County Airport iswhere we set up our glider test base in 1943.”

The military glider now being proposed formass production made a highly unfavourableimpression upon Cardenas.

“They had been working with Waco, andhad developed the CG-4A,” he said. The firsttime I saw one, I asked Colonel Dent, ‘whodesigned this monstrosity?’ He asked me,‘what do you mean?’ I said, when they land,this Jeep driver who is supposed put it in lowgear and drive out through the nose and thatopens the clamshell nose with a cable.

“But as a glider pilot, you don’t knowwhere you are going to land. What if the noseis up against a wall or a tree? You aren’t goingto be able to get the clamshell open, and theywill be sitting ducks, it’s going to be a death

trap, sir. Why don’t we get the British Horsaglider, where they can go out the back and itdoesn’t matter what’s in front?

“I fought that battle for a long time. Therewere other reasons that they didn’t want to, Iguess. Look at the hedgerows inNormandy… they are triangles of rock, threeand a half feet high. The French farmers usethe hedgerows as boundaries for their fields.When a CG-4A goes into a hedgerow, it cutsthe legs off the pilot and co-pilot and you can’topen the clamshell.”

Lt Cardenas, soon to be a captain, also hadto determine the best tow plane. “I wascharged with testing to see what the bestplane was in the entire inventory. I flew somany airplanes; I flew everything… fighters,cargo planes, bombers. Of all the airplanesthat I used, the P-38 fighter was the best towplane out of all of them. The reason being, ontakeoff glider pilots don’t like the prop wash ofthe airplane, so they start edging over to theright or the left.

“On a tail dragger airplane like the C-47, ifthe glider edges over, he starts dragging youand in the war we lost a lot of C-47s that way.The P-38 with its counter rotating props had➤

The production lines of the P-38 were in fullswing by the end of 1941,but the cost andrelative rarity of the fighter combined with itssuccess in its major role meant that thecheaper and more numerous C-47 waschosen to operate as a tug. Lockheed

A very rare photograph of a Lockheed P-38F modified for glidertowing.Note the twin tow cable attached either side of the tailbooms running into a cleat for the glider cable.Cardenas

The armament standardised on the early P-38 production line to become four .50in(12.7mm) machine guns and a single 20mmcannon. Robert Cardenas thought theheavy armament would allow a P-38 glidertug to offer protection to its glider on theway down after release and once on theground. Lockheed

The vehicle inside the Waco CG-4A woulddrive slowly forward,a cable attached to itraising the nose clamshell door whichincluded the cockpit.Cardenas

no torque on takeoff. You put a glider plug onthe end of each boom on the inside and run asteel cable across from plug to plug and thenthe tow rope can ride on a pulley along thatsteel cable.

“Of course the general who ran FighterCommand wouldn’t listen to it, his P-38fighters towing gliders, my god. So, a test wasset up. I hauled a CG-4A from St Paul,Minnesota where they made the gliders, allthe way to Pine Castle, Florida where he was.When I arrived, he had one of his jocks withone of their P-38s take me on with a little air toair. Then we swapped airplanes.

“His pilot told him in his office that themodifications didn’t affect the performance ofthe P-38. The general then excused him, andkept me. One of my other reasons, as Iexplained to the General, was that when I cutthat poor bastard loose over enemy territory,I’ve got four 50cal machine guns in the nose ofthe P-38 and I could go down and help clear apath for him.

“He said ‘Captain, I agree with you fully onthe advantages of the P-38 as a tow plane. Butson, P-38s cost $28,000 and we don’t have manyof them and it takes me about a year to train agood P-38 pilot. I’m very sorry but I cannotsupport you’. So, he wouldn’t support it.

“In the room was a young gentleman with apin striped suit and polished nails. As we werewalking out, he asked if we could snatch aglider off the ground with a P-38 coming alongin the air? I told him ‘We don’t know sir, we’venever tried it. No one has set up aprogramme’. He said he would pay for it, so Itold him he had to go to Colonel Dent.”

The project was approved and testingbegan back at the glider base in Ohio. Theyagain turned to Dick du Pont, this time forinspiration. Cardenas said: “All AmericanAirways which was owned by Dick du Pontthat operated out of Pittsburgh was a fantasticthing (and the origins of US Airways). Itdelivered the mail every day from Pittsburghevery 10 miles down the river with a StinsonReliant. They had these mail bags and they’dtake off with the first bag full of mail for thetown 10 or 20 miles down. They’d put up thetwo poles and there was a hook on theStinson. They’d drop their bag with a littledrogue chute on it, and snatch the one thatthey’d prepared to go to the next town.”

The original pick-up system was a conceptof company founder Lytle Adams, but it wasrefined by du Pont. Cardenas said: “Dick du

Pont built a system using 12 round steel plateswith a shaft. When that hook caught on thepole, the rope started this thing turning andthe plates would come together.”

It was like having a limited slip differentialfor the snatch operation, to reduce the shockload on the package.

“They would haul the bag into the plane byhand. That’s what started it. Dick du Pont waswhere we got the idea of how to do this. Oncethese guys in those days dreamed up thestuff, we would prove it successful. Thosewere great days because we didn’t screwaround studying the damn thing to death.

“With the P-38 I did not have a winch. If younotice on the edge of the picture there is a whiteblob… that’s a lead weight. As it hit, the leadweight would keep going and it would wrap up,tie a knot in the rope that wouldn’t let go. Wepracticed with packages to see if the method ofengagement with using a lead weight wrappingaround the rope would hold, and it did.

“Once we knew it would work, we weresuccessful in picking up the glider. I wouldcome through a slow speed and partial flaps.But then the P-38 was not picked as an officialtow plane. So, from then on all the pickupsthat we made were done with a C-47 whichhad a larger size winch.”

Similar to a James Bond movie, they nextdeveloped methods to snatch at person off theground. Cardenas said: “When they picked uphumans, they were doing it with a C-47. Sheepare about the same weight as humans so weused a sheep but we were relying on thestretch of the rope and we bounced one… wedidn’t quite have it figured out. We madecorrections and then we picked up a human.He was a captain in the Army Rangers whovolunteered to be snatched by the plane. Wedid it once, we had to prove it could be done,that was all. He saw the sheep bounce and hewanted to know if we’d fixed it. We said yes,and he said ‘let’s go do it’. It was eitherbravery or stupidity, but he came through itgood. Again, back in those days we didn’thave think-tanks studying things to death.”

Sadly, soon after, three time NationalSoaring champion Richard du Pont was killedat the age of 32 in an experimental liftingfuselage glider being tested at March Field inSouthern California. A trophy in his name isstill awarded to the US Open class soaringchampion. Cardenas said: “The XCG-16 wasthe type of glider that du Pont was killed in.He was told by Fred Dent: ‘I don’t advise you

The contra rotating propellers of the P-38meant the glider suffered no adverse effectsfrom the tugs wake, unlike other types.Here aP-38 is under maintenance from Lockheedtechnicians.Cardenas

The XCG-16 lifting body glider provedunstable and crashed, killing Richard du Pont.Cardenas

A very early shot of YP-38 39-689 with MarshallHeadle at the controls. Note the one piecewindscreen which gave way to a three pieceunit on production aircraft. Lockheed

A rare colour shot of WacoCG-4A gliders at a US

training base.Cardenas

Lockheed Martin 23

to fly it, it is unstable’. He figured he had to doit, he did, and it killed him. Dick du Pont wasa great guy, I loved that bastard. He nevercarried any money, or a fountain pen, or anotebook. There was a guy who would alwaystake the notes and carried the money.”

Those methods developed to snatchgliders were later used to save lives.

“It wasn’t until many years later a bookcame out called Lost in Shangri-La,” saidCardenas. “That was how they got them out,was with a glider.” The rescue operation toextract the three surviving passengers (out of24 on a crashed C-47) in 1945 from deep in theNew Guinea jungle is certainly one of thebetter known examples of rescue while usinga glider being snatched up by a passing plane.

General Robert Cardenas continued hislong distinguished career. After being shotdown on a bombing mission over Germany in aB-24, he escaped to Switzerland and eventuallywith the help of the French resistance, wasreturned to the Americans where he resumedtesting aircraft. Some of his most well knownaccomplishments were as the chief test pilot for

bomber programs, including the Flying Wing,as well as piloting the B-29 which would dropChuck Yeager in the Bell X-1 during the seriesof flights that broke the sound barrier.

Those sound barrier efforts were similar tothe glider program…making the best of whatbits were available. Why was the B-29 chosen?Cardenas said: “It was available. We did notstudy what kind of airplane could do this. Wehad one that we had to cut out a little bit ofit… it was what we had. The instructions I hadfrom General Boyd was that ‘the project willbe progressive and it will be brief’. Therewere two X-1s, 6062 and 6063. We had ‘62’,and ‘63’ was back east. NACA was probablygoing to take years to nibble up to it (thesound barrier). They had a B-50 and they builta hydraulic hoist to lift their B-50 and then putthe X-1 underneath, carving out a big sectionunderneath it. We got out there, dug a hole inthe ground, towed the B-29 across and thenused the built-in bomb hoist to lift the X-1.”

So, the fully loaded X-1 was no heavier thanthe usual bomb load? “Not exactly… fullyloaded with a full load of fuel I think the X-1

was around 15,500lb. The problem was ‘whatdo we attach it to, and with what?’ We used abomb shackle and drilled a hole through theshackle and stuck a pin in it. We were justfollowing instructions from General Boyd.

“Back east they were spending millions ofdollars. They were going to have their B-50reshaped so the thing would fit flush, wedidn’t care about flush. We weren’t going toscrew around; all we wanted was something todrop the X-1. One of Jack Ridley’s jobs was tofly co-pilot for me, and another of his jobs wasto help Chuck going down this little ladder. Allthat could happen was that he could fall out.”

Looking back on the glider program of fouryears earlier, despite the best efforts ofCardenas, instead of Horsas towed byLockheed P-38s, the US glider forces endedup with Wacos towed by C-47s. Cardenas said:“In those days I was called a nut because Iwanted to tow with P-38s. I lost the battles oftow planes and gliders, and that ended that.”General Cardenas retired from active servicein 1973, and today he still lives in his hometown of San Diego. ■ Words: Norm DeWitt

Above: Test pilots reunite in

May 2013. From left to right, Bob

Hoover, Robert Cardenas and

Chuck Yeager.Norm DeWitt

Left: The X-1 Flight test

team. From left to right: Lt

Edward Swindell (B-29 flight

engineer); Lt Bob Hoover (X-1

backup pilot and chase pilot);

Major Bob Cardenas (officer-in-

charge and B-29 drop pilot);

Captain Chuck Yeager; Dick

Frost (Bell X-1 project engineer

and chase pilot) and Captain

Jack Ridley (Air Force X-1

project engineer). USAF

From its small beginnings,the US Army glidingschool at TwentyninePalms,California, grewrapidly.Cardenas

Escort Lightning24 IN ASSOCIATION WITH: LOCKHEED MARTIN – WE NEVER FORGET WHO WE ARE WORKING FOR

www.finesthourart.com

Lieutenant Richard Loehnert flies his Lockheed P-38J Lightning, 42-67916, named California Cutie, on escortduty high above a formation of 9th Air Force Martin B-26 Marauders. The Marauders were tasked with attackingcommunications and tactical targets in France in support of the invasion forces, operating at medium level with

fighter escorts such as that provided by the 20th Fighter Group’s 55th Fighter Squadron as shown here.

For the full story of the P-38 Lightning, see Aviation Classics Issue No. 14.

Lockheed Martin 25


LittLe DipperThe smallest manned aircraft built byLockheed started privately. John Thorp, anengineer at Burbank conceived a very lighttwo seat aircraft that would be cheap to buildand operate, with benign flying characteristicsfor inexperienced pilots.

Mac Short, head of the Special ProjectsGroup at Lockheed, liked the concept andsought agreement to develop it in April 1944as the Model 33, later named the Little Dipper.Wartime restrictions on civil aircraft ledLockheed to interest the US Army in theaircraft as the Air Trooper, in effect a flyingmotorcycle for soldiers, so were allowed tobuild two prototypes. It was powered by a50hp engine specially developed by Air-Cooled Motors and built by Franklin. BudMartin began test flights in August 1944,during which a single piece canopy was fittedto enclose the cockpit.

The Little Dipper had fine handling and avery short take off and landing, able to leavethe ground in only 100ft (31m). Despite thelow power, the maximum speed was 100mph(161kph). US Army interest waned, but thepossibilities of the postwar light aircraftmarket meant Lockheed continuedconstruction of the second prototype.However, the civil aircraft market was filledby cheap ex-military trainers, so eventuallyboth the prototypes were scrapped in 1947.

Beginning in 1942, four very different projects were begun at Burbank. Over the next two years, twolight aircraft, a small airliner and an aircraft that remains the largest ever operated by the US Navywere built. The end of the Second World War was to adversely affect these aircraft, and all four wereeventually cancelled.

LARGEThe

andthe

of

itSMALL

Other Lockheed developments fromthe end of the Second World War.

The R6O was re-enginedwith 3,500 hp Pratt andWhitney R-4360 enginesand used in rocket assistedtake off trials as it remainedunderpowered. Lockheed

Big DipperThe second light aircraft design by JohnThorp was a two seat pusher propelleraircraft known as the Model 34 or BigDipper. In October 1944, Robert Grossauthorised the development, ostensibly as aflying Jeep for the Army, but actuallyintended to give Lockheed a head start in thepostwar civil light aircraft market.

A low wing two seat side-by-side cabinmonoplane, the Big Dipper had a 100hpContinental C-100 four cylinder engine fittedbehind the cabin driving a pusher two bladedpropeller via a shaft. Built at Burbank butmoved to Palmdale, the first flight was madeby Prentice Cleaves on December 10, 1945.

During 40 hours of test flying the aircraftwas found to have excellent handling, with amaximum speed of 136mph (219kph).However, it had a vicious stall emanatingfrom the wing/fuselage join at high angles ofattack, so it returned to Burbank formodifications to the wing root fillet.

Before this could be completed, the BigDipper was ordered back to Palmdale onFebruary 6, 1946. Prentice Cleaves andengineer Frank Johnson were hurt when theBig Dipper stalled while taking off from theshort cross runway at the plant. The BigDipper was destroyed, so both this projectand the proposed Super Dipper four seattourer were cancelled.

SaturnDuring the Second World War, Lockheeddeveloped concepts for transports rangingfrom six to 58 seats. One was built, the Model75, a twin engined feeder liner for 14passengers and a crew of two.

The design came about after Lockheedcanvassed the airlines regarding postwarrequirements. Named Saturn, the design teamwas led by Don Palmer, who produced aconventional nosewheel twin with a single fin.The low slung fuselage was square in crosssection to maximise space and to allow theeasy loading of passengers and cargo withoutthe need for ground support equipment.

The Saturn attracted 500 provisional ordersby late 1944. Tony LeVier took the prototypeinto the air for the first time on June 17, 1946,powered by a pair of 600hp Continental GR9-Anine cylinder radials. The engines had coolingdifficulties, so were replaced by two 700hpWright 744C-7BA-1 Cyclone radials, whichwere also fitted to the second prototype.

On August 8, 1947, the re-engined Saturnflew for the first time, and proved verysatisfactory in both performance and handling,with a maximum speed of 228mph (367kph).However, at this time, a customer could buyfour Douglas C-47s from military surplussupplies for the cost of a single Saturn.Interest and orders evaporated, and the twoprototypes were scrapped in 1948.

Lockheed Martin 27

The Little Dipper with a Constellation gives a real sense of the diminutive nature of the lightaircraft. Lockheed

The Big Dipper was a remarkably elegantand clean design. Lockheed

Test pilot Milo Burcham in the surprisinglyspacious cockpit of the Big Dipper. Lockheed

The 14 seat Saturn was designed to operate without the need for stairs or liftsat small airfields, its low slung fuselage designed for ease of access. Lockheed

Typically elegant of Lockheed designs, even massive ones, the double deck fuselage of theConstitution could accommodate 168 passengers. Lockheed

A rare colour shot of the Constitution with a full load of US Navy personnel. Lockheed

ConstitutionThe Model 89 Constitution, designated theR6O-1 then R6V, was developed after interestfrom Pan American Airways and the US Navyin a long range large transport.The fuselage would have to be pressurised,

so a two deck ‘double bubble’ design waschosen. The aircraft was a massive 189ft 1in(57.6m) in wingspan and 156ft 1in (47.6m)long, so a new hangar was built at Burbank forthe final assembly. Either 204 or 168 seatscould be fitted, or the lower deck could carrycargo or vehicles such as jeeps.Initially powered by four 3000hp Pratt and

Whitney R-4360-18 Wasp Major 28 cylinderfour-row radials, Joe Towle and Tony LeVierfirst flew the monster on November 9, 1946.Found to be underpowered, the engines werereplaced with -22W water injected versionswhich produced 3500hp. Tests were alsocarried out with six rocket assisted take offunits on the rear fuselage.The second aircraft first flew on June 9,

1948, both being delivered to VR-44 in 1949.The end of the war reduced Navy orders from50 to just the first two. Engine coolingproblems reduced the range of the aircraft byhaving to leave the cooling flaps open in flight,so both aircraft were retired in 1953,eventually being scrapped. The civil modelsnever attracted a customer. ■Words: Tim Callaway


A t the end of 1937, Lockheed wasworking on a four engined 21seat airliner, the Model 44,named Excalibur. Pan AmericanAirways (PAA) was interested,

but in June 1939, the owner of Transcontinentaland Western Airlines (TWA, later Trans WorldAirlines), industrialist, film producer and pilotHoward Hughes, along with TWA’s president,

Jack Frye, discussed their requirements for alarger, faster aircraft with Lockheed.

Predicting that such a machine would bemore attractive to the developing airlines, anew Model 49 Excalibur A was designed byHall Hibbard, Kelly Johnson and Don Palmer.

The requirement for a high altitude, highspeed cruiser meant that the fuselage had tobe of circular cross section for pressurisation

and as aerodynamically efficient as possible.TWA also stipulated that the new aircraft hadto be able to be maintained in existingfacilities, so the larger twin fins of the firstdesign were replaced by three shorter fins.The gently curving shape of the fuselage wasto lower the nose for the best possible crewview and to keep the nosewheel leg as short,and therefore strong, as possible.

The tapered wing with its rounded tips wasbased on the efficient design of the P-38Lightning, but fitted with large Fowler flaps tolower the landing speed. Four Wright R-3350Double Cyclone 18 cylinder two row radialengines were to be fitted, with the mainundercarriage retracting forward into the innernacelles. The aircraft also boasted hydraulicallyassisted controls, reversible pitch propellersand a de-icing system on the wings andtailplane, making it one of the most advancedairliners of its time. The completely new designalso acquired a new name, Constellation.

Originally designed for 2000hp versions ofthe R-3350 engine, as the prototype tookshape the 2200hp -35 model was substituted.In February 1940, TWA ordered nineConstellations, increasing this order to 40later in the year. PAA followed suit, givingLockheed a healthy order book against whichto begin construction. However, wartime

This rare colour photo of the interior of Lockheed Plant A-1 in Burbank,California, circa 1944,shows B-17 Flying Fortresses in the background,and all but one aircraft in the entire productionrun of C-69 Constellation transports in the foreground. Lockheed

An unusual colour shot, theLockheed Model 34 Big Dipperposed in front of a C-69Constellation. Lockheed

Sheer eleganceThe Constellation in war and peace

What is undoubtedly the most beautiful propeller driven airliner in the history of aviation beganlife as a much smaller design. Development of the concept alongside the airline customers led

to the advanced, elegant and efficient aircraft we know today under a new name.

Lockheed Martin 29

restrictions after 1941 prohibited theconstruction of commercial aircraft and theprogramme was suspended. Lockheedproposed the Model 249 as the XB-30 longrange bomber, but this was not accepted.

It quickly became apparent that the longranges of operations in the Pacific campaignmeant a large, high speed long rangetransport was exactly what the US Army AirForce required. On September 20, 1942, theUSAAF authorised the completion of the TWAaircraft as C-69 military transports. Eventually,313 C-69s were ordered, a single Model 549 C-69C being produced in 1945 as a 43 seat VIPtransport, but the very long range Model 349C-69B was not proceeded with.

On January 9, 1943, experienced multi-engine test pilot Eddie Allen, on loan fromBoeing, took the XC-69 prototype, NX25600(military serial 43-10309), into the air for thefirst time, assisted by Lockheed’s MiloBurcham as co-pilot. The first flight went sowell that five more were made that day, thelast going to Muroc Army Air Base forextensive testing. However, delays to the testprogramme began after Eddie Allen was killedin the crash of the second B-29 Superfortressprototype on February 18.

The B-29 was powered by the same engineas the Constellation, and the crash had been

caused by not one, but two serious enginefires. All aircraft powered by the R-3350 weregrounded until the cause was found. Newcarburettors were designed, solving theimmediate problem, and flight testingresumed on June 18. The performance of thenew transport was startling.

The maximum speed was 340mph(547kph), similar to many fighters of the time,and the cruising speed was only 40mph(65kph) slower. The service ceiling was25,000ft (7620m) and it was capable ofmaintaining 10,000ft (3050m) with two enginesshut down. The prototype was accepted by theUSAAF on July 28, the second aircraft joiningthe test programme in August. Fuel leaks wereto cause the next delay, and since non-combataircraft were not considered a priority by theUSAAF, it was not until April 1944 that a newsealing method was developed.

On April 17, the second Constellation wasto be flown to Wright Field in Ohio for servicetrials. Howard Hughes and Jack Frye tookthis opportunity to fly there via WashingtonInternational Airport from Burbank, setting anunofficial record for the coast to coast trip ofsix hours 57 minutes and 51 seconds, anaverage speed of 330.9mph (532.5kph). Whileat Wright Field the aircraft was used to giveOrville Wright what would be his last flight.

One of the fathers of aviation, his comment onthe Constellation was that its wingspan waslonger than his first flight in 1903.

Given the low priority of the aircraft for theR-3350 engine, which were needed for B-29production, Lockheed suggested the 2100hpPratt and Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp as asuitable replacement. The prototype wasmodified with four of these to become the soleXC-69E, but the development was notcontinued with and the aircraft sold to theHughes Tool Company.

The problems of the R-3350 were slowlybeing solved, but only 15 C-69s were deliveredby the time the Second World War ended.These were used as high speed trooptransports during the last year of the conflict,but with the end of the war in sight, theUSAAF order was reduced to 73 aircraft, thencancelled altogether.➤

A flightline mechanic checks the tail of aModel 49 Constellation airliner at Burbank,California on November 9, 1945.Thisaircraft (registered N86510) was the 12thof 28 Model 49 Constellations ordered byTWA.The typical layout for the firstConstellation variant was 51 passengers, aflight deck crew of three, and two cabinattendants. Lockheed

Orville Wright in the cockpit of the secondLockheed C-69 on April 26, 1944.Lockheed

The Constellation production line at Lockheed’s Burbank,California, factory circa 1949.Lockheed

Air India had the fifth-largest fleet among international operators, flying seven Model 749Constellations and 10 Model 1049 Super Constellations, as shown here. Lockheed


Military Constellations

Military use of the Constellation created ahuge number of designations andredesignations, as listed here in anattempt to clarify the lineage.

C-69 – Wartime production of the Model49 Constellation – 22 built, 15 delivered.

C-69C – The Model 549 43 seat VIPtransport aircraft – one built in 1945.

XC-69E – Prototype XC-69 Model 49 fittedwith Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Waspengines.

C-121A – Military transport version of theModel 749 with a rear cargo door.Tenordered in 1948, three converted to VIPtransports,VC-121As. 48-614 namedColumbine, 48-610 named Columbine IIfor General Eisenhower and 48-613 namedBataan for General MacArthur.

VC-121B – One,Model 749 48-608, theofficial transport of the President of theUnited States of America.

PO-1W – Two Model 749As converted in1948 with radomes above and below thefuselage as Airborne Early Warning (AEW)and Command and Control aircraft for theUS Navy. Later redesignated WV-1s.

PO-2WWarning Star – 142 Model 1049Asconverted as per the PO-1W for the US Navydelivered from October 1953.LaterredesignatedWV-2 then EC-121K.Thirteenwere equipped asWV-2Q electroniccountermeasures aircraft, redesignated EC-121M,with one used on the Rivet Topoperations in Vietnam by the USAF. EightWV-2s were equipped for weatherreconnaissance asWV-3s, later redesignatedWQC-121N.Several were modified as NC-121Ks for trials and special operations suchas radar jamming,and as EC-121Ps for anti-submarine warfare.During theVietnamWar,30 EC-121Ks and EC-121Ps were modified toreceive signals from seismic and groundsensors to detect enemy movements andknown as EC-121R Batcats. Lastly,oneWV-2was modified to track high speed objects,and known as the NC-121D.

WV-2E – One Model 1049 WV-2 fitted with arotating dome radar as a testbed for thecancelled W2V-1 turboprop poweredproject to be based on the Model 1649Starliner. Redesignated EC-121L.

R7O-1 – 55 Model 1049Bs built asmilitary transports for the US Navydelivered from November 1952.Quicklyredesignated R7V-1, then later C-121J.OneR7V-1 was modified for Arctic operations asthe R7V-1P, four were built with Pratt &Whitney YT34-P-12A turboprops as theModel 1249 R7V-2s.

Two of these turboprop powered aircraftwere transferred to the USAF as the YC-121F. Four C-121Js were converted to VIPtransports as VC-121Js. Seven wereconverted to NC-121Js to rebroadcasttelevision programmes to the US troops inVietnam.A total of 32 R7V-1s were latertransferred to the USAF as the C-121G,nine of these were converted to trainersas the TC-121G and one as a VC-121GVIP transport.

Although this may have been a disaster fora purely military aircraft, what it actuallyachieved for Lockheed was to put them in astrong position to command the postwarairliner market. The Constellation was fullytested and certificated, one of the C-69scompleting the civilian certification onDecember 11, 1945, while the rival Boeing 377Stratocruiser and Douglas DC-6 were stillmonths away from their first flights.

As a result, 89 Model 49s had beenordered by November 1945 by originalcustomers TWA and PAA, but also byoverseas airlines such as KLM, BOAC and AirFrance. The first was delivered to TWA onNovember 14, 1945, making TWA’s inauguralcommercial flight with the type between NewYork and Paris on February 5, 1946.

From this point, a plethora of versions ofthe Constellation were produced. The firstwas the long range Model 149, which weremodified from Model 49s by adding fuel tanksto the outer wing panels of several aircraft.

Other versions were studied, but the nextproduction variant was the Model 649, thefirst purely civilian Constellation with morepowerful 2500hp versions of the R-3350 andup to 81 passenger seats. The first 14 weredelivered to Eastern Air Lines from May 1947,and could carry an external ventral pannierfor up to 8200lb (3720kg) of freight known asthe Speedpak. The 649A had the 149’sadditional fuel tanks to increase the range.

The 749 followed, with the extra fueltanks fitted as standard and a strengthenedundercarriage that allowed operations at anincreased gross weight of 102,000lb(46,266kg). The 749A had a strengthenedfuselage and wing structure that addedanother 5000lb (2268kg) to this maximumoperating weight. Airlines worldwide

The Constellation was tailored to requirements set by TWA and the airline operated 156Constellations of all types.This photo shows a Model 1049G Super Constellation over NewYorkCity. Lockheed

The sole VC-121E built was used by President Dwight Eisenhower as his executive transport.Christened Columbine III, this aircraft is now on public display at the National Museum of theUS Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, near Dayton,Ohio. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 31

ordered 60 749s and 59 749As, the last beingdelivered in September 1951, but theseversions also returned the Constellation toUS military service as described in thepanel above.By 1950, the new DC-6B was surpassing

the performance of the Constellation, so astretched version began development whenthe prototype Model 49 was purchased backfrom the Hughes Tool Company. The fuselagewas stretched by 18ft 5in (5.61m) giving theairliner a maximum capacity of 109 seats.Known as the Model 1049 SuperConstellation, the prototype flew on October13, 1950, followed by the first productionaircraft on July 14 the following year.Still powered by the 2700hp Wright R-3350

956-C18CA-1 engines, 24 were delivered toEastern Air Lines and TWA but wereoutperformed by the new Douglas model. Themilitary Model 1049A and B were powered bythe 3400hp R-3350-34 turbo compound DoubleCyclone with their power recovery turbinesystem, but these engines were not availablefor airliners until the 3250hp civil version wasproduced in 1953.Lockheed quickly fitted them to the first

Model 1049C, increasing the performance ofthe Constellation beyond that of the DC-6B.The first aircraft flew on February 17, threemonths before the DC-7 with the sameengines. Lockheed had retaken the lead, 481049Cs being built for airlines around theworld, as well as four freighter 1049Ds forSeaboard and Western Airlines with thestrengthened floor of the R7V-1 militaryaircraft. The stronger airframe was also usedfor the 1049E passenger version of which 28were built for eight airlines.The 1049C was used as the basis for the

most successful of the Super Constellations,

the 1049G, which first flew on December 7,1954. 102 were built with 3400hp versions ofthe turbo compound R-3350s. The wing couldcarry 600 US gallon (2271 litre) tip tanks anda weather radar could be fitted. The maximumtake off weight rose to 137,500lb (62,369kg),but 42 of the aircraft were later strengthenedto operate at 140,000lb (62,369kg), becomingknown as the Super Gs.The 1049G could carry between 71 and 95

passengers at 340mph (547kph) over 5400miles (8,700km) and were ordered by 16airlines around the world, the first flying withTWA in 1955. The last Super Constellationwas the 1049H, which was a convertible cargoand passenger aircraft based on the 1049Gwith the large cargo door and strengthenedfloor of the 1049D. Three subtypes with detailchanges were produced and a total of 53 werebuilt for 14 customers.Two civil turboprop powered

Constellations, the 1449 and 1549, wereproposed but not built. The final developmentwas therefore the Model 1649, which took thefuselage of the 1049G but added a completelynew 150ft (45.72m) span wing with square tipsand the 3400hp Wright R-3350 988 TC18-EA-2turbo compound engines. The maximum

VC-121E – One,Model 1049 R7V-1 53-7885,named Columbine III and used by theUSAF as President Eisenhower’s personaltransport.

C-121C – USAF equivalent of the R7V-1with more powerful 3400hp engines.Thirty-three delivered in 1955, four as VC-121CVIP transports, two becoming JC-121Ctestbeds and five more as the electronicwarfare EC-121S.

RC-121C – Ten of the US Navy’s WV-2 orderwere diverted to the USAF, nine of whichwere later redesignated TC-121C as AEWcrew trainers, the remaining eightredesignated again as the EC-121C.

RC-121D – AEW variant for the USAF, 72Model 1049As built as new and oneconverted from a C-121C.All were fittedwith the wingtip fuel tanks to increaserange. Later redesignated EC-121Dsand used on the Big Eye,College Eyeand Disco operations over Vietnam.Forty-two were fitted with upgraded

ABOVE: The first Lockheed C-69 wastransferred to the USAAF on July 28, 1943.Lockheed

electronics as the EC-121H, two moreas the EC-121J and four as EC-121Qs,which tracked U-2 missions among otherspecial operations. Fifteen EC-121Ds, sevenEC-121Hs and one EC-121J wereupgraded with new electronics and radarto become the EC-121T, the last retired inOctober 1978.

Lastly, the designations JC-121C (threeaircraft), NC-121C (1), JC-121K (1) andYEC-121K (1) were avionics and enginetest bed variants.

speed increased to 377mph (607kph) becauseof the improved aerodynamics and the newaircraft was named Starliner.The prototype flew for the first time on

October 11, 1956, entering service with TWAon June 1, 1957, between New York andLondon. Eventually 44 Model 1649s werebuilt, supplied to TWA, Air France, Lufthansa,Varig and Alaskan Airlines as well as anumber of charter operators. It’s extremelylong range meant that routes such as LosAngeles to London could be flown, but the eraof jet transports had arrived. The last TWAtransatlantic 1649 passenger flight took placein October 1961, and the last domestic USflight was made in December the followingyear. However, a number of 1649s wereconverted to freighters and remained inservice until 1976.The Constellation’s star had shone brightly

for Lockheed, with 510 civil and 346 militaryversions of the aircraft being producedbetween 1942 and 1958 when the last 1649was delivered to Air France. Although otheraircraft were produced in greater numbers,the Constellation was popular with passengersand its elegant form turned heads across theglobe. ■ Words: Tim Callaway

The Air Force ordered 82 EC-121s between 1951 and 1955, 72 of which were EC-121Ds, enteringservice with the Air Defense Command in 1953.This aircraft is on display at the NationalMuseum of the US Air Force.USAF

the Royal Air Force and then the 4th FighterGroup… he and I along with two other guyswere selected in the latter part of 1944 tocome out to Muroc Airfield and do the servicetests on the YP-80.

“Washington actually was very interestedin getting that test going so they could sendthe aircraft to Germany to challenge the Me262. But by flying every day, we finished upthe damn service tests at the very end of April

1945, and then in early May, Germany gave upand Washington cancelled the idea of sendingthe P-80 to Europe.”

There were numerous testing accidentswith the early variants as Lockheed’s chiefengineering test pilot Milo Burcham waskilled in the sixth prototype (YP-80) inOctober 1944 due to fuel pump failure ontakeoff. Burcham had been one of the betteraerobatic pilots of his day, and his loss was a

A fter having been liberated fromoccupied France, double aceSteve Pisanos (the FlyingGreek) was stationed inAmerica, being used now as a

test pilot for a number of different aircraft.Chief among these were the first generationof American jet powered fighter aircraft.

Steve Pisanos: “I finished test pilot schooland Don Gentile, who was my roommate from

Test flying theTest flying the

Lockheed P-80The P-80 Shooting Star was Lockheed’s first production jet fighter, and the risks involved with being

part of the development of that plane were enormous. Bob Hoover and Steve Pisanos were both amongthose early elite pilots who were tasked with developing America’s first generation of jet fighters.

The prototype Lockheed XP-80 was named Lulu Belle and first flew on January 9, 1944. Here, Lockheedchief test pilot Milo Burcham and ground crew ready the XP-80 for trials at the north end of Rogers Lake.

Powered by a British Goblin engine it reached a speed of 547mph in level flight.USAF

A rare colourphotograph of one ofthe P-80A-1s, 44-85004,in flight.USAF

Lockheed Martin 33

blow to the programme. Compounding thesituation was when his successor TonyLeVier, one of America’s top air race pilots,was nearly killed in the crash of prototypenumber two (XP-80-A) when the jet enginestarted throwing turbine blades through thefuselage causing structural failure.

Pisanos: “While we were still at Muroc, Icame down from a test run, landed on the lakebed and taxied over to the north base. DonGentile came over to me and asked if I hadheard about Tony LeVier. He said: ‘theaircraft… the turbine wheel came loose andcut the damn fuselage like a butcher’s knife.Tony tried to bail out from the aircraft but hehad difficulties with his head getting bouncedback and forth in the cockpit, they picked himup and he’s at the hospital in Victorville’. Ijumped down from my aircraft and Gentileand I jumped in a jeep and cut across.

“We didn’t go on the highways, we cutacross the damned desert, and we werebouncing all over the place from the Murocbase to Victorville. We got to the hospital andthere was old Tony… the poor guy wasbandaged up all over his head and everything.What he told us was that he noticed he hadlost the tail of the aircraft and the front partwas disintegrating and turning back and forth.He tried to open the canopy but he couldn’t doit with his head bouncing around. Keep inmind at that time both Lockheed andourselves… we didn’t have the hard helmetslike the boys are using today, we had theleather helmets from the Second World War.”

That experience brought on the change tobetter headgear. Pisanos: “While we werechatting with Tony at the hospital he said:‘listen you guys, don’t you fly that aircraftagain with the leather helmets. Get somethingon your head, you need to have something’.”Dr Lovelace, our flight surgeon from WrightField, happened to be at Muroc at the sametime. After we left Tony, we went over to thedoctor’s place and told him what Tony hadsaid to us.

“The following day he was flown to WrightField in a B-26. A week later guess what hecame back, and guess what we were usinginitially… football player helmets. Youremember those funny football helmets thatthey had? Later on the hard helmet came in.”

Pisanos continues: “I remember when BobHoover and Chuck Yeager arrived, as we left

Muroc near the end of May 1945 and not longafter when we arrived at Wright Field, Hooverand Yeager were checked in there. Both ofthem got involved in additional tests with theYP-80 and the Me 262. I also flew the Me 262to compare it with our YP-80, as the engineercame down one morning and said: ‘Pisanosand Gentile… Gentile you take the Me 262,Pisanos you take the YP-80’. He gave us theorders of what to do, starting at 30,000ft, then25,000ft, and 20,000ft. Every run we made, theYP-80 was pulling away from the 262. We camedown and the engineer had us switch over,with me in the 262, and Don in the P-80. Theresult was the same and the YP-80 was faster.”

Meanwhile, overseas Bob Hoover had beena crackerjack pilot whose skills had typicallybeen used to make the first flights of aircraftthat had arrived in North Africa. Bob Hoover:“The planes were brought overseas in cratesand were assembled. They had to be flown tobe sure they were airworthy for combat.Somebody had to make that first flight.”

Years later, Hoover escaped from aGerman POW camp just before the end of thewar in Europe, flying a stolen Focke-Wulf Fw190A to freedom in Holland. “The war (inEurope) was two weeks from ending by thetime I got out,” said Hoover. “When I got backfrom Prison Camp, I was assigned to WrightField and I went through the test pilots➤

Above: Charles E ‘Chuck’Yeager was oneof the test pilots on the Shooting Starprogramme along with Bob Hoover andSteve Pisanos.USAF

Below: Steve Pisanos pictured earlier in hiscareer when a P-51 Mustang pilot inEurope.Steve Pisanos

Bob Hoover seen in the cockpit of a Spitfireduring the Second World War.USAF


school. I was a junior pilot, but had a lot morequalifications than a lot of other people thatwere going through the school.”

Bob Hoover and Chuck Yeager were oftenthe air show pilots for the air force. Hoover:“The assignments were passed around to a lotof different people. When there was somereason for an open house at some air base,and they had enough political power… whichI guess is the best way to put it… they wouldget hold of the Pentagon and say that theywanted a jet at their event, and would ask ifthey could provide them with one. Thesewould be on the weekend and we would gowherever we had to go. It wasn’t a full timeassignment; it was just an occasional thing.”Was it the glamour job? “Well, I’d been doingair shows since before the Second World War,so it was the same old sort of thing for me. Itwas always fun to take a new airplane that hadnever been seen before, and make it performfor you.”

Colonel Bill Council was the head of flighttesting at Wright Field, and combined with LtBob Hoover’s air show experience, itsometimes made for a volatile combination.Pisanos recalls: “On July 4, 1945, Col Councilsaid we are going to do a pass over at WrightField as they had 100,000 visitors who wantedto see the new jet aircraft. I was supposed tofly the P-80 because I had more flying timethan anybody from all my time at Muroc Lake.

“Since I was one of the test pilots and alsowas the engineering officer, of course I gotextra time. Well, my boss (Council) took myP-80 and so I flew the P-59. Before the flightCol Council said: ‘I don’t want any excitement,I don’t want any manoeuvres or anything’. Sothen I was flying behind Bob Hoover, who wasin a P-47, and when we flew over the runwayfrom the north, Hoover and another guyflying a P-47, Gus Lundquist… as they passedthe airfield they made a roll.

“Well, Col Council in his P-80 way upahead, he spotted that. He said: ‘the twoaircraft that just rolled over at the end of therunway are to proceed to Patterson Field,land, and stay there’. We continued thedemonstration, and then landed at PattersonField because Wright Field was full of visitors.Col Council said: ‘You and you are going totraining command and you are through withthe test pilot business’. Gus said he didn’t carebecause he was going to get out of the airforce. Ol’ Bob really didn’t want to go totraining command.”

Pisanos continues: “We were both, alongwith Yeager and Gabreski, staying at theYMCA in Dayton. Over the weekend Bob andI went down to the dining room for breakfastand I told Bob ‘I have a solution to yourproblem but you have to follow it, and I won’ttell you what it is’.

“The following day was Sunday and I toldhim that we were going to take a ridesomewhere. I called up Gentile, so he and JimLittle came along, another test pilot making itfour of us. I was driving Chuck Yeager’sChevrolet as Chuck would leave the car withme when he was flying back to West Virginia tosee his wife Glennis. We were driving and I toldhim ‘Bob, we are going to Patterson Field andguess who you are going to see? Col Council.Listen, he might be an SOB, but he has a heartthat is absolutely the best. I’ve checked him outon the P-80 and I know what the man is allabout. You go to his house and apologisze’.”

“He was in there for about half an hour andthen he came out smiling like a baby. Council’swife had opened the door, and he asked tospeak to the colonel. He told Council that hewas there to apologise, so Council asked his

A trio of aces,Don Gentile, John Godfrey and Steve Pisanos.All three flew test flights on theXP-80s and early production aircraft.Steve Pisanos

Lockheed chief test pilot Tony LeVier with oneof the Lockheed YP-80 Shooting Stars.Via Norm DeWitt

Chuck Yeager in the cockpit of a P-80wearing the updated helmet as described inthe article.USAF

Lockheed Martin 35

wife to get a beer for Hoover and Council saidhe would change the orders, but that if Hooverpulled another shenanigan like that, he wouldkick him out of the air force.” Bob Hoover wasback in the flight test programme.

Bob recalls the struggles with those earlyLockheed P-80s: “They put me into the jetsright off. When I first flew it, the engine lifewas exceedingly short. After each flight, youhad to wait until the engine cooled down soyou could crawl up the tailpipe. We learned todo that ourselves, to crawl up and take adevice that could measure the clearancebetween the blades on the turbine wheelagainst the shroud that surrounded it. It hadto be within a paper-thin tolerance betweeneach blade. I can’t recall how many therewere, but it took a considerable time to gothrough this procedure, which wascommonplace with the earlier jet engines.That happens with a lot of the new engineswhen they are first developed.”

Pisanos: “The engineers would have tolook at them and if necessary, replace theengine to continue the flight. We also hadproblems at Muroc with blades coming off,one time I had to put a YP-80 on the lake beddead stick because of that. Tony LeVier andol’ Kelly Johnson were really living at Murocwith us during the service tests. Of course,every time we had a major catastrophe, theywould take the airplane back to Burbank andtry to repair it.”

Fuel control was one of the biggestproblems with the early Shooting Star. Bob:“We didn’t have fuel controls as nowadays,and we didn’t have adequate controls with theP-59 before it. So, what we had to do… thepilot was responsible as the fuel controller. Itwas a manual procedure on those earlyengines. You had to meter it so delicately toavoid it getting excessive temperature andexceeding the limits on the engine. ➤

The first of two XP-80A preproduction prototypes was known as the Gray Ghost dueto its all light grey paint scheme. In flight over the Muroc Flight Test Base, it served

as a testbed for a new engine and intake duct design improvements.USAF

Early engine and fuel pump problems led to some accidents and off airfield landings, aswith this early production P-80.USAF

The top scoring USAF ace of the Second World War, Richard Ira ‘Dick’ Bong,was killed after afuel pump failure in a production P-80 on August 6, 1945.He is seen here in the cockpit of aP-38, the aircraft he was so successful in,with his wife,Marge.Via Norm DeWitt


“When you would go to start the engine,the engine would be cranked up with anexternal power source to where the rpm ofthe engine was high enough to accomplishthrottle movement. But we always hadproblems with the power unit getting it up toenough speed before ignition. Then when youhit the ignition, you barely broke the throttleout of its stop-cock, or closed position.

“In that position there was no fuel comingout at all, and then you’d have to come arounda little horn on the throttle quadrant, to get outof that stop-cock position. If you came aroundthat horn and moved it just a fraction of an inchtoo fast, you’d be to the limits of temperatureand you’d have to stop it. So, you had to bevery careful because the metering of the fuelwas the most important thing in the world to jetengines before we got automatic fuel controls.”

It was the opposite of what you’d expectwith a piston engine, where the richer mixturewould run cooler. With the jets, more fuel hadthe opposite result. Bob: “Correct, if you letthe pressure build up too much, with toomuch of a squirt of fuel, then the turbinewheel couldn’t accept it quick enough and allthat fuel that it didn’t need at low rpm wouldexceed the temperature needed for enginestart. We eventually got fuel controllers on theP-80 and then it became a reasonable airplane,but even to the end, you had to be carefulcoming out of the stop-cock position. After theShooting Star, the F-84 was the next one tocome along and they had a fuel controller.”

But with the early P-80, the problemscontinued. Almost a year after the loss of MiloBurcham, fuel pump failure also led to the lossof Richard Bong, America’s top ace of theSecond World War, on August 6, 1945. TheLockheed test pilot had a primary fuel pumpfailure on takeoff with an early production P-80, and was lost when he bailed out atinsufficient altitude for the chute to deploy.

The stories of pilots climbing intotailpipes and air intakes tomeasure engine clearanceswere true,as evinced by TonyLeVier here.USAF

Test pilot Tony LeVier with an early P-80 in the background,behind the prototype of the TP-80C,a two seat trainer variantthat later became the world famous T-33.USAF

Pump failure had been a well documentedissue with the planes, and they had recentlybeen upgraded with an auxiliary I-16 fuelpump which needed to be engaged by thepilot. In the post-crash investigation it wasdetermined that the auxiliary pump was notengaged. Flight testing of the P-80s was thevery definition of hazardous duty.

Pisanos: “Exactly. Another episode I hadwas part of the test programme where we flewhigh over the lake, shut down the engine, andthen tried to restart with the I-16 unit. Otherguys did that and were able to, but on oneoccasion I tried to start the damned thing andcouldn’t get the engine to restart. I declaredan emergency and landed it then I stopped inthe middle of the lake, Tony LeVier and KellyJohnson drove the company staff car over to

me and asked what the hell happened. I toldthem how I could not restart the damn aircraftwhile up in the air. They inspected theairplane and corrected the problem.”

Fuel was also an issue for other reasons, asit was unusual to find kerosene jet fuel atmilitary locations, since everything in thesupply chain was for serving piston poweredinternal combustion engines. As a result ofthis fuel situation, it was decided to test the P-80 using 100 octane gasoline for fuel. BobHoover was selected to perform this test witha tied down P-80. Hoover: “They had run it onthe test stand, but they wanted it to beoperated in the airplane, as if it were in flight,with the airplane surrounded by fire trucks. Iwasn’t too concerned with this procedurebecause they had already run tests in the

Lockheed Martin 37

wind tunnel that didn’t show any burner cancoking and you had every reason to believethat it would be successful.” This was a deadlyserious business, as there was really nosubstitute for putting a pilot in the cockpit tomonitor the test.

Steve Pisanos was similarly involved in fueltesting. He said: “Bob Hoover and I flew the P-59 at Wright Field with a fuel test programme. Iflew the P-59 with plain alcohol, plain gasoline,and then plain kerosene. Then when I camedown, the fuel guys would check thetemperatures. They discovered that the alcoholwas no good, as the temperatures producedwere too high in the tailpipe. Gasoline was thesame thing with high temperatures, but themixture between gasoline and kerosene waswhat they eventually came up with, JP-4, whichis what we have today.” The 50-50 mix ofgasoline and kerosene called JP-4 was tobecome the primary jet propulsion fuel usedfor almost 50 years.

Meanwhile, there was a problem with earlyproduction model P-80s crashing. Cockpitcanopy failure wasn’t an obvious concern, asthat had not been a problem with the earlierprototypes. Pisanos: “When we pulled theservice tests with the five YP-80s we had atMuroc, we didn’t have that problem with thecanopy. But the production aircraft were havingtheir canopies blown off, and it was a defect onthe production line.” However, the cause wasn’tknown at the time of these failures. All that wasknown was that production P-80s werecrashing without any reason being determined,as the pilots did not survive.

The football helmets previously mentionedby Pisanos clearly weren’t standard issue asBob Hoover had bought his own footballhelmet from a sporting goods store. “When Igot that football helmet, I went to theparachute department and got them to put onsnap buttons so I could snap the footballhelmet on top of my leather helmet and stillbe able to use my hookups for the oxygenmask and chin strap,” he said.

Hoover, who was 6ft 2in tall, painted his ownfootball helmet bright yellow which ended upproviding a major clue in solving that issue oflost aircraft due to canopy failure. Thisdiscovery came during tests with ramjetengines added to the end of the wingtips.Hoover: “We lost three pilots at Wright Field,and we didn’t know why until my incident. I had

been bent over to turn the fuel tank valves forthe ramjet engines that we were using on thewingtips. They were like water valves the size ofa small steering wheel mounted on the floor.”

Again providence was on Hoover’s side, asthe canopy picked that precise moment todeflect and rotate into the cockpit, leavingyellow marks along the inside of the canopyframe. Had he not had his head down tonearly between his knees, he would have beendecapitated, and would have been test pilotnumber four lost under mysteriousconditions. He said: “It was just coincidence,but the canopy was recovered and it indicatedbeyond question that the canopy was dishinginto the cockpit as there was yellow paintalong the inside of the canopy frame. Theyinstalled a triangular back plate by the

windshield that would prevent the canopyfrom dishing.”

As if these issues surrounding the earlyproduction P-80s weren’t enough, one couldn’trely upon the warning light system either.Chuck Yeager tells about how he would justunscrew the warning bulbs in the P-80 thatwould invariably go off like a Christmas treein flight. Hoover: “About 90% of the time, theywere false alarms. So, you got the impressionthat the alarms weren’t real. I made thatassumption, and the flights were veryimportant but we would not have known ifthere was not a problem. The determinationwas on your own, as to whether to believe it ornot believe it.”

This sort of dice rolling often became whatthe superior officers began to expect fromtheir pilots. Those risks were assumed by thetest pilots, but one wouldn’t expect the samefrom military pilots once the aircraft enteredinto operational service. Hoover: “I rememberbeing in North Africa to demonstrate the F-100, in the early days when it was first gettingout into the service. When I arrived, everyonewas looking up at the sky, as a pilot had justejected from an F-100.

“The commanding officer met me and saidthat he’d just lost an F-100 and told hisexecutive office that if the pilot was okay, tobring him into his office. I went to his office todiscuss what a demonstration flight wouldconsist of. When the young man was broughtin, the colonel started addressing the younglieutenant like he was an idiot because he’d➤

An excerpt from the Dayton newspaper of 1945 records the impression the speed of the earlyjet fighters made on the public and press.Via Norm DeWitt

The first XP-80 prototype, Lulu Belle with the early shape of the fin and rudder.This was the onlyP-80 to be fitted with this design, it was quickly changed to the more rounded fin.USAF


bailed out when he saw the fire warning light,saying ‘that plane never blew up before it hitthe ground after you ejected from it, and thattells me that there was no fire’. The youngLieutenant was dejected, his head hangingdown and just miserable I said: ‘Colonel, this isyour show, but we could afford to do what wedid when testing the airplane and ignore lights.But, we felt that it was important enough’.

“There were two fire warning lights, theforward light and the aft light in the tailsection. If you throttled back when you had anaft warning light, you could make the light goout. But generally speaking, if you had thefront warning light on at the same time as theaft warning light, you would almostimmediately assume that both systemswouldn’t fail. We had it written up in thehandbook that if you had a forward warninglight go on, get out as quick as you canbecause you are going to have a realexplosion and should exit the airplane. Thecolonel still reprimanded the younglieutenant, and I was pretty upset about it butthere was nothing I could do, so I at leastvoiced my opinion.”

There was no doubt about the situationwhen Hoover once had an engine explosion ina P-80. Complicating the situation was aperfect storm of unreasonable orders, alongwith an incorrect weather report. Hoover: “Itwas the worst thing I’ve ever been through.The colonel was Bill Council again, who wasthe head of flight test, and it was about fouro’clock in the afternoon. He had called meabout having a request to have a P-80 flown toBeverly, Massachusetts; General Spaatz whowas the chief of staff of the air force at the timewas going to be there. This was back when theP-80s were brand new and hadn’t been seen in

much of the country… no jet had been.“Council said: ‘I want you to get there’. I

asked him if he was going waive on flying atnight. He said: ‘I’m not putting a waiver onflying at night. You’re not going to fly at night,but you’d better damn well get that airplane toBeverly Massachusetts before dark’. Iexplained to the colonel that it was impossibleand that I had to release the external tanks,taking the tanks off, getting them truckedover to Patterson Field, as it had a longerrunway. I told him ‘getting them pressurisedand put back on, after getting them drivenover there by truck, I can’t get there beforedark’. Council said: ‘I’m telling you I want that

plane in Beverly, Massachusetts, and I want itthere before dark. You heard me lieutenant,just make sure it happens’.

“By the time I had the pressurisation testdone, the plane was ready and it was darkwith a forecast to be clear. In the interest ofconserving fuel, the higher you get, the lessfuel you burn and the more speed you have.Going eastbound, the higher you get thebetter the tailwind due to the prevailing wind.I was well above 40,000ft, and keep in mind wehad no heating or pressurisation in thosedays, so the canopy would fog up from yourbreathing. On every flight that was very longat all, it would get frosted up on the canopy

An early production LockheedP-80 Shooting Star with themodified canopy and otherrefinements developed duringthe test programme.USAF

The P-80s were flown in comparative trials against a number of aircraft, including theMesserschmitt Me 262 and the Bell YP-59A Airacomet as seen here.USAF

Lockheed Martin 39

and you couldn’t see out due to the exhalationfrom your oxygen mask.

“I remember taking off my gloves andputting my thumb against the side panel,which was the thinnest glass in the entirecockpit area, and I could get a peephole aboutthe size of your thumbnail. I’d put my thumbagainst that side panel to make a little peephole and could see one vertical light beamthat was so powerful that it went up like asearchlight to about 30,000ft, and I figured itmust be an experimental light at an airfield.

“Soon after I banked the plane and sawlights coming through the clouds, which Iidentified in my own mind as Boston, and itwas socked in solid. I figured I could see thatvertical light beam again if I turned around,reciprocated my heading, and looked throughthe peep hole in the canopy.”

It all went horribly wrong. Hoover: “Rightas I turned back, I heard an explosion. It was afire ball and the canopy was lit up bright redwith both of the fire warning lights on. I goton the radio but couldn’t reach anybody.Nobody knew where I was, as we didn’t haveradar back in those days. I figured I had to getback to that light beam I had seen a fewminutes before. I’d been at 50 degrees belowzero for about 40 minutes or so, and I didn’thave on heavy clothes. I thought ‘Boy, I’mgoing to be in bad shape here, I’ll head downto 10,000ft otherwise I’ll not survive’. I wasfreezing while gliding down, heading for thatlight beam through my peep hole. I got downto about 10,000ft but I was still some distancefrom the light beam.”

There were precious few options, noneparticularly promising. Hoover: “I got rid ofthe canopy at 10,000ft, if I had to bail out as Ididn’t have an ejection seat. If I bailed out

now, I wouldn’t know where I would be. Theground was covered with snow from asnowstorm that had just gone through overthe last couple of days and I thought they’dnever find me.

“I had one chance… so, and tried to see if Icould get any power out of the engine at all.I’d had it shut down for quite a few minutesduring the glide down. I took the fuel out of‘stop-cock’, hit the ignition, and the enginetook hold. It gave me a bit of thrust, but thengave up and that was all over. But I washeaded for that light beam, and never saw theground, staying on my glide speed and flaredwhen I thought I was getting close to the levelof the light. I had landed between the hangars,not on the runway. I passed out from exposureonce I got on the ground. I had frostbite onmy fingers and toes; I couldn’t feel them at all.

“The major who was on duty had been outchecking the runway, and he saw this airplanesitting there, thinking ‘this airplane shouldn’tbe outside’. Then he saw me slumped over in

the cockpit. They got me to the hospitalwhere they told me how serious it was. Theyput my extremities in luke-warm water,including my hands and arms. At aboutmidnight the doctor came by with anotherdoctor, talking about having to amputate. Iwas conscious, and one doctor said he’d readsomething in a medical journal about howalcohol dilutes the blood vessels and permitsthe blood circulation to move more freely.

“They decided they had nothing to lose, solet’s try. They gave me some alcohol everyhour, and first thing I wasn’t feeling any pain.After a while I had begun to feel my toes andfingers… this went on for 2 1⁄2 days, and it sureworked in my case. But I’ve had everlastingproblems. As soon as it gets anywhere near tocold, my fingers start to turn purple. My toesdon’t bother me, but my fingers… I have tocome in and run warm water over them.” Asmall price to pay…

In the wake of all this drama atWright Field,BobHoover was selected as one of the Bell X-1➤

The Lockheed P-80 designwas to be extremely

successful and long lived,the last of the T-33 two

seat aircraft did not leaveUSAF service until 1987 asrecorded on the airbrakes

of this preserved aircraft.Norm DeWitt.

A single P-80 was developed into a record breaking aircraft, the XP-80R. Often flown by TonyLeVier, the sole example is preserved in the USAF Museum.USAF


programme pilots. Hoover: “There were a halfdozen of us. I had been selected as the numberone project pilot for the Bell X-1. I had done thecompressibility work with other reciprocatingengine airplanes, as they were trying to figureout how they were going to ever get throughcompressibility, which would make an airplanecapable to go the speed of sound.“We had sort of a built-in headwind

because of the shape of everything with aconventional airplane. We just did not have thepower, but even if we did have the power theairplane could not have handled it.Compressibility is where the airflow breaksdown because of the design of the airplanewhere you don’t have a smooth flow of air.When you start to go supersonic, the wholeairplane starts to shake until it goes into aflutter condition and then almostinstantaneous disintegration. The first testshad that disastrous situation, and the Britishlost two or three airplanes.”One of those was flown by Geoffrey de

Havilland Jr., perhaps England’s best knowntest pilot, who had been the first to fly boththe Mosquito and the Vampire for deHavilland. The family’s celebrity was certainlyenhanced by his cousin, Olivia de Havilland’sstarring role in the movie Gone with the

Wind, to say nothing of hersister Joan de Havilland

(stage name Joan Fontaine) who was starringin musicals with Fred Astaire. Given all ofthis, Geoffrey’s death while testing the deHavilland DH.108 Swallow was a massiveshock to the public. The three Swallows builtwere all eventually lost in fatal accidents.Hoover said: “The Germans lost them as

well. Compressibility was the big bugaboo,and we had it with all our Second World Warfighters. While testing the P-47 wedetermined it had its share of problems withthat. When you got into a vertical dive, theairplane would become almost uncontrollable.One time we got a P-51 up to Mach 0.82. Wethen decided to put that device on the P-47because it seemed to have more power.“With a P-47, if you dived down on a

formation of German airplanes, as you passedthrough the formation you could get one ortwo, and when they rolled over and starteddiving they could never catch up as youalready had far more speed. When the P-47got into compressibility, they would chop thethrottle and pull back as hard as they could onthe stick to get the nose up. What wouldhappen then is that the airplane would tuckinstead of pulling up. You didn’t have enoughphysical strength to get the elevators up highenough to get effectiveness. In our test work,we put a mechanical device on the horizontalstabiliser ahead of the hinge point for the

elevator. It would actuate a flatplate that went the fullchord of thehorizontal stabiliser,almost to the vertical.”There had beenother attempts, usingan electric device todeploy the plate.

Hoover: “The first pilot assigned to thecompressibility programme had an electricmotor, but it would stall out and couldn’tactuate the plate. It wasn’t powerful enoughagainst the force… too much air load. Thepilot didn’t survive. So they asked me if Iwanted to take over the programme and I said‘yes’. I told them that I didn’t want the electricmotor. I wanted a telescoping rod control thatwas run to the cockpit, attached to the floor,with a part that went all the way up to thecanopy so I could use a ratchet. If I needed itone notch higher, I could get it… I felt I hadenough leverage. I was able to get it up to0.82, the same as we had with the Mustang,and they said, ‘okay, let’s go for it’.“Jim Fitzgerald, a fellow POW and a really

good friend of mine was flying a P-80, he wasmy chase pilot. His job as a chase pilot is toobserve everything going on with the airplaneand offer advice. Well, I was going downvertically and I had the device almost up, andJim kept telling me that I wasn’t going tomake it and I’d better get out while I can. Iwas at over 500mph indicated, and I neverthought I’d have a chance.“I used everything I had force-wise, and got

it (the ratchet controlled plate) to the last stop.They had me recorded at 0.83 and then therewas an enormous explosion. It was just theworst noise you ever heard… I would suspectthat I’d gone through 10 or more Gs but it wasinstantaneous, and I was unconscious… forhow many seconds I don’t know.“When I came out of it I couldn’t even see at

first, I was loaded up so heavily. When I clearedup, I was recovering from the dive. I had noidea what was happening. The plane wasshaking so hard that I thought it was comingapart on me. I looked out at the wings, and

they were wrinkled. Whathad happened was that thewings had buckled, andthe stress on the wingswas so much that thelocks on the landinggear came loose, andthe gear pulled right outof the wings. Thewheels dropped, andthe landing gear

Given his outstandingcontribution toaviation asLockheed’s chief testpilot,Tony LeVier iscommemorated inthis memorial at theP-38 hangar of theMarch Field Museumin California.Norm DeWitt

Lockheed Martin 41

doors tore off, and then they tore off a goodpart of the tail, but the wheels didn’t break off.I had about 10,000ft to make a recovery.“Jim knew I was running into real trouble,

and as I was slowing down, he pulled up nextto me to ask what my intentions were. I toldhim that I was going to try and land it. Hetold me that he wasn’t sure that the wingswere going to stay on. I said that the wingswere on right now, and if I don’t hit somerough air, I feel pretty confident. So, hestayed right with me. All the indicators in thecockpit showed that the landing gear hadfailed, but it landed okay. I never saw it again,as the airplane was destroyed (due to theextensive damage throughout). I’m sure thisled to my being selected for the X-1programme, because I’d done all thepreliminary testing for that kind of a project.”The X-1 rocket plane was quite unlike

anything else in its day (originally known asthe Bell XS-1). Hoover: “The X-1 was designedlike a 30-6 rifle bullet, and that goes aboveMach 1. Since the 30-6 bullet went Mach 1,what could we do to make an airplane go thisfast. We thought we’d make the thinnestwings possible and the smallest tail possible,and still control it. And that’s exactly whatLarry Bell came up with.“They (the air force) decided to bring it in-

house because the Bell test pilot wasdemanding $150,000 to make the one flight.That was when it was decided that the airforce would take it over. We would be theleaders, and NACA would also have a testvehicle. They would be the backup forwhatever I was going to do with the X-1.

Because of the X-1 programme, and myhaving flown jets, we had a few poweredflights without achieving speeds that I hadn’talready been through with the jets.”Just as it seemed like Bob Hoover would

be the pilot to push the envelope into a newsupersonic era, his plans came crashing down.Hoover said: “Colonel Al Boyd had me andtwo other fellows to consider for the numberone slot. There was a selection process and Icame out on top. I was happy as a clam, andreally looking forward to it. I had everyreason to believe that the design would helpus to get to the objective we wanted. ChuckYeager was still in maintenance. Boyd calledme in and he said: ‘young man, did you buzzthe Springfield airport the other day?’ I said,‘yes sir, I did’.“Boyd said: ‘I know two things about you.

You are honest as there was only one jet thatflew in the whole United States that day. But, Irealise that you are not reliable, and I’m goingto find somebody else to replace you with.And you will be his number two, and you willoffer him as much assistance as you canpossibly give someone’.“I’ve looked back on that over the years.

What kind of pilot would you be to nailsomebody because of a simple buzz job? Theonly reason I’d done the buzz job was I was ina P-80 training one of the new pilots. It hadbeen an hour, which was the most time I’dbeen able to get without external tanks. I wastrying to get it back to the base at WrightField… and I had to cross over Springfieldairport, so I just dropped down and wentacross upside down. The guys who were at

the airfield couldn’t read the number becauseI was upside down and the numbers werereally small in those days. But the fact that aP-80 had buzzed the field illegally, was toomuch and I got the call.“A few weeks later I was called back to

Boyd’s office. ‘Do you know Captain Yeager?’He didn’t feel the other pilots who werecandidates could handle it, to do what had tobe done. Of course by then, Chuck and I werebeer drinking pals, and I never let the colonelknow that in fact I was going from despair tohappiness because I respected Chuck’s flyingability so much. I was behind him 100% andalways have been.”Everyone involved in heading up the flight

test programmes was a talented pilot in theirown right. Col Boyd, who made the call to pullHoover from the X-1 assignment, was to set aWorld Speed Record of 623mph in June 1947with the specially modified Lockheed XP-80Rracer. Similar achievements were accomplishedby Col Council in January 1946, when he flew aP-80 in the first nonstop transcontinental flightof a jet aircraft, averaging 584mph from LosAngeles to New York.So, Chuck Yeager instead of Bob Hoover

has gone into the record books as the firstpilot to break the sound barrier. Hoover: “I’mnot taking anything away from Chuck, becausehe did it, and he did it because of his skill. Hewas one of the finest pilots that I’ve ever met.”Of course, in Yeager’s book, he states thatthere was nothing to choose between the twoof them in terms of flying ability.“I know I felt that way,” said Hoover. “We

had many a dogfight against captured➤

The prototype XP-80 Lulu Belle as itappears today,preserved in the NationalMuseum of the USAF at Wright PattersonAir Force Base near Dayton,Ohio.USAF


Japanese airplanes immediately after the war.As a result, each of us really knew how goodthe other was.” Bob’s method of introducinghimself had been to take a P-38 Lightning andjump Chuck Yeager in the Bell P-59 jet, duringa test flight. “That’s the way we met. Fighterpilots always felt they were the best, that theycould beat anybody. That isn’t necessarily truefor the average person.“That was one thing that was significant

about that entire programme. There were abunch of doctors… people who were trying tofigure out the psychological and physicalaspects of what we were trying to do. Theywanted to determine what a human beingcould withstand, as the airplane was designedfor 18 positive and 18 negative Gs. Theywanted to know at what point we would notfunction properly. This was before thoseastronauts had to go through all that terribletreatment.“So, they would take Chuck and I right to

the point of unconsciousness with thecentrifuge, and that was a pretty miserableexperience. Then they redesigned the pressuresuits, with a new type called Capstan. So, Chuckand I would go back and forth to Worcester,Massachusetts, where the David ClarkCompany was located. They had contractedwith the government to make this new pressuresuit. We were testing them to about 65,000ft andat that elevation your blood boils (without thesuit). I was in the chamber one day and when Iwas at 50,000ft, I had lost everything, andcouldn’t speak. I was holding my breath, notinhaling or exhaling… you can’t breathe aswhen this happens you are paralyzed in yourthroat, but I could wave my arms. There wasonly one porthole, and the doctor who wassupposed to be watching me was instead talkingto another doctor, and Chuck was lookingthrough the porthole. He started yelling for thedoctor, saying ‘Bob’s in real trouble’. They got

things connected to me before I lostconsciousness. I tell this story because I wouldhave done the same for Chuck.”Hoover flew the P-80 chase plane for

Chuck Yeager’s X-1 record flights. By thenhad they resolved the various issues with theP-80? “Yes, it had the good fuel control bythen, but you had to still be very careful onthe start. But it helped you avoid getting toomuch fuel at one time. It had become easier,but was still a pain in the neck, all the way tothe end of the P-80 programme or with the T-33 engine.”Just to add to the challenges that Yeager

faced, he never had enough airspeed to fly theplane upon being dropped. Chuck Yeager:“The stall speed was 190mph and every timehe’d drop me, I was in a stall.” One assumes itwas one of the big downsides of the tinywings. Bob Hoover: “Oh, heavens yes, the

airplane had a very high stall speed.”Bob Cardenas, pilot of the B-29 that carried

the X-1, mentions that the Bell X-1 wasdeployed in the boundary layer of the bomber,contributing to the problem. All in all, it addedup to a challenging situation. The X-1 pilot isblinded, dropped out in a stall, then looks forHoover’s contrail, hits the rockets on and aimsfor Hoover’s P-80? Hoover said: “That’s it.What Chuck always did, when he would dropout the belly of the B-29, was be blinded ashe’d been in a dark airplane going into thebright sunlight. The first thing he had to do,was to look straight up and hopefully hewould see my contrail and head in thatdirection. That way when he went by me, hewas roughly in the right position to glide backto the lake bed.”Dick Frost was flying the other P-80 chase

plane. Hoover: “He was also part of the X-1

Chuck Yeager andBob Hoover at an

awards ceremony in2012.Norm DeWitt

Chuck Yeager and Steve Pisanos, reunited in 2012.Norm DeWitt

Lockheed Martin 43

programme and would stay with the bomberall the way through the release. When Chuckwas released from the bomber, I was alreadysitting above 40,000ft. Dick would be sitting information with the bomber, and stay withChuck until he ignited the rockets. WhenChuck ignited the rockets, he would go awayfrom Dick so fast he would be out of sight in amatter of seconds and then would go verticallooking for my contrail. He would go by me,and have burnout maybe 3000 or 4000ft aboveme. When that would occur he would bedecelerating because he had no power, andhe’d just go to glide speed and I would catchup with him really quick.”

Aiming for Bob Hoover had saved Yeageron one high altitude flight test. Hoover said:“Well, on one of his flights he was whistlinglike all get-out at 47,000ft plus and when hewent by me I knew he was going to be gettingpretty high. At the apex of his flight, wherethe rocket fuel is exhausted, he said: ‘Bob, I’velost my compression’. Decompression meantthat immediately you’d get ice all overeverything including the inside of the glass sothat you couldn’t see out. I asked him if hecould see okay, and he said: ‘No, I can’t seeanything’. I told him ‘just stick with whatyou’ve got’, he was within my sight.

“Of course I had my engine running fullbore. Each time when he had run out of fuel,within seconds I would be right on his wing asI would be at Mach 0.8 and there is not a bigspread between that and Mach 1. We stilldidn’t have a heated or pressurised cockpit inthe P-80, so I was still having to hold mythumb against the side of the frosted overcanopy to create a peep hole to look through.Chuck was still blind, so I told him ‘I got you,turn a little bit to the left… okay, hold it rightthere, we are on a direct line for the lakebed’.I followed him all the way down to thelanding, but I did that on every flight.

“Sometimes he couldn’t see out, but in thiscase he really could not see anything. I’d tellhim ‘you are 100ft up’, counting down whathe’s got until he got to 10ft, when I’d say ‘don’ttouch anything’. He did the landing beautifullyand I made one pass over him and said… ‘Allright, now we are even’.

Yeager had saved Hoover in the pressuresuit testing, and now Hoover had savedChuck’s life. Hoover: “I was working with himfrom the first flight, until I got broken up in anF-84 accident.” All too often the only personChuck had looking out for him, other thanhimself was Bob, and visa versa. Both areamong the very few survivors today who flewin what was perhaps the most dangerous eraof flight testing.

The job of the test pilot is obviously to putthe aircraft beyond the comfort zone, as withmost performance vehicles, one doesn’tdiscover the flaws and imbalances with adesign or setup until it is pushed to the limit.One example from the mid-1950s F-100 testprogramme stands out, when Hoover hadnearly killed himself while trying high speedmanoeuvres with the plane. The engineers atNorth American played a large part in thedisastrous subsequent flight by notimmediately taking the test pilot’s feedback

into account and making the neededmodifications. Was this the normaloccupational risk for test pilots flying theselate 1940s and 50s jet fighters?

Hoover: “They (the engineers) were willingto do that, but in most cases it was correctedbefore further flights. They hadn’t even readmy report from the day before, where I wroteup that with the yaw problems, we would losethe airplane if it went any faster or pulled anyadditional Gs due to an undersized verticalstabiliser. So, the next day they sent somebody(George ‘Wheaties’ Welch) up to go faster thanI had gone. When I explained this to GeorgeWelch, he told me: ‘Hoover, you areovereducated in grade, why don’t you quitbeing a test pilot and be an engineer?’

“My response was: ‘George, I’ve got to beas smart as an engineer to stay alive, and ifyou accept this flight I don’t think you have achance in the world’. Fifteen or 20 minuteslater it was all over and he was dead.” GeorgeWelch, one of America’s top Second WorldWar aces (16 kills), and the first pilot toexceed Mach 1 in the F-100, was lost when the

P-80 formation leader Clint Eastwood divesinto the attack.Via Norm DeWitt

Right: The movie poster for the 1955 sciencefiction movie Tarantula! Via Norm DeWitt

The uncredited Clint Eastwood leads the P-80attack on the giant spider.Via Norm DeWitt

In 1955 Universal Studios releasedscience fiction movie Tarantula! Thisfollowed the story of a scientistattempting to create a food nutrientfrom radioactive isotopes. One of theanimals used in the experiments is aMexican Red Rumped Tarantula spider,which grows to over 100ft tall and goeson the rampage in the Arizona desert.To combat the giant spider, a squadronof P-80 Shooting Stars attacks anddestroys the beast with napalm. In anunaccredited early role, the leader ofthe jet squadron is none other thanClint Eastwood. Jet aircraft were used toset the film firmly in the present, as thepublic still perceived them as the latestthing in aviation.

F-100A broke up in flight while trying to pullout of a supersonic dive.

Pisanos was one of the first P-80 pilots toleave the test flight programme. He said: “Ileft Wright Field to fly for TWA, and BobHoover continued the test programme I hadbeen involved in.” Bob Hoover stayedinvolved in cutting edge developments withthe service and then after. Hoover: “Later,upon leaving the service, I joined the Allisondivision of General Motors, testing engines.We’d set them up on the test bed and it wouldwork out pretty good, but when you have anew design, you are still working out the fuelcontrols and there are a lot of things you haveto worry about.”

Steve Pisanos, Bob Hoover, Bob Cardenas,and Chuck Yeager were reunited for a numberof events at the San Diego Air and SpaceMuseum during 2012. These men are a livingtestament to an era when test pilots pushed theaircraft design envelope further and faster thanhad been thought possible, while both capturingthe attention and firing the imagination of theworld. ■ Words: Norm DeWitt

Norm DeWitt’s

In 1955 Universal Studios released

Norm DeWitt’s

In mid 1943, Allied jet fighter developmentwas lagging behind that of Germany, asthe Messerschmitt Me 262 had entered

operational testing. Britain and the US hadflown prototypes of jet fighters, but they werestill in development. On May 17, 1943,Lockheed was invited to quickly develop a

fighter powered by the de Havilland HalfordH.1B turbojet. Anticipating this, Kelly Johnsonhad been developing jet fighter concepts asearly as 1939, including the L-133 canarddesign with a wing similar in shape to what

was about to be unveiled. Just a monthafter

the invitation, Lockheed presented the Model140, which was approved by the USAAF inJune with a contract issued on October 16.

One of the USAAF stipulations was that theprototype had to be completed in 180 days. Inorder to achieve this, Johnson assembled acrack team in a temporary building at

The first jet fighter to see operational service with the US Army Air Force (USAAF) was designed,built and delivered in just 143 days. It was developed into an all weather interceptor and the first

truly successful jet trainer, so successful it remains in service 65 years after its first flight.

The P-80, F-94, T-33 and T2V-1

Shooting Starsentering the jet age

The Acrojets were the first official US Air Force aerialdemonstration team.The team, flying Lockheed F-80Shooting Stars, first performed for the graduationceremonies for the Fighter School at Williams AFB,Arizona, in 1948.The Acrojets were disbanded in 1953with the formation of the Thunderbirds. Lockheed

The Lockheed T2V-1 SeaStar featured a raised instructor cockpit and a boundary layercontrol system to help reduce takeoff and landing speeds. Intended as jet-powered carrierdeck trainer, the SeaStar entered Navy service at NAS Pensacola, Florida, in late 1957.NMNA

Lockheed Martin 45

Lockheed’s Burbank Plant B-1, a similar teamto the one that built the P-38. Johnson foundthat specialised teams working on secretprojects was an efficient way to work, whilethe rest of the factory provided excellentcover for the activity.

The temporary building was to found aLockheed legend, a name that has becomesynonymous with the most advanced aircraftin aviation history. The ramshackle ‘shed’ andits secretive team was compared with the‘Skonk Works’, a strange, smelly factory fromthe popular cartoon Li’l Abner. Irv Culver, anengineer at Lockheed, is credited with firstuse of the term, and since the temporarybuilding was downwind from a pungentplastics factory, the name quickly stuck,becoming the Skunk Works in the 1960s.

The first product of the Skunk Works wasdelivered to MurocArmy Air Base wellahead of schedule onNovember 2, thenfitted with its engineon November 16, just143 days after

beginning work. Considering the nature of thework, this was a remarkable achievement.The design was both simple and typicallyelegant; a straight, laminar flow wing was lowset on the fuselage which housed the engine.The tailplane and whole rear fuselage could beremoved as a single unit for ease of access tothe engine. The cockpit was mounted forward,above the low slung air intakes and six .50 cal(12.7 mm) Browning machine guns were fittedin the nose, giving a high concentration offirepower. The air intakes initially causedproblems. While ground running the enginethey collapsed, damaging the jet badly. Onlyone other engine existed, so the first flight wasdelayed while this was delivered from Britainon December 28.

With strengthened intakes, on January 8,1944, Milo Burcham took the prototype, nowknown as the XP-80 and named Lulu-Belle, onits first short flight. Burcham finished hissecond flight with a spectacular display ofspeed and handling that Kelly Johnsondescribed as a magnificent demonstration ofsuccess. The XP-80 later reached a maximumspeed of 502mph (808kph), the first US jet

aircraft to exceed 500mph in level flight.Two development aircraft were then

produced, with the air intakes moved back todirectly below the cockpit and rounded wingand fin tips. Angled leading edge fillets wereadded to these two aircraft after the fifth flightto improve the handling, especially at the stall.The two XP-80As, 44-83021 and 22, wereknown as the Grey Ghost and the Silver Ghostrespectively, the painted and unpaintedfinishes used for performance comparisons.These two aircraft were much heavier thanthe XP-80 and powered by the GeneralElectric I-40, a development of the Rolls RoyceDerwent that was later developed further tobecome the Allison J33. The Silver Ghost wasthe first to be fitted with the wingtip fueltanks, a feature that was later to becomestandard on all versions. It also had a secondseat behind the pilot for an engineer observer,Kelly Johnson making a number of trips inthis seat. On one such flight he diagnosed theunstable intake duct airflow problem bylistening to it, solving the problem with aboundary layer bleed system. This kind ofintuitive and hands-on➤

The prototype XP-80 at Muroc.Note the early forward mounted engine air intakes. Lockheed

The six nose mounted Browning .50cal machine guns of the P-80 gavethe fighter tremendouslyconcentrated firepower. Lockheed

Legendary test pilot Milo Burcham was killedtesting the third YP-80A. Lockheed

The Lockheed P-80As ofthe 412th Fighter Group,bound for Chanute AirForce Base on May 19,1946.The 412th was thefirst USAAF unit equippedwith the P-80.USAF


approach to engineering problems was whatprompted Hall Hibbard to say of Kelly Johnson:“That damn Swede can actually see air!”As described in the previous article,

testing the early jets was very dangerous. Theremarkable Lockheed test chief pilot MiloBurcham was killed, along with the topscoring US ace of the Second World War,Major Richard I Bong. Tony LeVier had aclose call when the Grey Ghost broke up onMarch 20, 1945, after an engine turbine failurebroke the fuselage in two. Parachuting at lowlevel, LeVier broke his back on landing, butremarkably was flying again only six monthslater. Despite these setbacks, the manysuccesses led to an order for 13 service testaircraft, known as YP-80As, the first flying onSeptember 13, 1944. Four of these were sentto Europe for operational testing, but did notsee combat in the Second World War. The

USAAF placed two orders for 500 P-80As, thefirst on April 4, 1944, followed by a third orderfor 2500 more.This was cancelled at the end ofthe war and the first two orders cut back to917 machines. The first USAAF unit to receivethe P-80A was the 412th Fighter Group basedat Bakersfield Municipal Airport in Californiaduring early 1945. The fighter wasredesignated as the F-80 during 1948 after theformation of the US Air Force (USAF) onSeptember 18, 1947. They were to serve withdistinction throughout the Korean War asboth fighter and ground attack aircraft beforethe last were retired from Air National Guard(ANG) and Reserve Units in 1958.Beginning in 1955, former USAF aircraft

were supplied to Brazil, Chile, Colombia,Ecuador, Peru and Uruguay, the last leavingservice with Ecuador in 1974, although it isbelieved that two remained in service withUruguay until 1976, completing a remarkable31-year career.During 1947, it became apparent that pilots

were finding the transition from piston to jetaircraft difficult. A number of accidentshighlighted the need for a two seat trainer, soin May 1947, Don Palmer headed a team toproduce the Model 580 based on the P-80Cairframe. The fuselage was stretched by

50.6in (128.5cm) by inserting sections aheadand behind the wing to keep the aircraft inbalance. An instructor’s cockpit was installedbehind the student’s under a one piece bubblecanopy. The armament was reduced, two .50cal machine guns being retained for gunnerytraining. Originally designated TF-80C, theprototype made its first flight on March 22,1948, in the capable hands of Tony LeVier,who found the aircraft a delight to fly andslightly faster than the single seater. On May5, 1949, the name Shooting Star was retainedbut the designation was changed to the nowfamiliar T-33A. A legend had arrived.The performance and handling of the T-33

were to attract customers from all over theworld. As well as the 5691 built by Lockheed,656 were produced under licence by Canadairfor the Royal Canadian Air Force as the T-33AN, later redesignated the CT-133 SilverStar Mk.3 and powered by a Rolls-RoyceNene. A further 210 were built by Kawasakiunder licence and supplied to the Japanese AirSelf Defence Force.A remarkable total of 41 countries were to

operate the T-33 as trainers, then later asground attack aircraft, drone directors, testand equipment evaluation aircraft and, as theywere retired, as target drones themselves.

Sixty-five not out! Two upgraded Lockheed T-33As of the Bolivian Air Force, still in service 65years after its first flight. Lt Marcelo Peredo

A close up of the intake on a T-33 with itsbleed air system devised by Kelly Johnson.Constance Redgrave

Two contractor technicians load a 2.75 inchMighty Mouse Folding Fin Aerial Rocket, orFFAR, into the nose of an early Lockheed F-94C Starfire at what appears to be EdwardsAFB,California, around 1952. Lockheed

A Lockheed F-94C Starfire fires 24 2.75in (70mm) Mighty Mouse Folding Fin Aerial Rockets, orFFARs, from its wing pods. Lockheed

Aside from the USAF, the US Navy andMarine Corps also received 649 T-33As asland based jet trainers. Known as TO-2s, theywere redesignated TV-2s and finally T-33Bs in1962. A fully navalised, carrier capable trainerwas developed as the T2V SeaStar, flying forthe first time on December 16, 1953.Strengthened and equipped for carrier

operations, the SeaStar also had a raised rearcockpit to improve the instructor’s view andenlarged tail surfaces to improve low speedstability. 150 were built, redesignated T-1As in1962 and serving until replaced by the NorthAmerican T-2A Buckeye during the 1970s.The last development of the T-33 was the

Skyfox, which first flew on August 23, 1983.Produced by the Skyfox Corporation, it wasintended as a kit of parts to modify existingairframes with two Garret TFE731 turbofansmounted in nacelles on either side of the rearfuselage. Boeing purchased the marketingand development rights, but the prototype wasthe only Skyfox built.In 1948, the introduction of long ranged

Soviet bombers prompted the requirement for anew radar equipped all-weather jet fighter. InMarch, Lockheed was approached regardingthe feasibility of fitting the Hughes E-1 firecontrol system and AN/APG-33 radar to the TF-80C trainer. Russ Daniell headed the project,quickly realising the weight of the equipmentwould require far more power from the J33 ifsuccessful interceptions were to be made.

A water-injected and afterburning versionof the engine, the J33-A-33 was fitted,producing 6000lb (2722kg) of thrust. Thearmament was reduced to four .50 cal(12.7mm) M3 machine guns to save weight.Two TF-80Cs, 48-356 and -373 were modifiedwith the new nose and enlarged tail surfacesto become ETF-80Cs, unofficially known asYF-94s. Tony LeVier and Glenn Fulkersonmade the first flight on April 16, 1949, andalthough the handling was satisfactory, theafterburner proved temperamental.Allison and Lockheed produced a solution

for the afterburner problems, so the first F-94was accepted by the USAF on December 29.Lockheed built 109 examples of the F-94A,now named Starfire and it served in theKorean War as a night fighter. Upgradedavionics and a blind landing system led to theF-94B of January 1951, with 356 built andseveral seeing service in the Korean War.The last version of the F-94 Starfire was

powered by a new engine, the more powerfulPratt and Whitney J48-P-5 turbojet whichproduced 8750lb (3969kg) of thrust withafterburner. The armament was changed fromthe M3 machine guns to either 24 or 48 2.75 in(70 mm) folding fin air-to-air rockets, 24

mounted in the nose around the radome and12 each in a pod mounted halfway along eachwing leading edge.The fire control system was upgraded to

the Hughes E-5 and the AN/APG-40 radar, thetailplane was now swept and the vertical finenlarged. So different was the new design tothe earlier aircraft that it was given a newdesignation, the F-97, but eventually enteredservice as the F-94C on March 7, 1953. A totalof 387 were built, remaining in service withthe USAF until February 1959, the last F-94Csleaving ANG service later that summer.The Shooting Star and its derivatives are

among the most successful jet designs of alltime with a total of 9277 of all versions beingbuilt for customers worldwide. T-33s are stillin service with the Bolivian Air Force havingbeen extensively upgraded and are not due toretire until at least 2015, possibly 2020. ■Words: Tim Callaway

The P-80 versions

XP-80 - Single prototype 44-83020, now in the National Airand Space Museum inWashington,D.C.

XP-80A - Two pre-productionprototypes, 44-83021 the GreyGhost and 44-83022 the SilverGhost.

YP-80A - 13 pre-productionservice test aircraft, oneconverted to the USAAF photoreconnaissance prototype, theXF-14.

P-80A (F-80A after 1948) - 524built,344 as the P-80-1,180 as P-80-5s,all could carry 225 USgallon (850 litre) tiptanks.Threetransferred to the US Navy,one,44-85005,fitted with an arrestorhook and used for deck trials onthe USS Franklin D Roosevelt.One,44-85044,fitted with a two thenfour gun upward rotating nose

turret for attacks from belowenemy aircraft, then modifiedagain into the EF-80 with a‘PronePilot’cockpit in the nose.128 F-80As upgraded to becomeF-80C-11s for Air National Guardand Reserve units.

XFP-80A - One, 44-85201,prototype photoreconnaissance (PR) versionwith three cameras and ahinged nose for access.

F-14A - 38 converted from P-80A-5s as photo reconnaissanceversions,and 114 new buildaircraft.Redesignated FP-80As,then RF-80As after 1948.98modified with upgradedengines in 1953.Nine RF-80Asupgraded to become RF-80C-11s for Air National Guard andReserve units.

ERF-80A - One P-80A,44-85042,an experimental PR versionwith a modified nose.

XP-80B - One,44-85200,fitted with a 4000lb (1814kg)J33-A-17 engine and a thinnerwing.Modified in 1946 to breakthe world speed record as theXP-80R.Colonel Albert Boydachieved this, reaching 623.738mph (1003.811kph) on June19, 1947, the first over 1000kph.

P-80B (F-80B after 1948) - 240improved fighter versions. 209P-80B-1s and 31 P-80B-5s built,117 later modified to F-80Cstandard for Air NationalGuard and Reserve units. Firstfitted with an ejection seat asstandard, earlier models wereupgraded with this.

P-80C (F-80C after 1948) - 113P-80C-1s, 75 P-80C-5s and 561P-80C-10s built.Could carry the265 US gallon (1003 litre)‘Misawa’under wing tiptanksor the 230 US gallon (871 litre)Fletcher centreline mountedtip tanks and a variety of

bombs and rockets for groundattack missions.

RF-80C - 70 RF-80As modified toF-80C standard as animproved PR version.

DF-80A - Several F-80Asconverted as drone directors.

QF-80A/QF-80C/QF-80F - Targetdrone conversion designations.

TP-80C (TF-80C after 1948) -One, 48-356, converted as theprototype two-seat trainerversion in 1947.

TF-80C - 128 two-seat trainersbuilt from 1948, laterredesignated T-33A-1s.

TO-1 (TV-1 after 1950) - 49 F-80C-1s and one F-80C-5 for theUS Navy and Marine Corps asjet trainers and familiarisationaircraft while naval jet fighterswere in development.

A formation of three LockheedF-94Cs, 51-5642, 50-1063 and51-5549, of the 354th FighterInterceptor Squadron,OxnardAir Force Base,California, onJune 19, 1956.USAF


T he Lockheed Ventura and laterHarpoon were both used asmaritime patrol, anti-submarineand attack aircraft by the US Navyduring the Second World War.

The Ventura entered service with the USNavy in December 1942, the Harpoon during1944, but even as these aircraft were inplanning stage, Lockheed realised a largerand more capable aircraft would be requiredto properly patrol the Pacific and Atlantic.

Typically of Lockheed, this thinking was toprecede official interest by over 15 months. Soit was that in September 1941, John Wassall,the chief engineer at the Vega AirplaneCompany, began concept studies intodeveloping a very long range, land based, twinengined aircraft. This was to carry a heavyarmament internally, including torpedoes, withdefence provided by powered turrets. It wasalso to be easy to manufacture and maintain.

The new aircraft was to have a higherclimb rate and maximum speed than theexisting Model 18 derivatives, but converselywould also have a lower landing speed, adifficult compromise to achieve as theexpected performance would require a largeand heavy aircraft.

On December 6, 1941, Mac V F Short, whowas then the vice president of engineering atVega, authorised detail design studies basedon the concepts, but when the US entered thewar after the attack on Pearl Harbor thefollowing day, more immediate programmeswere to take priority for over a year.

Even as plans were put in place to produce the Ventura PV-1as a patrol bomber for the US Navy, it was already realisedthat a longer range aircraft with a greater bomb load wouldbe required. Work began in September 1941 on what wouldbecome an extremely long lived and successful aircraft.

Long rangerecord setter

The crew of P2V-1 89082 ‘The Truculent Turtle’ celebrate on arrival in Columbus, Ohio. NationalMuseum of Naval Aviation

The P-2 Neptune

The first of a long line, XP2V-1 48237with the original nose and dorsalfin, which was deleted onproduction aircraft as unnecessarydue to the type’s stability. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 49

During this delay caused by wartimeneeds, the design, originally known as the V-135, was developed further. The wing becamemid-mounted on the fuselage and the tailplanewas revised to a large single fin. The turretswere relocated to a nose, tail and mid upperposition and in this form the design wasknown as the V-146.

On February 19, 1943, a letter of intent fortwo prototypes, designated XP2Vs, wasreceived from the US Navy, formalised with acontract on April 4 and an order for 15 aircraftjust 10 days later. As testing and developmentcontinued, a total of 116 were on order by thetime the first was ready to fly. Althoughproduction of the Harpoon was still a priority,under the leadership of project engineer R ABailey, the first prototype was completed inearly 1945.

On May 17, a crew headed by test pilot JoeTowle took the XP2V-1 on its maiden flight. Forsuch a large and heavy aircraft, theperformance was found to be excellent, smoothand stable throughout the flight envelope. Thetwin 2300hp Wright R-3350-8 engines drovelarge four bladed propellers and were close setto the fuselage, meaning that even with anengine out, control was easily maintainedthrough a range of manoeuvres. The 8000lb(3629kg) maximum weapons load was a thirdgreater than that of the Harpoon, and the rangeof the new aircraft, now named Neptune, wasfar greater than the earlier aircraft.

In addition to the original armament, theP2V-1 could also carry either 16 5in (12.7cm)

High Velocity Aircraft Rockets (HVARs) orfour 11.75in (29.8cm) Tiny Tim rockets underthe wings. The prototype was delivered to theUS Navy in May 1946, the eight crew aircraftproving equally successful in service trials.

Given these excellent results, the end ofthe Second World War did not cancel theNeptune as it did so many other types. Asidefrom the two prototypes, 14 P2V-1 productionaircraft were delivered to wartime contracts,followed by 51 of the improved P2V-2s. Thefifth production P2V-1 had been modified byfitting a pair of the 2800hp Wright R-3350-24Wengines with water injection to create theprototype of the P2V-2, which first flew onJanuary 7, 1947.

Various other changes saw the nosegunner’s position deleted and replaced with asolid nose containing six 20mm cannon. Thetwin .50 cal (12.7mm) machine gun tailposition was retained on the first eightproduction P2V-2s, but replaced with anEmerson tail turret with two 20mm cannonthe rest. The P2V-2 was also equipped to➤

The Turtle as it appears today, in the superbNational Museum of Naval Aviation inPensacola, Florida.Constance Redgrave

A P2V-5 carrying 16 5in (12.7cm) HVARsunder the wings.Note the searchlight in thefront of the starboard tip tank balanced bythe AN/APS-8 radar in the front of the port.Lockheed An early P2V-3 of the US Navy’s

VP-5, 53 were built with 3200hp R-3350-26W engines. Lockheed

The US Navy also used the Neptune as a weather reconnaissance aircraft such as this P2V-5Fof VW-3.Note the jet pods under the wings and larger tip tanks which became standard fromthis model, and the hurricane markings under the cockpit. Lockheed

One of the 12 aircraft modified as a P2V-3Ccarrier launched nuclear bomber. Rocketassisted take off bottles on the rear fuselageassist this Neptune into the air from the USSFranklin D Roosevelt in July 1951. Lockheed

XP2V-1 – Two prototypes built, 48237 and48238.

P2V-1 – 14 built, first entered US Navyservice in March 1947.

XP2V-2 – One P2V-1 with upgraded2800hp R-3350-24W engines.

P2V-2 – 80 built for US Navy, two to USMarine Corps as airborne electronics crewtrainers.

P2V-2N ‘Polar Bear’ – Two modified P2V-2s,122465 and 122466, for Antarcticexploration and ski undercarriages forOperation Deep Freeze. Retractable MADboom and cameras fitted.

P2V-2S – One P2V-2 fitted with the AN/APS-20 search radar and increased fuel tanks.

P2V-3 – 53 built with 3200hp R-3350-26Wengines.

P2V-3B – 5 converted, fitted with the ASB-1Low Level Radar Bombing System for closesupport trials.

P2V-3C – 12 conversions as carrierlaunched stopgap nuclear bombers,intended to return to land bases, no turrets,

one 9700lb (4400kg) 14 kiloton Mk.1atomic bomb carried.

P2V-3W – 30 built of the AEW version withthe AN/APS-20 radar.

P2V-3Z – 2 P2V-3s converted to six seat VIPcombat transports.

P2V-4 (P-2D after 1962) – 52 built,improved anti-submarine aircraftwith additional sonobuoy operator,tip tanks and a searchlight in thestarboard tip tank. Last 27 fitted withturbo compound 3250hp Wright R-3350-30W engines.

P2V-5 – 424 built. Fitted with twin 20mmcannon fitted in Emerson nose turret,larger tip tanks with searchlight in frontof the starboard tip tank and AN/APS-8radar in the front of the port.Tip tankscould be jettisoned.Most producedand modified variant,many refitted withglazed nose and tail MAD boom insteadof turrets. 52 delivered to the RAF as theNeptune MR.1, 12 to the Royal AustralianAir Force (RAAF) and 12 to theNetherlands Naval Air Service. 14 of theRAF aircraft later went to Brazil, eight toArgentina and the 12 Dutch aircraft wentto Portugal.

P2V-5F (P-2E after 1962) – 3500hp R-3350-32W and two 3250lb thrust (1474kg) J34jet engines in underwing pods for take offand attack power.Weapons loadincreased to 10,000lb (4500kg), jetengines retrofitted to many P-2V-5s.

P2V-5FD (DP-2E after 1962) – 9 unarmedconversions for drone launches.

P2V-5FE (EP-2E after 1962) – Electronicreconnaissance version.

P2V-5FS (SP-2E after 1962) – Fitted withJezebel AQA-3 acoustic search and Julieexplosive echo sounding equipment asan improved anti submarine warfare(ASW) version.

AP-2E (RP-2E after 1962) – 6 signals andelectronic intelligence (SIGINT/ELINT)platforms with a crew of 15 for the US Armyin the VietnamWar.

NP-2E – Two P-2Es, 128397 and 131510 astestbed aircraft for the OP-2E.

OP-2E – 12 modified to drop acoustic andseismic sensors in South East Asia, alsofitted with chaff dispensers, four SUU-117.62mm miniguns in underwing pods,waist guns and terrain avoidance radar.

Lockheed NeptuNevariaNts

drop sonobuoys, essentially underwatermicrophones, to detect and locate hostilesubmarines. So effective was the Neptune inits maritime patrol, anti submarine and antishipping roles that an additional 30 wereordered on September 13, 1946.

The first production P2V-1, Bureau No.89082, deserves special mention. It was fittedwith a more streamlined all metal nose andadditional fuel tanks in the bomb bay and rearfuselage, as well as the ability to carry 400 USgallon (1514 litre) wing tip tanks. Thisincreased the fuel capacity over the standardaircraft by nearly three times to 8732 USgallons (33,054 litres).

It was so modified for two reasons, firstly totest crew endurance on long range missions,but also to set a new world record for distancein a straight line. The record had been set by aBoeing B-29B of the USAAF in November1945 when it flew from Guam to WashingtonDC, a distance of 7916 miles (12,739km).

The aircraft, named ‘The Turtle’ but referredto in all the press releases by the US Navy as‘The Truculent Turtle’, set off from Perth inWestern Australia, its huge fuel load assistedinto the air by four 1000lb (454kg) thrust rocketassisted take off units attached to the rearfuselage. The crew for the record breakingattempt comprised Commanders ThomasDavies, Eugene Rankin and Walter Reid andLieutenant Commander Roy Tabeling. Theywere joined by a nine-month-old grey kangaroo,a gift for the National Zoo in Washington DC.

The last of the breed, 82 Kawasaki built P-2Js were powered by the General Electric T64turboprop and two Ishikawajima-Harima J3-IHI-7C turbojets.The last retired in 1996.Kawasaki

Only six P2V-7s were converted into AP-2E signals and electronic intelligence (SIGINT/ELINT)platforms for the US Army,which used them on the Trails and Roads Interdiction Mission (TRIM)in the VietnamWar. Lockheed


Lockheed Martin 51

P2V-6 (P-2F after 1962) – 67 built, 35 forthe US Navy and 32 for the FrenchAeronavale, longer bomb bay,minelayingand photo reconnaissance capability,AN/APS-70 radar, some refitted with glazednose position.

P2V-6B (MP-2F after 1962) –16 built, couldcarry two AUM-N-2 Petrel anti-ship missiles.

P2V-6F (P-2G after 1962) – P2V-6 with theunderwing J34 jet pods.

P2V-6T (TP-2F after 1962) – Unarmed crewtrainer, few built.

P2V-7 (P-2H after 1962) – 287 built,most by Lockheed for the US Navy, 34for the Aeronavale and 12 for the RAAF,with 48 built by Kawasaki for JMSDF.Refined wing tip tanks,AN/APS-20search radar in a streamlined radome,bulged cockpit canopy,most builtwithout turrets. 25 supplied to theRoyal Canadian Air Force as theCP-122 Neptune.

P2V-7B – 15 built for Netherlands Navy witha solid four 20mm cannon nose. Latermodified to SP-2H standard with glazednose. Four more later transferred fromFrench Aeronavale.

P2V-7LP (LP-2J after 1962) – 4 built with skiundercarriages, survey equipment andcameras for Antarctic operations with theUS Navy’s VXE-6.

P2V-7S (SP-2H after 1962) – As per the SP-2E, improved ASW version with Jezebel andJulie equipment.

P2V-7U – US Navy designation for theRB-69A.

AP-2H – 4 converted for VAH-21, heavynight and all-weather ground attackaircraft with FLIR and Low Light TVsystems, Side Looking Aircraft Radar(SLAR), tail turret, fuselage mountedgrenade launchers, underwing minigunpods and bombs and napalm tanks onunderwing pylons.

DP-2H – P-2Hs modified as drone launchand control aircraft.

EP-2H – 3 P-2Hs fitted with UHF telemetryequipment to relay drone signals.

NP-2H – 1 P-2H, 150283,as a testbedaircraft.

P2V-Kai – 1 built by Kawaskai as theprototype P-2J.

P-2J – 82 built by Kawasaki forJMSDF powered by two 2850hpGeneral Electric T64 turboprops andtwo Ishikawajima-Harima J3-IHI-7C3085lb (1400kg) thrust turbojets inunderwing pods.

EP-2J – Two UP-2Js converted asELINT aircraft.

UP-2J – Four P-2Js converted astrainers for ECM,drone and missilelaunching, target towing and testbedaircraft.

RB-69A – 5 built, 2 converted fromP-2Hs in 1954.Covert CIA SIGINT/ELINTand reconnaissance aircraft operatedin USAF markings.Wide range ofequipment including cameras,APQ-56Side Looking Airborne Radar,APQ-24search radar, the APR-9/13 radarintercept receiver, the QRC-15 DFsystem.Upgraded in 1959 with improvedavionics and Fulton Skyhook recoverysystem.Also used by 34th ‘Black Bat’Squadron of Republic of China Air Forcein Taiwan. 5 shot down, 2 reconverted toP-2H standard.

Departing Perth on September 9, 1946, theTurtle touched down at Columbus, Ohio, anastounding 11,236.6 miles (18,083.6km) and 55hours and 18 minutes later.

This unrefuelled distance record was toremain an absolute until it was broken in 1962by a B-52, but was not bettered by a pistonengined aircraft until Burt Rutan’s Voyagermade its round the world flight in 1986. TheTurtle survives today, displayed in the superbNational Museum of Naval Aviation inPensacola, Florida. These first 96 productionaircraft were the thin end of a hugely successfulwedge, as over the next three decades a total of1181 Neptunes were to be built, initially byLockheed then lastly by Kawasaki, whichproduced 130 in two main versions for theJapanese Maritime Self Defence Force(JMSDF). The many variants were as follows:

The Neptune was to see active service inthe Korean, Vietnam and Falklands wars, thelatter when the two remaining Argentine NavyNeptunes acted as reconnaissance aircraft andattack directors for the Super Etendard strikeaircraft against the British Fleet. Oddly, eightof the 16 Neptunes eventually operated byArgentina were ex-RAF aircraft. These hadalready seen action in the aborted OperacieónSoberania against Chile in 1978.

As listed here, the Neptune was to serve ina wide variety of roles aside from its designintentions, including as a stopgap nuclearbomber and electronic intelligence platform,

eventually equipping the forces of 12 nationsworldwide. The keys to this success weretwofold. The basic design was extremely soundand rugged, but as can be seen from the list ofvariants, it was also tremendously adaptable. Inoperation it was popular with aircrew for itsrelative comfort and ease of handling, andground crew for its straightforwardmaintenance. Neptunes were to patrol the seasof the world for 50 years, the last being retiredby the JMSDF in 1996. Retired Neptunes havesince been converted to civilian fire bombersand a number of other survey and mappingroles. ■Words:Tim Callaway

One of 25 P2V-7s supplied to the Royal Canadian Air Force as the CP-122 Neptune.The J34underwing jet pods were later retrofitted to these aircraft. Lockheed

One of the four P2V-7LPs, later LP-2Js,built withski undercarriages for Antarctic operations withVXE-6.National Museum of Naval Aviation


One of Kelly Johnson’s mosticonic designs started with twocompletely different aircraft,the Lockheed XF-90 and theMiG-15. The XF-90 was a

response to a 1946 USAAF requirement for apenetration fighter, first flown by Tony LeVieron June 3, 1949. This project was hamperedby shifting official design requirements and alack of a suitable engine, eventually losing outto the McDonnell XF-88 in June 1950.

The MiG-15 made its first combat sortiesover Korea on November 1 and was somethingof a shock. Its performance caused manydesigners to reconsider the fashion of the dayfor heavier and more complex fighters.

With the end of the XF-90 programme, theSkunk Works studied a simple interceptor,designated L-205, but the project was

cancelled by the USAF in January 1951. At thesame time, Lockheed was working on the X-7unmanned testbed for ramjet engines andmissile guidance systems.

The air-launched X-7 would make flightsbetween April 1951 and July 1960, eventuallyreaching Mach 4.31 and providing vastamounts of supersonic design data. InDecember, Kelly Johnson visited Korea to talkto fighter pilots about jet combat. One of thesewas Colonel Francis ‘Gabby’ Gabreski, the topscoring US Second World War ace in Europewho would go on to score 6½ MiG-15 creditedkills over Korea.

Gabreski told Johnson that complex radarsystems were useless in combat, timeconsuming to use and difficult to read. Almostunanimously the pilots wanted a small,lightweight, simple aircraft of highperformance, particularly in speed, climb andaltitude as the MiG-15s had a heightadvantage over the heavier Sabres.

In May 1952, the USAF proposed a new, 16ton interceptor fighter, but Lockheed declinedto bid for two reasons. The first was theinformation Kelly Johnson had garnered inKorea, the second was that the company’sAdvanced Design Group was already workingon a new project, the CL-246. This was asimple interceptor with a thin, straight wingwhich took advantage of the test data from theX-7 and the Douglas X-3 high speedexperimental programme.

The projected performance was sufficientfor Johnson to convince Lockheed toapproach the USAF in November 1952. Withina month, the USAF announced a competitionfor a lightweight air superiority fighter andinvited tenders from Lockheed, NorthAmerican and Republic.

Lockheed was announced as the winner inJanuary 1953, with a contract issued for two

In 1954, a new needle-likeshape took to the air for thefirst time, the first of 2578 thatwould be built. The highperformance jet would becomea ’60s icon, acquiring anequally distinctive nickname,‘the missile with a man in it’, itsslender form setting manyspeed and altitude records.

The first XF-104 seen duringtesting at Edwards Air

Force Base.USAF

BELOW: A later view of the first XF-104, whichwas used for a variety of flight testingincluding the use of wing tip tanks before itwas lost to tail flutter on July 11, 1957.USAF

The ultimateinterceptor

One of Kelly Johnson’s mosticonic designs started with two

cancelled by the USAF in January 1951. At thesame time, Lockheed was working on the X-7

In 1954, a new needle-likeshape took to the air for the

The first XF-104 seen duringThe F-104 Starfighter

Lockheed Martin 53

prototypes on March 12. Designated XF-104,Johnson assembled a team under projectengineer Bill Ralston that used the experiencegained with the earlier projects. They wereable to rapidly produce a mock-up which theUSAF inspected on April 30. Only one changewas suggested; that a single, multi-barrelGeneral Electric M61 Vulcan 20mm cannonreplace the proposed twin 30mm guns.The prototypes were intended to be fitted

with the Wright J65 with afterburner, butthese were not ready in time. The firstprototype had a non-afterburning XJ65-W-6,which produced 10,200 lb (4627kg) of thrust.The prototype, 53-7786, was taken to EdwardsAFB in California where LeVier made a shorthop on February 28, 1954, followed by thefirst full flight on March 4.The earlier design work undertaken by

Lockheed and the simplicity of thenew fighter

resulted in

only 15 months elapsing from the initialproposal to the first flight, a remarkableachievement for such a high performanceaircraft. During trials, with an afterburningengine fitted, the second prototype reached amaximum speed of Mach 1.79 on March 25,1955, piloted by Ray Goudey.It now became obvious that the J65 was

insufficiently powerful to achieve theexpected Mach 2 performance. Theprototypes also exhibited insufficientendurance, longitudinal instability in yaw andtail flutter. The second aircraft suffered severevibrations during gun firing trials at 50,000ft(15,240m) on April 18. Test pilot Herman‘Fish’ Salmon was forced to eject after thelower cockpit hatch was opened and hispressure suit inflated, effectively blinding him.Nevertheless, the design showed such

promise that the first prototype was acceptedby the USAF in November. Kelly Johnson andthe design team solved the problems of theprototype with typical elegance. The lack of

power was solved by selecting the newGeneral Electric J79 turbojet.

This requiredlengthening thefuselage by5ft 6in(1.67m) to54ft 8in(16.66m),

which moved the T-tail further aft, while alsoproviding more room for internalfuel tanks, increasing endurance.The air intakes were enlarged and an

adjustable half cone shockwave generatorinstalled in the inlet to maintain the necessarysubsonic airflow to the engine throughout thespeed range. The longer fuselage partly curedthe directional instability, but a ventral fin wasadded during the test flying programme toimprove this further during supersonic flight.The rudder control system was completely

redesigned, being hydraulically poweredwith a modified yaw damper. The fin structurewas redesigned and strengthened with stainlesssteel spars, curing the tail flutter problemscompletely. The first of 17 pre-production trialsaircraft, designated YF-104As, flew on February17, 1956, and reached Mach 2 on April 27,again a remarkably rapid development.Delays to the programme then set in,

initially because the new afterburner for the J79proved problematic. Then, in April, the USAFchanged the armament specification to includethe AIM-9 Sidewinder missile, requiringextensive rewiring in the airframe. The testflying programme was extended to include thewingtip mounts for these missiles, which couldalso carry 170 US gallon (644 l) drop tanks.The M61 cannon proved unreliable, so was

removed from the F-104 during 1957 and wasnot replaced until 1964, when improvedversions became available. Despite these➤

The first XF-104 prototype withthe first of 17 YF-104A pre-

production aircraft on the rampat Edwards AFB.Note the longerfuselage and shock cones in theintakes of the YF-104A. Lockheed

First flown on June 3, 1949, the XF-90 was underpowered and eventually lost out to thecompeting XF-88 design.Two were built, one was used during atomic bomb testing in Nevadain 1952 and survived three nuclear blasts with relatively little damage. Lockheed

The Lockheed X-7 was a ramjet engine testbed capable ofMach 1.7 to Mach 3.0 at altitudes up to 80,000 feet.The X-7sprovided a mass of supersonic design data. Lockheed

One of the 17 Lockheed YF-104 Starfighterflight test aircraft goes through extreme coldweather testing in the McKinley ClimaticLaboratory at Eglin AFB, Florida in 1958.Lockheed


technical challenges, the first production F-104A, now named Starfighter, was delivered tothe 83rd Fighter Interceptor Squadron atHamilton AFB in California in January 1958,followed by three other Air DefenceCommand units the same year. Only ninemonths after its introduction, 12 F-104As fromthe 83rd FIS were deployed to the Republic ofChina to bolster its air force during theQuemoy Crisis, quite a start to the service lifeof the new fighter.The F-104A was an astounding leap

forward in fighter performance for the period,being the first combat aircraft capable ofsustained Mach 2 flight, its overallperformance still being impressive even 55years later. This performance came at a pricein the handling of the aircraft, however.Its short trapezoidal wing meant it

required careful handling with its high wingloadings and high landing speeds. Very highangles of attack were to be avoided as theaircraft could suddenly pitch up and fall intoan unrecoverable spin. It wasn’t just the pilotswho had to be careful with the F-104.The leading edges of the wings were

extremely sharp and represented a hazard toground crew, so much so that protectivecovers were fitted when the aircraft was

on the ground. The early J79 engine hadsome interesting handling difficulties too.It was fitted with an automated system thatchanged the angle of the compressor’s statorblades in response to altitude and temperatureto maintain the optimum airflow throughthe engine.This system could be falsely activated by

sudden temperature changes, resulting in anumber of engine failures on take off whenthe stator blades fined off and choked theengine. Since the short wing gave the F-104poor gliding characteristics and the earlyaircraft were fitted with downward firingejection seats, these low altitude incidentswere extremely dangerous. The afterburnerand its variable thrust nozzle gave problemstoo, with afterburner blow outs, failures toignite and uncommanded nozzle openingswith their resultant loss of thrust all beingexperienced by F-104 pilots.Having said all this, it must be

remembered that the F-104 was the cuttingedge of aerospace technology. Prior to itsintroduction only a few experimental aircrafthad reached the speeds and altitudes the F-104 was regularly to fly at.Each of the problems encountered was

solved as operational experience with this

kind of performance grew. The continuingdevelopment of the J79 was to produce areliable and popular engine, going on topower a wide variety of aircraft with over17,000 being built. The downward firingejection seat was replaced by a moreconventional upward firing type early on, thenew seat being retrofitted to all F-104As thenin service.Experiments during the YF-104 test

programme were to bear fruit with theintroduction of the Boundary Layer ControlSystem (BCLS), where bleed air from theengine was blown over the flaps, increasinglift and lowering the landing speed. The shortand highly loaded wing had relatively poorturning performance, so a modificationwas made to the F-104A’s flaps whichallowed the use of the take-off setting up toMach 0.8, improving the lift available andtightening the turn.The limit on the maximum speed of the

aircraft was a surprising one. At speedsaround Mach 2 at high altitude, a lightcaptioned ‘slow’ would illuminate in thecockpit, telling the pilot to throttle back as thetemperature of the J79’s compressor inlet wasreaching its maximum value of 121ºC.Flying the F-104 was often described

as an intense experience. After take offyou had to be quick getting the gear up, asthe F-104A lifted off at around 190kts(352kph) and the gear limiting speed was260kts (482kph). Once airborne, the controlsystem required gentle handling. The initialroll rate was high and the elevators wereparticularly effective. Caution was thereforeneeded to stay within the G limits of theairframe and avoid bleeding too much energythrough excessive pitch.The rudder still required careful

application as the fin was nearly as large asone of the main wings. However, even fullyloaded and in a steep climb, the F-104 wouldbe accelerating like a greased pig, itsperformance quite unlike anything a new pilotwould have flown before. The normal rate ofclimb was 10,000ft (3048m) a minute at 400kts(740kph) in military power, but the maximum

Twenty-one single-seat F-104A and three two-seat F-104B Starfighters are readied for delivery atLockheed’s Palmdale factory in January 1958.The General Electric J79-GE-3A engine has beenremoved from a number of the aircraft, showing the detachable tail and rear fuselage thateased maintenance. Lockheed

A pair of Lockheed types, their first flights only11 years apart.Two F-104As fly past an EC-121D Warning Star airborne early warningaircraft. Lockheed

Lockheed F-104As of the 83rd Fighter Interceptor Squadron at Taeyan Air Base,Taiwan,onSeptember 15, 1958,during the Quemoy Crisis.The first deployment of the F-104 was given thename Operation Jonah Able.USAF

XF-104 –Two built

YF-104A – 17 pre-productiontrials aircraft

F-104A – 153 built, fighters

NF-104A – 3 F-104As fitted with rocketengines for NASA

QF-104A – 22 F-104As convertedinto drones

F-104B – 26 built, two seat trainers

F-104C – 77 built, fighter bombers

F-104D – 21 built, two seat trainers

F-104DJ – 20 two seat trainers based onthe F-104J, built by Lockheed andassembled by Mitsubishi

F-104F – 30 two seat trainers built byLockheed for the Luftwaffe

F-104G – 1122 built by Canadair (140),Messerschmitt (210),MBB (50),Fiat (164), Fokker (231), SABCA (188) andLockheed (139)

RF-104G – 194 reconnaissance versionswith three KS-67A cameras in the cannonbay,built by Lockheed (40), Fiat (35) andFokker (119)

TF-104G – 220 combat-capable trainers,most built by Lockheed

F-104J – 210 interceptors for the JapanAir Self Defence Force, 3 built byLockheed, 29 built from Lockheed partsby Mitsubishi and the remainder builtcompletely by Mitsubishi

F-104N – 3 F-104Gs built for NASA as highspeed chase aircraft

F-104S – 246 built by Fiat (later Aeritalia)for Italy and Turkey

F-104S-ASA – 147 F-104S upgraded in 1985

F-104S-ASA/M – 49 F-104S-ASAsupgraded in 1998

CF-104 – 200 ground attack versions built byCanadair for the Royal CanadianAir Force

CF-104D – 38 two seat trainers built byLockheed with Canadian J79-OEL-7 engines

Lockheed F-104variants

rate was 35,000ft (10,668m) per minute at450kts (834kph) in afterburner.In 1958, the YF-104 became the first

aircraft to hold the world speed and altituderecords simultaneously, with 91,243ft(27,811m) being reached on May 7 and1404.19mph (2259.82kph) on May 16. Laterthe F-104C set a new world altitude record of103,389ft (31,513m) on December 14, 1959.The power and small wing also gave the F-

104 excellent stability at low level at highsubsonic speeds which would prompt thedevelopment of strike attack versions. As afighter, in high speed slashing attacks againstan opponent there was no aircraft to equal it,its small frontal profile making it very difficultto see. However, pilots had to be wary not tobe drawn into a turning fight at lower speeds,where its advantages were nullified and thelarge turning radius was a handicap.Landing the F-104 was relatively

straightforward if rather fast. Long, flatapproaches to land were flown at around170kts (315kph) at power settings above 82%thrust to maintain the engine bleed air to theBLCS. Failure of the flaps or BLCS meant thelanding approach needed to be flown at 260kts(482kph). The F-104 had a brake chute andvery good wheel brakes, meaning that theafter landing roll could be kept within reasoneven in a flapless or BLCS-less landing.The high accident rate of the F-104 meant

that a two seat trainer version was required.The unarmed TF-104A was proposed butrejected in favour of the fully combat capableF-104B. The cannon was removed and asecond seat installed, along with a 25% largerfin to keep the aircraft in balance.Altogether, 153 F-104As and 26 F-104Bs

were produced for the USAF, the last beingretired from ANG units in December 1969. Toexpand the Starfighter’s capabilities, fighterbomber versions were developed to takeadvantage of the excellent low level handling,the F-104C and two seat D.The original AN/ASG-14T-1 ranging radar

was replaced by the T-2 version and threepylons were added to carry a wide variety ofground attack munitions. These included a➤

The Lockheed F-104G had nine weaponspylons and significantly upgraded avionicsto produce a true multirole combat aircraft.USAF

The single largest customer for the Starfighter was Germany,which operated 916 in fighterbomber, reconnaissance and trainer versions.This is a Luftwaffe F-104G preserved in theLuftwaffe Museum at Gatow in Berlin.Constance Redgrave

One of the three Lockheed F-104Gs built for NASA as high speedchase and test aircraft, known as the F-104N.Keith Draycott

One of the three Lockheed NF-104As with a Rocketdyne LR121/AR-2-NA-1 rocket under the tail.These were used by NASA for astronauttraining at over 120,000ft (36,576m).Keith Draycott

Lockheed Martin 55

single Mk 28 or Mk 43 nuclear weapon on thecentreline pylon, which could also carry a pairof AIM-9 Sidewinders on a double rail,maintaining the fighter capability even whenthe tip tanks were fitted. The first F-104Csentered service with the 479th TacticalFighter Wing in September 1958, carrying outthree deployments to Vietnam between 1965and 1967 in both the ground attack and airdefence roles.

A total of 77 F-104Cs and 21 F-104Ds werebuilt for the USAF, most being transferred toANG units during 1967, the last USAFStarfighters being operated by the PuertoRico ANG in July 1975. The last of the earlyversions was the F-104F, based on the F-104Dbut fitted with the upgraded J79-GE-11Aengine. These were 30 unarmed trainers builtfor the German Luftwaffe and delivered fromOctober 1959.

Although only 296 Starfighters wereproduced for the USAF, interest in the type,especially among nations close to the SovietUnion who needed a fast climbing highperformance fighter, meant 445 were built byLockheed under the Military AssistanceProgramme (MAP) for use by friendlynations. Aside from the 741 Lockheed builtairframes, 1789 Starfighters were built underlicence in Belgium, Canada, Germany, Italythe Netherlands and Japan.

Lockheed F-104 operators

Belgium – 101 SABCA built F-104Gs and 12Lockheed built TF-104Gs used between 1963and 1983.23 surplus aircraft transferred toRepublic of China and 18 to Turkey.

Canada – 200 Canadair built CF-104s and38 Lockheed built CF-104Ds used from 1962to 1986.Surplus aircraft supplied toDenmark (22),Norway (22) and Turkey (52).

Denmark – 25 Canadair built F-104Gs and4 Lockheed built TF-104Gs used from 1963to 1986. 15 CF-104s and 7 CF-104Dstransferred from Canada between 1972and 1974. 15 F-104Gs and 3 TF-104Gssupplied to Republic of China in 1987.

Germany – 749 F/RF-104Gs built byLockheed,MBB, Fokker, Fiat and SABCA,137 TF-104Gs and 30 F-104Fs built byLockheed were used between 1960 and1987, several remaining as test aircraftuntil 1991. 79 were supplied to Greece, 170to Turkey and 60 to the Republic of Chinaafter retirement.

Greece – 45 F-104Gs and 6 TF-104Gs builtby Lockheed used from 1964 to 1993. 79later transferred from Germany, 7 from theNetherlands and 9 from Spain.

Italy – 105 F-104Gs, 24 TF-104Gs and 20 RF-104G built by Fiat, 205 upgraded F-104Ss(1969), 147 upgraded F-104S-ASAs (1985)and 49 upgraded F-104S-ASA/Ms (1998)used between 1963 and 2004.

Japan – 210 F-104Js and 20 F-104DJs builtby Lockheed and Mitsubishi used between1962 and 1986 as interceptors.NamedEiko (Glory), a number were laterconverted to UF-104J target drones.

Jordan – 29 F-104As and 4 F-104Bs built byLockheed used between 1967 and 1983.

Netherlands – 120 F/RF-104Gs builtby Fokker and Fiat and 18 TF-104Gs builtby Lockheed used between 1963 and1984. 53 transferred to Turkey and 7 toGreece.

Norway – 19 F-104Gs and 4 TF-104Gs builtby Canadair used between 1963 and1982. 18 CF-104s and 4 CF-104Dsadditionally supplied from Canadiansurpluses in 1974.

Pakistan – 12 F-104As and 2 F-104Bs builtby Lockheed were used between 1960and 1972.These saw combat during the1965 and 1971 wars with India, shootingdown two aircraft and capturing a third forthe loss of one F-104A in the first conflict,then losing two F-104As to Indian MiG-21sin the second.

Republic of China (Taiwan) – 25 F-104Asand 2 F-104Bs built by Lockheeddelivered in 1960, then later 48 F-104Gs, 8RF-104Gs built by Canadair and 6 TF-104Gsbuilt by Lockheed were delivered underMAP. 35 F-104Gs and 25 TF-104Gs were

transferred from Germany, 15 F-104Gs and3 TF-104Gs from Denmark and 23 fromBelgium.An unknown number of F-104Ds,F-104Js and DJs were also supplied,with a total of 282 F-104s being received.On January 13 1967,during the TaiwanStrait conflict with China, two F-104Gsshot down two MiG-19s.The last wereretired in 1997.

Spain – 18 F-104Gs built by Canadair and3 TF-104Gs built by Lockheed usedbetween 1965 and 1972.No aircraft werelost, 9 being transferred to Greece and 12to Turkey.

Turkey – 48 F-104Gs and 6 TF-104Gsbuilt by Canadair and Lockheed usedbetween 1963 and 1995. 40 new F-104Ssbuilt by Fiat were purchased in 1974.Later, and additional 170 weretransferred from Germany, 53 from theNetherlands, 52 from Canada, 18 fromBelgium and 12 from Spain.Many ofthese surplus airframes were used as asource of spares.

USA – 1 XF-104, 17 YF-104As, 153 F-104As,26 F-104Bs, 77 F-104Cs and 21 F-104Ds builtby Lockheed used by the USAF between1958 and 1975. 3 NF-104As with aRocketdyne LR121/AR-2-NA-1 rocket forastronaut training over 120,000ft(36,576m) and 3 F-104Ns built byLockheed in 1963 as high-speed chaseaircraft for NASA.

Canadair produced 140 F-104Gs for the MAP and 200 CF-104s,a specialised ground attack version,for the Royal Canadian Air Force.Here,a CF-104 is seen while on a deployment to Germany.RCAF


Lockheed Martin 57

The aircraft offered first to Germany andthen to the other NATO nations was the F-104G, an all weather multirole variant basedaround a much improved avionics suite. TheAutonetics F15A-41B North American Searchand Ranging Radar (NASARR) wascomplemented by the Litton LN-3 InertialNavigation System, an infrared sight andan air data computer, along with theJ79-GE-11A engine.The airframe was strengthened to carry

greater loads on its nine pylons, and the flapswere modified to further improve combatmanoeuvring. The first order for the newversion was 66 for the Luftwaffe in March1959, followed by Canada and Japan later thatyear and Belgium, Italy and the Netherlands in1960. The largest F-104 customer by far wasGermany, 916 aircraft being used by theLuftwaffe and the Marineflieger. The completelist of countries that operated the F-104, as wellas its combat use by the Taiwanese andPakistan air forces, is listed in the table here.Italian development of the Starfighter is

worthy of special mention as it produced themost advanced versions of the aircraft. Fiatinitially produced 164 F-104Gs and TF-104Gsas well as 35 RF-104Gs for Italy and othernations. The first F-104Gs in the AeronauticaMilitare Italiana (AMI) became operational inMarch 1963. In 1966 the AMI evaluated a

number of aircraft to reinforce their fighterunits, selecting the Fiat proposed F-104Son January 26.The F-104S was to be the ultimate

development of the Lockheed fighter, ableto carry radar guided missiles such as theAIM-7 Sparrow due to the upgradedNASARR R-21G/H radar which had acontinuous-wave mode for Semi-Active RadarHoming (SARH) missiles.The new type also had an additional pair of

pylons, effectively doubling its weapons load.The first F-104S was modified by Lockheed asa trials aircraft in December 1966, the typeentering service with 22 Gruppo of 51 Stormoin May 1969. Essentially, the F-104S wasproduced in two versions, one able to carrythe Sparrow, in which case the M61 cannonwas deleted, the second retaining the cannonand able to carry seven 227kg (500lb) or340kg (750lb) bombs in the ground attackrole. In total, 246 F-104Ss were built, 40 for theTurkish Air Force in 1974.In November 1969, Fiat became part of

Aeritalia, which is why the aircraft are oftenreferred to as the Aeritalia F-104S. Thesewere to undergo two midlife upgrades in 1986and 1998. The first of these was applied to 147existing aircraft to produce the F-104S-ASA.The Fiar R21G/M1 Setter radar was added, amodern frequency agile system with a look

Early F-104Gs of the Aeronautica Militare Italiana (AMI).Note the protective covers fitted to thewing leading edges to protect ground crew from the sharp surfaces.AMI

Airfields in Germany were at risk from Sovietair attack, so experiments to produce a ZeroLength Launch or ZELL essentially turned theF-104G into a manned missile fired from alaunching platform by a large rocket booster.Lockheed

The ultimate Starfighter was the AeritaliaF-104G-ASA/M which had a completelymodernised avionics suite and remained inservice until 2004. Luigino Caliaro

Lockheed modified a Fiat built F-104Ginto the first F-104S, seen here carryingan AIM-7 Sparrow missile during trialsat Palmdale.Via Luigino Caliaro

down/shoot down mode, along with a newweapons delivery computer.This made the F-104S-ASA compatible with

both the Selenia Aspide and AIM-9LSidewinder missiles. In 1989, a second upgradewas applied to 49 F-104S-ASAs and 15 TF-104Gtwo seat trainers to create the F-104S-ASA/M.These aircraft had an entirely new navigationsystem, an infra-red search and track (IRST)sighting system and new cockpit displays.These were the last F-104 Starfighters inservice anywhere in the world; the last unitbeing 10 Gruppo of 9 Stormo at Grazzanise,which retired them on October 31, 2004.One more development of the F-104 design

was begun in 1968, the CL-1200 Lancer, with aconventional tail and a larger high mountedwing. This lost the International FighterCompetition to the Northrop F-5 in 1970, but amock up of a research aircraft version called theX-27 was built before this too was cancelled.An advanced version was proposed for thelightweight fighter competition in 1972, calledthe CL-1200-2 or CL-1600, as well as a navalvariant called the CL-1400, but again, none werebuilt. So ended the production of the Starfighter,the world’s first Mach 2 combat aircraft, amuch maligned aircraft due to its high accidentrate and unforgiving handling but, in the wordsof one ex-F-104 pilot: “The most fun I ever hadin an airplane.” ■Words: Tim Callaway

Grand Canyon Thunder58 IN ASSOCIATION WITH: LOCKHEED MARTIN – WE NEVER FORGET WHO WE ARE WORKING FOR

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The first unit to operate the type, four Lockheed F-104C Starfighters of the 479th Tactical Fighter Wing fly over the

magnificent Grand Canyon on their way home to George Air Force Base in California in 1958. The aircraft wear the red

falling star fin flash of the 476th Tactical Fighter Squadron and are led by 56-0910, the wing commander’s aircraft.

Lockheed Martin 59


Capital Airlines approachedLockheed in 1951 regarding thepossibility of developing aturboprop transport. At this time,Lockheed had experience with

the powerplant from the Constellationconversions and was designing the YC-130around it. However, despite Capital’s interest,another customer could not be found so theidea was dropped.

In 1954, the idea resurfaced with interestfrom American Airlines in a twin enginedaircraft, but again, a second customer couldnot be found and this design, designated theCL-303, was also shelved. The following year,American updated its requirement to a fourengined, 75 seat airliner with a range of atleast 2000 miles (3220km), but with the abilityto operate economically on shorter routes.

Lockheed proposed the CL-310, and whilethis met the American requirement, EasternAirlines, which was also interested, wantedlonger range, 90 seats and a higher cruisingspeed of at least 350mph (563kph). Lockheedredesigned the aircraft to accept the Allison501D-13 turboprop, the civilian version of theT-56 engine. The airframe was stretched toaccommodate more seats and handle theincreased performance, the new design beingaccepted by both airlines as the new enginesmaintained the economic performance overshort ranges. On June 8, 1955, Americanordered 35, followed by Eastern onSeptember 27 with an order for 40 more.

The detail design work and construction ofthe prototype took only 26 months. By thetime it was ready to fly, six more US and threeoverseas airlines had raised the customerorder book to 129 aircraft, with options takenout on 48 more.

On December 6, 1957, test pilot Herman‘Fish’ Salmon took the prototype on its firstflight at Palmdale, two months ahead ofschedule. The registration was N1881,reflecting the model number, L188. The aircrafthad also had a new name, one which had begunthe fortunes of the company, the Electra. Thetest and certification programme wascompleted quickly without incident; the FederalAviation Administration (FAA) awarding theType Certificate on August 22, 1958.

By the end of the year, Eastern hadreceived seven aircraft, American four, butservices did not begin until January due to astrike by pilots. This was symptomatic of agreater malaise, the US was in an economicrecession at the end of 1958, one whichaffected the domestic airlines. Despite this,the Electra order book had continued to grow,with an additional 19 aircraft being orderedprior to the first commercial flight.

The Lockheed Electra flew its firstpassenger service with Eastern Airlines onJanuary 12, 1959. The aircraft was available intwo main versions, the 188A and 188C, themain difference being that the internal fuel wasincreased from 5450 US Gallons (20,631 litres)to 6490 US Gallons (24,567

Airliner tosubmarine hunter

The Lockheed L188 Electra and P-3 Orion

Interest in jet and turboprop airliners in the early 1950s prompted a responsefrom the American manufacturers, with both Douglas and Boeing producingjet aircraft. Lockheed, however, was to develop an economic turboprop forbetween 66 and 98 passengers which would go on to become the West’s mostimportant maritime patrol aircraft from the 1960s right up to today.

Above: The firstcommercial flight of theLockheed L188 Electrawas made by EasternAirlines on January 12,

1959. Lockheed

A cutaway of the Lockheed L188 Electrashowing the passenger accommodation andwing fuel tanks. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 61

litres) to increase the range, with acommensurate 3000lb (1361kg) increase inmaximum take off weight.

The Model 188B was an unofficialdesignation used by Lockheed to describeElectras built for overseas customers, whichhad a navigator’s station in the cockpit andother changes. The airline orders accountedfor 165 of the 170 Model 188 Electras built,the additional five aircraft being development,test and evaluation airframes.

Problems emerged with the Electra inservice. Passengers complained of noise in theforward cabin which was traced to resonantvibration from the propellers. Frommid-1959, amodified engine mount was introduced on theproduction line and as a kit to modify existingaircraft. This raised the engine incidence by 3ºand cured the problem, the Electra becomingpopular with passengers and, due to itsexcellent economic operation, airlines alike.However, between February 3, 1959, andMarch 17, 1960, three crashes were to occur,the first being ascribed to pilot error, the othertwo, the first on September 29, 1959, showingthat the aircraft had broken up in mid-air.

On March 25, 1960, the FAA, despite presscalls to ground the Electra, issued a maximumcruising speed limitation of 295mph (475kph),while they and Lockheed discovered thecause. The disintegrations were traced to anoscillation in the outer engine nacelles, anaerodynamic and gyroscopic effect thatbecame known as ‘whirl’.

This oscillation drove the wings, and couldbecome so severe that they could break fromthe fuselage. However, the condition couldonly be replicated in tests if the reductiongearbox mount was damaged first, reducingits dampening efficiency. Lockheedresponded immediately with the LockheedElectra Achievement Programme (LEAP),which strengthened both the mounts andassociated wing structure and the wing skins.

Every single Electra in service wasreturned to the factory and underwent the 20day modification programme, entirely atLockheed’s expense. The aircraft still on theproduction line had the modifications builtinto them. Although litigation and themodifications cost the company a tremendousamount of money, their direct and rapidaction cemented Lockheed’s reputationfor integrity and responsibility within theairline industry.

Sadly, public confidence in the Electra hadbeen lost. On top of this, smaller jet aircraftwere taking over the short haul market fromtheir introduction in the early 1960s. Themajor carriers steadily sold off their Electrafleets, 28 US airlines as well as NASA and theNational Centre for Atmospheric Researchwere to acquire them and use themsuccessfully for many years.

Overseas, 46 airlines in 30 countries andthe air forces of five nations were to acquireElectras, flying worldwide with operators fromAustralia to Zaire. Around 57 aircraft were

converted, 40 by Lockheed, to becomefreighters, with a large rear cargo door and astrengthened cabin floor.

The Electra was to prove a tough anddurable airframe, indeed, 22 still operatein 2013 with three Canadian companies. Fiveare still used as freighters, the remaining 17as firefighters, converted with a 3000 USgallon (11,356 litre) tank for fire retardantchemicals or water. Interestingly, the fuelcrisis of the 1970s prompted a study toreturn the fuel efficient but extremely fastElectra to production.

This decline of the airline market was notthe end for the excellent design as in August1957, the US Navy had issued TypeSpecification 146 for an advanced maritimepatrol aircraft to replace the Lockheed P-2Neptune. Lockheed responded with a militaryversion of the Electra, the Model 185, beingawarded a development contract in May 1958.

The third Electra airframe, N1883, wasmodified with a fairing under the forwardfuselage to simulate the weapons bay and adummy Magnetic Anomaly Detector (MAD)boom. This first flew on August 19, 1958,while a mock up of the production aircraft wascompleted. The satisfactory nature of theflight trials and mock up led to a pre-production contract in February 1959. N1883,now designated the YP3V-1, was modified stillfurther with the forward fuselage shortenedby 7ft (2.13m) and the avionics and sensorswere fitted.➤

Pacific Southwest Airlines used the Lockheed L188 Electra twice, first beginning in 1959, thenagain in 1975 for operations into Lake Tahoe. Lockheed

The only overseas airline to purchase newLockheed L188 Electras was Royal DutchAirlines, KLM. Lockheed

The third Lockheed L188Electra,N1883,was modifiedas the prototype YP3V-1, note

the weapons bay fairingunder the forward fuselage.

Lockheed


This modified version flew for the first timeon November 25, 1959, and was successfullyevaluated by the Navy, resulting in a productioncontract for seven P3V-1s in October 1960. Thenew aircraft was named Orion, and inSeptember 1962, was redesignated as the YP-3A, the first of a long and successful line.

The initial batch of P3V-1s, later called P-3As, were fitted with 4500hp AllisonT56-A-10W turboprops, giving the Orion amaximum speed of an impressive 473mph. Toincrease endurance, the internal fuel capacitywas massively increased over that of theElectra, with four wing and one fuselage tankholding 9200 US gallons (34,826 litres). Thisfuel load was to later allow a Royal NewZealand Air Force Orion to set a record forthe type with a mission lasting 21.5 hours.

To increase loiter time in the patrol area, itwas usual practice to shut down the No. 1engine, the port outer. This had no electricalgenerator to power the avionics, and the lackof its hot exhaust plume improved the viewfrom the port aft observer’s position. On someoperations, both outer engines were shutdown, increasing the loiter time still further.

The Orion was designed for a crew of 10and a weapons load of up to 19,252lb (8733kg)could be carried in the internal weapons bayunder the forward fuselage or on the 10underwing pylons. The weapons includeddepth bombs, torpedoes, mines and theMartin Bullpup air to surface missile.

Although the Orion carried no defensivearmament, its firepower was impressive againstboth submarines and surface ships. Thesensors included the ASQ-10 MAD boom, theAPS-80 radar and the ASR-3 which could detect

and track the diesel exhaust of a snorkellingsubmarine. As well as these, a variety of activeand passive sonobuoys could be dropped from adispenser systemmounted in the rear fuselage.

During their long career, most of the 157 P-3As built were re-engined with 4910hp AllisonT56-A-14 engines and given senor andavionics upgrades. They first entered servicewith VP-8 at Patuxent River in August 1962,the first of 24 Fleet and 13 Reserve squadronsto operate the Orion. The aircraft saw activeduty during the Cuban Missile Crisis and theVietnam War, then during the conflicts withIraq and over Afghanistan.

Other than the US Navy, 18 other nationsacquired the Orion, and again several sawoperations. The Islamic Republic of Iran AirForce used its P-3Fs in the Tanker War in theGulf, the Royal Australian Air Force deployed

its AP-3C Orions to Afghanistan from 2003 to2012, the Pakistan Navy conducted operationsagainst terrorist organisations in the north ofthe country in 2007 and the Spanish andPortuguese Air Forces sent P-3s to protectshipping from Somalia based pirates between2008 and 2011. The major production versionsof the Orion beyond the P-3A were the P-3B of1966 and the P-3C of 1969, but there are a hugevariety of types and sub types as listed here.

Given the remarkable safety record of theOrion and its tough and reliable airframe andsystems, many of the 757 built (650 byLockheed and 107 under licence by Kawasaki)remain in service today. The Vietnam People’sNavy is negotiating to acquire six unarmedpatrol versions. The US Navy will steadilyreplace its Orions with the Boeing P-8 Poseidonbased on the Boeing 737 from 2013 onwards,

YP3V-1 – Prototype converted from thirdElectra,N1883.

P-3A - 157 built, first ASW maritimepatrol version.

P-3A(CS): 4 modified P-3As with theAN/APG-66 radar, optical sensor turret andexpanded communications suite. USCustoms and Border Protection (USCBP)patrol aircraft employed on anti-narcoticsmissions.Now designated P-3-LRT (LongRange Tracker).

EP-3A – 10 modified electronicreconnaissance test aircraft.

TP-3A – 12 modified as trainers.

UP-3A – 38 modified as transport aircraft.

VP-3A – 5 modified VIP and staff transports.

WP-3A – 4 converted for weatherreconnaissance.

P-3B – 144 built, 124 for the US Navy, 10for Australia, 5 for New Zealand and 5 for

the Netherlands with improved sensorsand avionics.

P-3AM – 12 P-3Bs modified for Brazil withEADS/CASA avionics, delivered fromDecember 3 2010.

EP-3B – 3 P-3As modified for the CIA asELINT and COMINT platforms in 1963.Returned to US Navy and used by VQ-1from 1969.Two and the 10 EP-3As werelater modified as the EP-3E.

P-3C – Much improved and modifiedvariant with the -14 engines, auxiliarypower unit in the forward fuselage, sensors,avionics and a new central processingcomputer. Produced as the Baselineaircraft; the Update I (31 built); the UpdateII (44 built); the Update II.5 (24 built); theUpdate III (50 built); SUDS,a number ofearlier P-3Cs modified to Update IIIstandard; Update IV (1 built) with theavionics suite for the P-7; the AIP (Anti-Surface Warfare Improvement Package)improved Update III aircraft; the UIP, as withthe AIP, but for the RoNAF; the BMUP(Update III Block Modification Upgrade

Programme,25 built); and CUP (CapabilityUpkeep Programme,13 built) for the RoyalNetherlands Navy. Budget cuts in 2005transferred these aircraft to Germany (8)and Portugal (3).

EP-3 – Designation of ELINT aircraft for theJapan Maritime Self-Defense Force(JMSDF).

OP-3C – 10 P-3Cs modified asreconnaissance aircraft for the JMSDF.

UP-3C – 1 experimental equipment testaircraft for the JMSDF.

UP-3D – 1 ELINT training aircraft for theJMSDF.

WP-3D – 2 P-3s named Miss Piggy andKermit modified for the National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)as meteorological aircraft and hurricanehunters.

EP-3E Aries – 10 P-3As and 2 EP-3Bsmodified as ELINT platforms, replaced bythe Aries II.

Lockheed P-3 orionvariants

Lockheed P-3 Orions on the Marietta production line. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 63

but it is likely many will remain in special rolesfor a number of years. Singapore has registeredits interest in acquiring ex-US Navy aircraft, andothers may yet come forward.

Given this remarkable performance 51years after its first flight and 23 years after thelast one was built, Lockheed opened aproduction line for new P-3 wings in 2008 aspart of a Service Life Extension Programme(ASLEP). In this, the outer wings, lowercentre section and tailplanes are all replacedfrom a kit of newly manufactured parts,deliveries beginning in 2010. For such a longlived aircraft, it is a remarkably little knownone, but it is likely Orions will be patrollingthe world’s oceans and protecting borderswell into the 2020s and beyond, a remarkableachievement by a remarkable aircraft. ■Words: Tim Callaway

EP-3E Aries II – 12 P-3Cs modified as ELINTplatforms, last one delivered in 1997.

EP-3E SIGINT – 8 EP-3E upgraded withadditional signals processing and sensorsin 2009.

NP-3E – Designation for test aircraft basedon various airframes.

P-3F – 6 P-3Cs for the Imperial Iranian AirForce.Three remain with the IslamicRepublic of Iran Air Force.

EP-3J – 2 P-3As modified as enemy ElectronicWarfare simulators for US Navy exercises.

P-3K – 5 updated P-3Bs for the Royal NewZealand Air Force (RNZAF), one ex-RoyalAustralian Air Force (RAAF) P-3C upgradedto the same standard.

P-3K2 – 6 P-3Ks with new wings andupgraded avionics and sensors from 2005.

P-3M – 5 ex-Royal Norwegian Air Force(RNoAF) P-3Bs with EADS-CASA sensorsand avionics for the Spanish Air Force.

P-3N – 2 P-3Bs modified as coastal patrolaircraft for the RNoAF.

P-3P – 6 former RAAF P-3Bs updated for thePortuguese Air Force.

P-3T – 2 P-3As modified for the Royal ThaiNavy (RTN).

VP-3T – 1 P-3A modified as a VIP transportand surveillance aircraft for the RTN.

P-3W – 10 P-3C Update II.5s for the RAAF.

AP-3C - 18 P-3Cs and P-3Ws upgraded forthe RAAF.

TAP-3C – 3 P-3Bs modified as trainers andtransports for the RAAF.

P-3CK – 8 modified P-3Bs with P-3C wingsand updated avionics for the KoreanNavy.

P-3AEW&C – 8 P-3Bs modified with theAN/APS-138 radar mounted in arotordome above the rear fuselage as anairborne early warning, command and

control aircraft. Used by the USCBP for druginterdiction and homeland securitymissions.Now designated P-3-AEW.

CP-140 Aurora – 18 built for the RoyalCanadian Air Force (RCAF) with thesensor and electronics suite from theLockheed S-3 Viking.

CP-140A Arcturus – 3 built for the RCAF asa trainer and coastal patrol aircraft.

P-7 – Replacement aircraft for the P-3,ordered, then cancelled in the 1990s.Alsoknown as the P-3G.

As well as these, small numbers weremodified as oceanographic researchand survey aircraft for the U.S.NavalResearch Laboratory.These were theNP-3A (3),NP-3B (1), RP-3A (3), RP-3C (1),NP-3C (1),NP-3D (3, the NP-3C upgradedand two P-3As modified with the ExtendedArea Test System Radar in a dorsal finfor the Pacific Missile Test Centre), andfinally the RP-3D, (2 of the RP-3Asupgraded and a P-3C), later convertedto NP-3A standard.

Both of the two WP-3Ds modified for the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) asmeteorological aircraft and hurricane hunters. Lockheed

A Lockheed P-3C Orion, 160770, of VP-6, seen at the 100th Anniversary celebrations of US NavalAviation in San Diego.Keith Draycott

A Lockheed EP-3E Aries II ELINT aircraft, one of12 built, operated by VQ-1.Note the longdorsal and under nose antennae.US Navy


T he requirement for the Herculesgrew out of the experiences of theKorean War. During that conflict,Second World War transportssuch as the C-47, C-46 and the

postwar C-119 had revealed their deficienciesin modern warfare. Loading and unloadingfrom side cargo doors was time consumingand required ramps and the para-dropping ofloads was equally limited. In response to theunsatisfactory situation in Korea, the US AirForce (USAF) issued an urgent requirementto nine US aircraft manufacturers for a newmedium lift transport on February 2, 1951.

The requirement was exacting, the newaircraft was to carry 90 paratroops up to 2000miles (3220km) or a 30,000lb (13,608kg)cargo load over a shorter distance. It was tobe able to operate from short and unprepared

airstrips, autonomously of ground equipment,and be based around a retractable rearloading door. It had to be capable of flying atonly 125kts (232kph) for parachute deliveriesand make tactical approaches at even slowerspeeds to meet short landing requirements.

At Lockheed, Willis Hawkins headed adesign team led by Art Flock, developing aconcept under the temporary designation L-206. From the start this was to be a strictlyfunctional aircraft. The 4500cu ft (127.4cu m)cargo bay was to be uninterrupted from therear ramp to the cockpit door. The cargo floorwas designed to be the same height as atruckbed, for ease and speed of loading.

The short, sturdy undercarriage retractedinto fairings on the sides of the fuselage, thenosewheel retracting under the large cockpitin the extreme nose. The crew was to be twopilots and navigator, systems manager andloadmaster, all of whom had seats in thecockpit. The high mounted wing meant theminimum structure impinged on the cargobay, and again eased loading as it did notobstruct ground vehicles from approachingthe rear ramp.

Likewise, the tailplane was high mounted,below which a secondary door retractedinwards, allowing full height containers,vehicles and other large loads to be loaded,unloaded or air dropped. The choice of fourengines was unusual for a medium transport,even more so in this case as the engine inquestion was the Allison T-56 turboprop, aform of propulsion Lockheed already hadexperience with.

Essentially, as one RAF engineer laterdescribed it, the aircraft was a “big empty boxwith a wing on the top and a barn door at theback, just what you need in a militarytransport”. This no frills, easy to use, yet

A transportfor the worldThe universal Lockheed C-130 HerculesIn the history of aviation, twotransport aircraft stand out asbeing not only very long livedand versatile, but also able tooperate anywhere in some ofthe worst conditions in theworld. One is the DouglasDC-3, the other is the LockheedC-130, the mighty Hercules.

Above & below: The 774th TCS of the 463rdTCW at Ardmore Air Force Base in Oklahomaformed the world’s only four-engined displayteam.The ‘Four Horsemen’ comprised fourC-130As flown in tight formation at showsbetween 1958 and 1960.USAF

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elegant approach to the operationalrequirements of the type was to define a legend.Hall Hibbard and Kelly Johnson signed off

on the design, which, along with nine otherproposals from five of the companiesapproached, were considered by the USAF inApril 1951. Such was the perceived urgency ofthe requirement; the L-206 was announced asthe winner on July 2 and a contract issued fortwo prototypes of the Model 82 as it was nowofficially known, to be designated YC-130 andnamed Hercules.The two prototypes were built at Burbank,

YC-130 53-3397 making the type’s first flightthere on August 23, 1954, piloted by StanleyBeltz and Roy Wimmer. As these were beingbuilt, the USAF placed an order for seven C-130As on February 10, 1953. The firstprototype was flown to Edwards Air ForceBase, where the test programme showed thetransport to have a performance and

capabilities far in excess of those stated inthe requirement.Lockheed elected to produce the C-130 at

Marietta in Georgia at its new facility, a teamunder project engineer Al Brown movingthere to prepare the production line. The firstModel 182 C-130A flew at Marietta on April 7,1955, but problems were encountered in itstest flying. An engine fire was traced to aloose fuel hose and quickly fixed, butproblems with the pitch mechanism on theoriginal Curtiss Wright three bladedelectrically actuated propellers initiated achange to an Aero Products hydraulicallyoperated design. These performedsatisfactorily, but were to quickly give way tothe performance increases offered by the nowfamiliar Hamilton Standard 54H60 four bladedpropeller, which were to become a feature ofthe Hercules for many years and wereretrofitted to the early aircraft in 1978.

A line-up of US Air Force C-130As on the Lockheed production flight line in Marietta,Georgia, in 1957prior to delivery. Two of the first Hercules built, complete with the original nose,are at the far left.

The assembly lines at the Lockheed Aircraft plant in Marietta,Georgia,around 1956. In theforeground, the fourth C-130 built, 53-3132.This Hercules was a test asset before seeingoperational service. It was eventually transferred to the Mexican Air Force.On the left is theB-47 Stratojet modification line. Lockheed

Willis W.Hawkins worked for LockheedCorporation for almost 50 years, duringwhich time he led the team that designedthe C-130 Hercules in 1951.He alsooversaw development of the UGM-27Polaris missile and headed the then-classified Corona reconnaissance satelliteprogramme; and he started developmentof what became the M1 Abrams mainbattle tank.He is seen here in 2004 with aC-130J Super Hercules several monthsbefore his death aged 90. Lockheed

These first aircraft entered service withthe USAF’s 815th Troop Carrier Squadron(TCS) of the 463rd Troop Carrier Wing(TCW) at Ardmore Air Force Base inOklahoma, five C-130As being delivered onDecember 9, 1956. Interestingly, the 774thTCS from the same wing formed the world’sonly four engined display team. The ‘FourHorsemen’ comprised four C-130As flying atight formation display at events between 1958and 1960. The first 27 C-130As lacked the➤


nose radome of all later versions, but wereretrofitted with the dome and either theAN/APS-42 or AN/APN-59 search radar.

These were powered by the 3750hp T56-A-1A or A-9 versions of the Allison engine, andthe range was increased by fitting two 450 USGallon (1703 litre) external tanks to the outerwing section as standard. This was the start ofthe career of one of the most versatile andsuccessful transport aircraft ever built, with231 C-130As being delivered, 12 of which wentto the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). Itwas also the start of a bewildering variety ofroles and designations which are listed here.

YC-130 – 2 built, prototypes.

C-130A – 231 built as medium transportsfor the US and Australia.Many modified asbelow.

AC-130A – 12 C-130As and 6 JC-130Asmodified as gunships with four 7.62mmGAU-2 miniguns and four 20mm M61 six-barrel cannons or two miniguns, two M61sand two 40mm clip fed cannons on theport side of the fuselage angleddownwards.Multiple sensors were fittedand upgraded during their service life.

C-130A-II – 10 C-130As modified aselectronic reconnaissance aircraft.

DC-130A – 8 C-130As modified as dronedirectors, and could carry four drones,such as the Ryan BQM-34 Firebee, underthe wings.Originally designated GC-130As,two were transferred to the US Navy.

GC-130A – One ground instructional C-130A.

JC-130A – 16 C-130As modified to trackmissiles over the Atlantic Missile range. 6later converted to AC-130As.

NC-130A – 5 C-130As used as specialmission test beds, later reconverted totransports.

RC-130A – 1 TC-130A and 15 C-130Asmodified as photo-reconnaissanceaircraft.Most eventually returned to C-130A standard.

TC-130A – 1 modified as the prototype of acrew trainer.

C-130B – 230 built as medium transportsfor the US,Canada, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan,Pakistan and South Africa.

HC-130B – 12 C-130Bs as search andrescue and mission support aircraft for theUS Coast Guard (USCG), originallydesignated SC-130Bs, then R8V-1Gs, thenHC-130Gs before the final designation.

JC-130B – 14 C-130Bs modified withretractable arms on either side ofthe nose for aerial recovery ofparachuting satellite capsules andother devices.Most returned to standardC-130Bs.

KC-130B – 2 C-130Bs modified forthe Indonesian Air Force withrefuelling pods instead of underwingtanks.

NC-130B – 1 JC-130B (58-717) as a testbed and 1 C-130B (58-712) modified as aShort Take Off and Landing (STOL)prototype.Two Allison YJ56 turbojetsmounted on underwing pylons asgas producers for a boundary layercontrol system.These were later removedand the aircraft used on the Earth Surveyby NASA.

RC-130B – 13 C-130Bs modified aselectronic reconnaissance aircraft, laterreturned to C-130B standard.

Lockheed c-130variants

An early advertisement for theversatile C-130A. Lockheed

A fully developed AC-130A gunship with four20mm cannons and the full sensor suite.USAF

The first AC-130A gunship during its modification process,withsome of the sensor housings and weapons cutouts in place.USAF

A USAF Lockheed JC-130B practises catchinga satellite ‘bucket’with grappling gear andwinch at Edwards AFB,California in 1969.USAF

Two McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom IIs fromthe US Navy’s VX-4 are shown being refuelledby a Lockheed KC-130F Hercules of MarineCorps Squadron VMGR-252.USMC

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As can be seen, the C-130A was to serve asa transport, gunship, drone director, tankerand electronic and photo reconnaissanceaircraft. This was just the beginning however.As the aircraft developed it was to also expandits repertoire. The C-130B followed in 1958with increased internal fuel and the morepowerful 4050hp T56-A-7 engines which werecapable of operating at increased weights.

A total of 230 were built for the US,Canada, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Pakistan andSouth Africa. Eventually an impressive 70nations were to operate the Hercules. Theonly ex-operators are now Angola andVietnam. The tough airframe has been as longlived as it is versatile. The C-130C wascancelled and the D model was only built insmall numbers as described in the table, but488 of the next major version, the C-130E,were to be produced. This saw the internalfuel increased to 6960 US gallons (26,347litres), supplemented with two large 1360 USgallon (5148 litre) underwing tanks, thepylons relocated inboard from their earlierposition to between the engines.

The original forward cargo loading door onthe port side of the fuselage was deleted, the

aileron boost was increased to help cope withthe weight of the new tanks and variousstructural and avionics upgrades wereinstalled. While the first models had beenpurely tactical aircraft, the increased fuel andoperating weights of the C-130E wereintended to make it a long range logisticsaircraft. First flying on August 15, 1961, the C-130E was supplied to the USAF, Navy andCoast Guard as well as armed forces of nineother nations and was to be modified into aneven wider variety of variants.

Again, the C-130F and G were produced insmall numbers, before the last of the majorvariants of the original airframe, the C-130H,was introduced in 1964. The new modelfeatured a redesigned outer wing section, T56-A-15 engines derated to 4508hp and animproved braking system to shorten thelanding roll.

As production continued, GPS, colourradar and a partial glass cockpit were amongthe avionics upgrades. Most importantly, astronger wing centre section was designedwhile the H was in production, which wasthen retrofitted to many of the earlier aircraftto improve their fatigue life. By the time➤

VC-130B – 1 JC-130B modified as a stafftransport, later returned to C-130Bconfiguration.

C-130C – Intended STOL version, not built.One NC-130B modified as a prototype.

C-130D – 1 C-130A modified with aski undercarriage and 12 productionC-130Ds for service in Alaska andGreenland. 6 later had the skis removedas C-130D-6s.Two more C-130As werealso converted, but later returned totransport standard.

C-130E – 488 built as long range transportsfor the US and nine other countries.

C-130E-I – 17 C-130Es and one NC-130Emodified with upgraded bad weatheravionics and the Fulton Surface to AirRecovery (STAR) personnel recoverysystem on the nose. 11 later modified as C-130H(CT)s, 2 as MC-130E-Ys and 1 as anMC-130E-C.

C-130E-II – 10 C-130Es fitted with anAN/ASC-15 communications and controlsystem cargo bay pod for up to 16operators for use as an Airborne BattlefieldCommand and Control Centre (ABCCC).Redesignated EC-130Es in 1976, then fourwere modified as EC-130Hs with theaddition of a refuelling receptacle.

AC-130E – 11 C-130Es modified asgunships with two miniguns, two M61s andtwo 40mm clip fed cannons on the portside of the fuselage angled downwardsand multiple sensors. Flare dispensersmounted on the wing between theengines and the ALQ-87 electroniccounter measures pod on the outer wingmount. 10 were upgraded to AC-130Hs,some fitted with a single 105mm howitzerreplacing the aft 40mm cannon.

DC-130E – 7 C-130Es modified as dronelauncher and controller aircraft, able tocarry four drones or Remotely PilotedVehicles (RPVs) under the wings.

EC-130E – Designation used for fivedifferent versions. 1 C-130E for the USCG asa Loran navigation system calibrationaircraft in 1966, later redesignated HC-130E. EC-130E then used for the 10C-130E-IIs. EC-130E also used for 8 CoronetSolo II electronic surveillance and airbornepsychological warfare aircraft produced intwo versions,‘Comfy Levi’ and ‘Rivet Rider’,with large blade aerials ahead of the finand under the wings, along with otherantennae.These were later renamedCommando Solo, then upgraded with newsystems and renamed Commando Solo II.Designation then used for three ELINTaircraft for USAF Europe and 2 electronicwarfare platforms in the early 1970s, laterreturned to transport configuration.

HC-130E – 1 C-130E for the USCG as aLoran navigation system calibration aircraftin 1966, originally designated EC-130E.

JC-130E – 1 C-130E used as a USAF testand trials aircraft.➤

A US Air Force C-130B Hercules from the 773rdTroop Carrier Squadron at Langley AFB,Virginia, flies over the Wright Brothers NationalMemorial at Kill Devil Hill, North Carolina, inDecember 1963 to mark the 60th anniversaryof the Wright Brothers’ first flight. Lockheed

The second C-130E tocome off the Lockheedassembly line on anacceptance flight overAlabama in 1962.Theaircraft was to serve with threeUSAF and ANG units beforebeing retired in 2004. Lockheed

The second C-130E to come off the Lockheedassembly line on anacceptance flight overAlabama in 1962. The aircraft was to serve with threeUSAF and ANG units beforebeing retired in 2004. Lockheed

The second C-130E tocome off the Lockheedassembly line on anacceptance flight overAlabama in 1962.Theaircraft was to serve with threeUSAF and ANG units beforebeing retired in 2004. Lockheed

A close up of a pair of Ryan BQM-34 Firebeedrones on the wing mounts of one of the twoDC-130As transferred to the US Navy.Lockheed


MC-130E – 11 C-130E(CT)s, 3 C-130E-Isand 1 NC-130E modified to supportspecial forces operations, infiltratingand exfiltrating personnel. Fittedwith an in-flight refuelling receptacleand terrain following radar.Differingequipment fits produced three versionsof the MC-130E, the -C, -S and –Y,all known under the name CombatTalon I.

NC-130E – 2 C-130Es as test aircraft, 1 laterconverted to an MC-130E-S and one to anEC-130E-I.

WC-130E – 6 C-130Es modified as weatherreconnaissance aircraft.

C-130F – 7 C-130Bs built as US Navytransport aircraft.Originally designatedGV-1Us until 1962.

KC-130F – 46 C-130Bs built as tankersfor the US Marine Corps. 4910hpT56-A-16 engines fitted along withrefuelling pods under theouter wings.

LC-130F – 4 ski equipped C-130Bs for theUS Navy’s Antarctic operations, originallydesignated UV-1Ls.

C-130G – 4 C-130Es for the US Navy astransports.

EC-130G – All 4 C-130Gs modified asVery Low Frequency (VLF)communications relay stations underthe ‘Take Charge and Move Out’(TACAMO) programme.

C-130H – 1205 transport aircraft for theUS and 42 other countries.Two delivered

to Morocco with Sideways LookingAirborne Radar (SLAR) on theport main undercarriage fairing,andthree as surgical hospitals forSaudi Arabia.

C-130H-30 – Stretched fuselage of thecivil L-100-30 version with the C-130Hairframe. First built for Indonesia in1980 and originally designatedC-130H(S).

C-130H(CT) – 11 EC-130E-Is asCombat Talon I special operationsaircraft. 9 later converted to MC-130E-Csand 2 to MC-130E-Ys.

C-130H-MP – Maritime patrol andsearch and rescue version. Firstproduced for Malaysia and alsodesignated the PC-130H.

...continued Lockheed c-130variants

The Belgian Air Force, now the Air Componentof the Belgian Armed Forces, received 12 new-build C-130Hs between 1972 and 1973.This isthe first Belgian aircraft,CH-01, over northernAlabama during a test flight. Lockheed

One RAF Hercules C Mk.1 was modified as a meteorological researchaircraft as the Hercules W Mk.2.The long probe on the nose meant theradar had to be repositioned in a dome above the cockpit.Keith Draycott

The Hercules was to be acquired by manynations, as can be seen in this line-up of USAF,Royal Canadian Air Force, Royal Australian AirForce and Israeli Air Force C-130s at Pope AFBon December 8, 1987.USAF

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AC-130H – AC-130Es upgraded in 1973with T56-A-15 engines and 1978 with boomrefuelling receptacle in the upperfuselage, known as Spectres.

DC-130H – 2 HC-130Hs modified as droneand RPV launch and director aircraft.

EC-130H – 4 EC-130E ABCCC aircraftmodified with flight refuelling andupgraded avionics and 10 C-130Hs withcommunications jamming equipment inblisters on the rear fuselage sides andantennae under the tail.These 10 areknown as ‘Compass Call’ aircraft forelectronic warfare.

HC-130H – 43 search and rescue andrecovery aircraft and mission controlplatforms for the USAF and USCG.Fitted withthe Fulton STAR system, later removed from

most HC-130Hs.2 were converted to JHC-130Hs,2 to DC-130Hs and 1 to a JC-130H.

JC-130H – On HC-130H used as a test andtrials aircraft.

KC-130H – Tanker variant with refuellingpods under the outer wings.

JHC-130H – 2 HC-130Hs modified for theairborne recovery of re-entering satellitesand capsules. Later redesignated NC-130H.

LC-130H – 4 C-130Hs built with skiundercarriages for the USAF to supplyArctic radar stations.

MC-130H – 24 C-130Hs modified as supportaircraft for special forces operations withupgraded avionics for bad weather

operations, know as Combat Talon II.

VC-130H – 2 C-130Hs modified as VIPtransport aircraft for Saudi Arabia.

WC-130H – 15 HC-130Hs modified asweather reconnaissance aircraft.

C-130K – 66 C-130H standard aircraft builtby Lockheed, fitted with British avionics byMarshall of Cambridge for the RAF as theHercules C1.30 examples stretched to L-100-30 standards to become Hercules C3.1 modified as a meteorological researchaircraft as the Hercules W2.Two or four longrange tanks fitted in the forward fuselageas the LR2 or LR4 for the Falklands War. 16LR2s fitted with air refuelling probes asPLR2s,and 4 LR2s fitted with probes and ahose drum unit in the fuselage to becomeHercules C(K)1 tankers.➤

production ended in 1996, the 1205 C-130Hsbuilt had not only replaced earlier versions inthe US armed forces but had been supplied to42 countries worldwide.Three of the C-130Hs delivered to

Saudi Arabia were converted into flyinghospitals which can land near the site ofa disaster and offer immediate surgicalfacilities and intensive care. Althoughthere were designations after the H, thesewere specialised versions, such as theC-130K models for the RAF with Britishavionics, rather than developments of theairframe.Aside from its military successes, the

Hercules was also developed into a civiliantransport, the first Model 382 L-100 flying onApril 20, 1964. This was followed by 21production aircraft, all powered by the Allison501-D22, the civil version of the T56 and thesame engine used in the Electra. The civilcargoes tended to be more bulky than thoseof the military, meaning that the aircrafttended to be physically full before it reachedits maximum weights.To solve this, the fuselage was stretched

with a 5ft (1.5m) plug ahead of the wing and a

3ft 4in (1.02m) aft of it to produce the L-100-20in 1968. This was followed by an even greaterstretch of 6ft 8in (2.03m) in the L-100-30, with114 of both of these aircraft being built beforeproduction ended in 1992.These were purchased by cargo companies

worldwide, as well as by the UN forhumanitarian operations, and though intendedas civil transports, also served with the airforces of 12 nations. The fuselage stretcheswere also applied to some of the military C-130s of a number of nations, including thoseof the UK. One was used by Lockheed as theHigh Technology Test Bed (HTTB) whichfirst flew in 1984 to provide research datainto future developments of the Hercules.Sadly, this aircraft was lost in a crash in 1993,but it provided a great deal of information thatwent into the only version of the Hercules stillin production.The fact that it is still being built in 2013

makes the Hercules the only military aircraftto remain in continuous production for over 50years, in 2015 that will become 60 years, anincredible record. The C-130J is often knownas the Super Hercules and it can be regardedas a largely new design.➤

The first C-130E Hercules for the Royal Canadian Air Force in its original markings around 1969.This aircraft was later used as a navigator trainer and for search and rescue missions. Lockheed

The first tankers for the US Marine Corps wereKC-130Fs which are now being replaced bythe KC-130J as shown here. Lockheed

The US Coast Guard operated the HC-130H inthe search and rescue roles before thesebegan to be replaced by the HC-130J. Both ofthese types are seen here. Lockheed

One of the three C-130J-30s built for the IraqiAir Force takes off from Marietta. Lockheed


Externally little has changed, but theapplication of new technologies throughout theairframe has resulted in a massive improvementin performance. Micro vanes on the rearfuselage reduce the drag around the cargo door,which, in combination with the Lift DistributionControl System (LDCS) produce considerablefuel savings and an increase in range. Mostobvious of these technologies are the DowtyR391, curved, six bladed composite propellers.

These are driven by 4637hp Rolls-RoyceAE 2100D3 turboprops which give the C-130Ja maximum speed of 417mph (642kph). Thefuel efficient engines also increase the rangeto 3262 miles (5250km) and the highperformance of the engine and propellercombination shorten the take-off distance toonly 3127ft (953m) at its normal gross weightof 155,000lb (70,307kg).

The useful load on the C-130J has alsobeen increased to 72,000lb (32,658kg)and thetype is also available with the fuselageextended by 15ft (4.57m) as the C-130J-30.The fully glass cockpit with head up displaysallows operation by just two pilots, theversatile and quickly adaptable cargo floor

requiring just a single loadmaster to manageloading and unloading.

Interestingly, the familiar external tankscarried by every Hercules prior to the C-130Jare now unnecessary, unless they are fitted forspecific mission tasks. The first flight tookplace on April 5, 1996, the launch customerunusually being the RAF, which ordered 25 C-130Js, 15 as the stretched Hercules C4 and 10as the standard length C5. As of October 2012,270 C-130Js had been delivered to 14 nations,with 54 aircraft still on order. Also at that point,a total of 2424 Hercules of all variants had beendelivered to 63 countries worldwide, and it islikely more orders will be forthcoming asolder C-130 versions are retired.

The Hercules was to see combat inVietnam, the Indo-Pakistan war of 1965, theraid on Entebbe in 1976, the Falklands Warwhere it was used by both sides, the Gulf Warsof 1991 and 2003, and in Afghanistan where itstill serves today, as well as just about everyconflict in the world since 1965. It has beenused as a transport, in combat support, as asearch and rescue aircraft, a reconnaissanceplatform and a heavily armed gunship.

HC-130P – 20 HC-130Hs modified asUSAF ‘Combat King’ combat aircrewrecovery and rescue support aircraftfitted with underwing pods for refuellingrescue helicopters and originally with theFulton STAR,which has since beenremoved.

HC-130N – 15 additional ‘Combat King’combat search and rescue aircraft with noFulton STAR equipment.

MC-130P – 28 modified HC-130Pequivalent airframes as support,control and tanker aircraft for specialforces operations with upgraded avionicsfor night, bad weather and low levelrefuelling operations. Known asCombat Shadows.

MC-130W – 12 C-130Hs modified asadvanced tanker, infiltration andexfiltration,aerial delivery and support

aircraft for special forces operationsfrom 2006 and known as CombatSpears.All 12 aircraft were upgradedwith gunship capabilities in 2009,with a30mm GAU-23/A Bushmaster II cannon,Gunslinger launch tube for AGM-176Griffin missiles or GBU-44/B Viper strikemunitions in 10 round magazines,wingmounted AGM-114 Hellfire missiles andGBU-39 or -53 small diameter bombs toprovide a stand off capability, alongwith the necessary sensors and avionics.The project went from concept todeployment in just 18 months, theaircraft initially known as Dragon Spears,in 2011 being redesignated AC-130WStinger IIs.

EC-130Q – 18 C-130Hs modified asairborne communications relays withequipment in wingtip pods and aVLF trailing aerial as improvedTACAMO aircraft.

EC-130V – Airborne early warningand control (AEW&C) aircraft usedby the USCG for counter-narcoticsmissions in 1991, then by the US Navy,finally by the USAF redesignatedNC-130H.

KC-130R – 14 tanker aircraft similar tothe USMC’s KC-130H for overseascustomers.

LC-130R – 6 C-130Hs with skiundercarriages for the US Navy.

RC-130S – 2 JC-130As modified with theBattlefield Illumination Airborne System(BIAS) for search and rescue and othernight missions.

KC-130T – 10 C-130H tankers similar tothe KC-130R but with upgraded avionicsand improved refuelling equipment forthe USMC.

...continued Lockheed c-130variants

A C-130H Hercules crew from the 910th AirliftWing of Air Force Reserve Command atYoungstown-Warren ARS,Ohio, drops an oildispersing chemical over the Gulf of Mexicoon May 5, 2010.USAF

The distinctive antennae identify this EC-130JCommand Solo III, one of seven modified aselectronic surveillance and airbornepsychological warfare aircraft for the USAFand Air National Guard.USAF

A USAF HC-130J Combat King II personnel recovery aircraft takes off from the Lockheed Martinfacility in Marietta,Georgia, on April 3, 2013.This aircraft, 11-5719, is the ninth of 15 HC-130Jscurrently scheduled for delivery to the US Air Force. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 71

It has also carried some of the largestbombs ever dropped, among them the10,000lb (4536kg) M-121, the 15,000lb(6804kg) BLU-82 ‘Daisy Cutter’ and the22,600lb (10,251kg) GBU-43/B MOAB.Civilian use has seen the Hercules become ahospital, a firefighter and an oil slickdisperser. But it is as a transport, particularlyin humanitarian crises, that the Hercules willbe best remembered. Its ability to fly heavyloads of food, medical supplies and searchand rescue teams and equipment into roughstrips close to where they are needed hassaved countless lives the world over. Like theearlier DC-3, this legend of an aircraft isanother of those rare designs where the onlyreal replacement for it is another one. ■Words: Tim Callaway

AC-130U – 17 gunship variants with one25mm GAU-12/U, one 40mm Boforscannon and one 105mm M102 howitzerknown as Spooky IIs.Able to attack twotargets simultaneously through upgradedavionics, sensors and carries twice theammunition load of the earlier gunships.

C-130J – By October 2012, 270 C-130JSuper Hercules transports had beendelivered,with 54 more on order.

AC-130J – Utilising the weapons systemfrom the MC-130W/AC-130W programmeas described earlier, this is the gunshipvariant based on the C-130J airframe.OnJanuary 9, 2013, the first MC-130J beganconversion to become the first AC-130JGhostrider. Flight testing is to begin inDecember 2013 and 16 are expected tobe built. Both this and the AC-130Ws are torelieve the pressure on the existing gunshipfleet as well as replace the older airframes.

EC-130J – 7 C-130Js modified aselectronic surveillance and airbornepsychological warfare aircraft for the USAFand Air National Guard, known asCommand Solo IIIs.

HC-130J – 6 modified from KC-130Jstandard airframes for use as long rangesearch and rescue missions with the USCGdelivered from 2003. Upgraded withimproved search systems and avionicsfrom 2008.The USAF version is known asthe Combat King II and is a combatsearch and rescue tanker with underwingrefuelling pods.The first was delivered tothe 563rd Rescue Group on November 15,2012,and it is expected 78 will eventuallybe purchased.

KC-130J – 42 tanker and tactical airlifterderivatives of the C-130J for the USMC. Firstentered service in April 2004 with VMGR-252.The KC-130J can be fitted with the

USMC’s Intelligence, Surveillance andReconnaissance (ISR) and Weapons kit.This mounts an AN/AAQ-30 TargetingSight System (TSS) under the rear of theexternal fuel tank on the port wing andincludes weapons such as the AGM-114Hellfire or AGM-176 Griffin missiles,precision-guided bombs,and willeventually add a 30mm Bushmastercannon. Known as ‘Harvest HAWK’(Hercules Airborne Weapons Kit), this wasfirst used on operations by VMGR-352 onNovember 4, 2010, in Afghanistan.

MC-130J – 15 modified KC-130Js as atanker, infiltration and exfiltration,aerialdelivery and support aircraft for specialforces operations with the USAF.Originally known as Combat Shadow II,the first flew on April 20, 2011. Sincemid-2011 this was renamed theCommando II with deliveries beginningthe same year.■

A C-130H Hercules with the Modular Airborne Firefighting System drops a line offire retardant in west Texas on April 27, 2011.The modular system is capable ofdispensing 3000 gallons of water or fire retardant in less than five seconds.USAF

The LC-130R Hercules was equipped with aski undercarriage and used by the US Navyfor Antarctic resupply missions from the1960s through to the late 1990s. Lockheed

On August 12, 1953, the SovietUnion tested its first hydrogenbomb and in May 1954, theMyasishchev M-4 Hammer longrange bomber, known by its

NATO reporting name of Bison, made its firstappearance. Accurate information on Sovietnuclear capabilities became a priority, soreconnaissance systems began to bedeveloped as a matter of considerable urgency.The reconnaissance aircraft would have to bean extraordinary machine, as defensivesurface to air missiles and jet fighters meant itwould have to operate above 70,000ft(21,340m) to avoid interception. It would alsohave to possess very long range to reachtargets of interest inside the vast expanses ofthe Soviet Union and return safely. Whathappened next is a superb example of the rightpeople with the right developments being inthe right place at the right time.

Taking high resolution images from highaltitude was the first problem, new technologywould need to be developed. The DuPontcorporation had developed a new plastic calledMylar, a light, strong and flexible material. Sixscientists at Eastman Kodak developed a newfilm called Estar using this, which was thinand strong, so huge lengths could be fitted ina lightweight magazine.

Dr Edwin Land of Polaroid was made headof a panel to investigate national intelligencecapabilities. He brought in James Baker, thebrilliant lens designer from Harvard, whodesigned a 24 and 36in lens. These were builtby the Perkin-Elmer Corporation under DrRoderick Scott. At the same time, the HyconCorporation developed the K-38 camera to usethese lenses, the combination of which couldaccurately photograph a 30in (76 cm) objectfrom the required height.

Initially, two aircraft were selected to fulfilthe reconnaissance requirement, now referredto as Weapons SystemMX-2147. One was theMartin RB-57D, of which 20 were ordered in1954, the second being the Bell X-16, whichwould eventually be cancelled. However, at

Lockheed, Kelly Johnson had heard about therequirement, and proposed the CL-282,essentially a single engined aircraft with longthin, sailplane-like wing attached to an F-104fuselage. Although the USAF rejected thedesign, Edwin Land and other members of theCIA’s panel were impressed, particularly whenJohnson promised to deliver the aircraft in onlyeight months. Johnson was recalled toWashington and briefed President Eisenhower,who approved the plan for the aircraft, nowknown as the ‘Angel’ or U-2 to disguise its truepurpose, on December 4, 1954. The project,known as Aquatone, would be run by the CIA,with USAF support, known as Oilstone.

What emerged from Johnson’s brilliant mindwas to become not only a Cold War icon, but

High altitudeDragon LadyFrom the Lockheed U-2 to the TR-1The U-2 is an icon of the Cold War and represents a huge leap forward in reconnaissance capability.Five companies, some remarkable scientists and engineers and a great deal of new technology weredirectly involved in this development, which was to result in another Lockheed aircraft with over 50years in operational service. It was one of the most effective intelligence gathering aircraft of all time.

The prototype U-2,Article 341,seen during testing at GroomLake wearing just the number001 on the fin.The outriggerwheels fell off on take off, thewing tips acting as skidswhen landing. Lockheed

That magnificent man with his flying machine.Designer Kelly Johnsonwith a civil registered U-2, one of many used by the CIA. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 73

one of the most effective intelligence gatheringaircraft of all time. Incredibly, for such anadvanced design, Johnson kept his promiseregarding the timeline for producing theaircraft. Tony LeVier conducted a high speedtaxiing trial with the prototype at Groom Lake’sArea 51 on August 1, 1955, which due to thelight weight and highly efficient wing, becamethe first flight as he reached 70kts (130kph).The true first flight took place three days

later, the only difficulty being in getting thelightly loaded aircraft to return to the ground.Once flight testing started, one problememerged with engine flameouts at highaltitudes which was solved by Pratt andWhitney refining the engine and Shelldeveloping the low volatility LF-1A fuel. Thefirst aircraft were delivered and the camerasfitted, testing taking place over the US at theend of 1955 and early 1956, before the firstflight over the Soviet Union took place on July4, 1956. Aside from the USAF, the only otherair force to operate the U-2 was that of theRepublic of China, who used the type between1960 and 1974.

humanitarian crises since its introduction.The modern variants have massively

improved avionics and both photographic andelectronic data gathering systems, includingdata links to provide real time data from anysituation. It was intended that the U-2 wouldbe replaced by the RQ-4 Global Hawk by 2015,but in 2012 the US announced plans to keepthe aircraft flying until at least 2023.■ Words: Tim Callaway

U-2 – 1 built, known as ‘Article 341’withserial 001 on the fin.

U-2A – 43 built for the CIA and USAF withthe Pratt and Whitney J57-P-37 or P-37Aturbojet.

U-2B – 5 built with larger air intakes, theJ57-P-31 engine and an enlarged dorsalspine.

U-2C – 13 U-2As and 3 U-2Bs fitted with thePratt and Whitney J75-P-13B engine withmodified engine intakes and a longernose.

U-2D – 5 built, 3 converted from U-2Cs astwo-seaters with a second level cockpit foran observer.

U-2E – 18 U-2As and Bs with air refuellingcapability and upgraded ECM equipment.

U-2F – 2 U-2Cs with air refuelling capabilityand upgraded ECM equipment.

U-2CT – 2 converted,1 U-2C and 1 U-2D witha raised rear cockpit as a two seat trainer.

U-2G – 2 U-2Cs with reinforced landinggear, arrestor hook,and wing spoilers forcarrier operations.

U-2H – 1 with air refuelling and carrieroperations capability.

U-2R – 12 built. Enlarged aircraft withlonger wings, underwing pods andincreased fuel capacity, first flew in 1967.

U-2EPX – 2 U-2Rs temporarily used in 1973as Electronic Patrol Experimental aircraftfor the US Navy.

WU-2A – 2 U-2As equipped as atmosphericand weather research platforms.

WU-2D – 3 U-2Ds equipped asatmospheric and weather researchplatforms, one temporarily designated JU-2D for development trails.

TR-1A – 33 U-2Rs built as tacticalreconnaissance aircraft with underwingpods, side-looking radar, new avionics,and improved ECM equipment. Re-designated U-2R in 1992.

TR-1B – 3 built as two-seatconversion trainers, redesignated U-2RTin 1992.

ER-2 – 1 built, N706NA,NASA 706,asan Earth resources research aircraft. 2 U-2Cs also known as ER-2s N708NA andN709NA in 1971 and later 1 TR-1A asER-2 N809NA.

U-2S – 22 U-2Rs upgraded with a lifeextension programme and the GeneralElectric F118-101 engine, improved sensorsand GPS receiver, first accepted by USAFin 1994.

U-2ST – All 3 U-2RT two seat trainersupgraded as per the U-2S in 1994, laterredesignated TU-2S.

lockheed U-2variants

Handling the U-2 at altitude has beendescribed as balancing on a knife edge, or atleast a greasy ball. At its maximum height, thestall speed and never exceed speed of theaircraft are only 10kts (18.5kph) apart. In eventhe gentlest turn the wing going around theoutside of the turn can be in pre-Mach buffet,while the inside wing is in pre-stall.The control system while light and positive

at low altitude became progressively heavierwith height; U-2 pilots really worked for aliving. Balance was so critical that the film inthe magazines fed simultaneously forwardand aft to keep the weight distribution even.Interestingly, the U-2 acquired the nicknameDragon Lady, after a cartoon character, as itshandling could bite.Altogether, 103 U-2s of all models were

built, firstly from 1954 to 1968, withproduction restarting after nearly 12 yearsfrom 1979 to 1989. The complete list ofvariants is included here, and these were to beused to gather intelligence throughout theCold War, and have recorded just about everyconflict, natural disaster and many

The early U-2 cockpit included a periscope toview the terrain below. Lockheed

NASA 809,a TR-1A modified for Earth researchas an ER-2 for use by NASA.Keith Draycott

Later, the U-2 cockpit became all glass, theperiscope being replaced by a Sony videocamera mounted under the fuselage anddisplaying on one of the large multi-functiondisplays. Lockheed


T he first Lockheed rotary wingedaircraft began with Irven Culverof the Advanced Concepts Group.Culver was seeking to reduce thecomplexity, and therefore the

operating costs and maintenancerequirements of helicopters, as well as toimprove the reliability and simplify the controlof such aircraft.

The core of his concept was the rigid rotorwith a feedback system to control thegyroscopic effects and regulate control inputs.A radio control model was built to test thedesign, which performed successfully. In July1959, his small team began work on a full sizetwo seat research helicopter designated theCL-475, powered by a 140hp Lycoming VO-360 four-cylinder piston engine driving thetwo bladed main and tail rotors.

Completed and trucked to Rosamund Lakein the Mojave Desert, the machine’s first

flight on November 2, 1959, showed thewooden main rotor produced excessivevibration. Experiments continued with avariety of main rotors, and a revisedgyroscopic control system. Success cameabout in May 1960 with the adoption of a threebladed metal rotor and a gyroscopic ringattached to the rotor swash plate.

The CL-475 was moved to Lockheed’s RyeCanyon facility and tested by US Army, AirForce, NASA and FAA pilots who all found iteasy to fly. On one occasion, a pilot with noprevious helicopter experience was able toferry the aircraft solo with no difficulty. Theexperimental data from the project was to gointo Lockheed’s next helicopter designs, theCL-475 being donated to the National Air andSpace Museum in 1975.

The success of the CL-475 experiments ledto the development of the CL-595, a four seatturbine powered helicopter with an

aerodynamically very clean design, evenincorporating retractable landing skids. Thegyroscopic control system had been modifiedstill further, and it was expected that the newhelicopter would achieve speeds in excess of200mph (322kph).

This, and the easy handling of the CL-475,convinced the US Army and Navy to ordertwo high speed experimental prototypes inFebruary 1962, known as the Model 186 andgiven the designation XH-51A. These wereboth two seat aircraft, the extra cabin spacebeing used for the instrumentation. A 550hpPratt and Whitney Canada PT6B-9 shaftturbine powered both prototypes, the firstflight taking place on November 2, 1962.

The XH-51As were as stable and easy to flyas the earlier helicopter, showing a maximumspeed of 174mph (280kph) in trials. At higherspeeds, instability in the three bladed rotorwas encountered, which was solved by fitting a

HelicopterdevelopmentsFrom the CL-475 to the AH-56 CheyenneAlthough not known as a helicopter manufacturer, Lockheed has produced some remarkablerotary winged aircraft, beginning with the first rigid rotor design, the CL-475 of 1959.

Lockheed also produced two Model 286 civilianversions of the 186 which flew more than 5000

guests in the US and Europe and displayedextraordinary manoeuvrability. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 75

four bladed unit. It was obvious the new rotorsystem was capable of even greater speeds, sothe US Army ordered the second XH-51A to beconverted into a compound helicopter.

A 16ft (4.9m) span wing was mountedbehind the cabin low on the fuselage, thestarboard side carried an additional fuel tankwhile the port side had a 2900lb (1315kg)thrust Pratt and Whitney J60-P-2 turbojet. Thisfirst flew in September 1964 without the jetengine for weight and balance trials.

The test programme eventually set anunofficial speed record of 302.6mph(486.9kph) on June 29, 1967. Both XH-51Asare now preserved in the US Army AviationMuseum at Fort Rucker in Alabama. Onemore Model 186 was built, as the XH-51N, afive seat rotary winged test aircraft for NASA.

A pair of Model 286 five seat civiliandemonstrators were also built, but althoughthey were incredibly manoeuvrable and fasterthan any other helicopter of the day with amaximum speed of 206mph (331kph), thesefailed to attract any customers in sufficientnumbers. The Royal Netherlands Navyexpressed an interest in an anti-submarineversion, but this small order for 12 would havebeen uneconomic to produce.

The extensive use of helicopters during theVietnam War gave the US Army tremendousexperience with rotary winged airborneforces. One of the requirements to emergefrom this experience was for escort gunships,for which the Advanced Aerial Fire Support

System (AAFSS) design competition wasbegun on August 1, 1964.

Since this called for a maximum speed of253mph (407kph), long range and the abilityto high hover, it was realised that the newaircraft would take some time to develop. Inthe interim, the Bell AH-1 Cobra was acquiredto serve as an armed escort in Vietnam.Lockheed submitted the compound rigid rotorCL-840 design in response to the competition,which it won on November 3, 1965.

The new compound helicopter with itspusher propeller was designated AH-56A andnamed Cheyenne, with 10 prototypes beingordered on March 23, 1966, the last beingcompeted and delivered in 1969. A single2930hp General Electric T64-GE-16 drove therigid main rotor, tail rotor and pusherpropeller mounted on the end of the longslender fuselage.

The two main undercarriage legs retractedinto fairings on the side of the fuselage and thetailwheel was fixed to the fin, mountedunderneath the tail. Under the main rotor, awing of 26ft 8.5in (8.14m) was mounted low onthe fuselage to aid rearming its six weaponshardpoints with 2.75 inch (70 mm) rocket podsor Hughes TOWmissiles. In the nose, a smallturret carried a 7.62mm six barrelled Minigun.

Beneath the two seat tandem cockpit asecond turret could be fitted that could carrya 30mm XM140 cannon or a 40mm XM129grenade launcher, the gunner’s seat rotatingto match the orientation of the either turret

and keep the target in view. Weapons sightingwas via periscope or helmet mounted sightswhich were also equipped with night vision,making the Cheyenne an extremely advanceweapons system for the time.

The first flight took place on September 21,1967, test speeds rapidly reaching 196mph(315kph) as the envelope was expanded. Flighttesting continued apace, with weapons trialsand other tests being completed successfully,however, rotor instability was discovered atspeeds above 200mph (322kph) which causedthe loss of the third prototype on March 12,1969. The aircraft were grounded until July,with a number of solutions being tested toresolve the problem, resulting in the advancedmechanical control system (AMCS) installedon the seventh Cheyenne in 1972 whichimproved the rotor’s stability. By this time,political wrangling between the US Army andair force over responsibility for close airsupport missions caused a re-evaluation of theproject, the Cheyenne being cancelled onAugust 9, 1972. Lockheed was to offer amodified version of the design with twinengines, the CL-1700, for the US Army’sAdvanced Attack Helicopter competition thatfollowed the demise of the AAFSS, but this waseventually to be won by the Apache. The end ofthe Cheyenne was also the end of Lockheed’sambitions in the helicopter market. The fifthAH-56A survives, and is on display in the USArmy Aviation Museum at Fort Rucker inAlabama. ■ Words: Tim Callaway

The Lockheed CL-475 on an early test flight with the two bladed rotor.Lockheed

The first of the two Lockheed XH-51As built for rigid rotor experimentsshowing its ease of control. Lockheed

The sixth Lockheed AH-56A fires 2.75in rocketsduring weapons trials at the Yuma ProvingGround. Lockheed

To contain any possible blade failures,Lockheed built Fort Cheyenne for groundtesting the AH-56A. Lockheed

Three of the 10 Lockheed AH-56A Cheyennesbuilt for the AAFSS.The long fuselage madefor an elegant machine. Lockheed


While civil air transport hadembraced jet aircraftwholeheartedly, in 1960 theMilitary Air TransportService (MATS) was still

using predominantly piston enginedmachines. Aircraft like the Boeing C-97,Douglas C-124 and Lockheed C-121 made upthe majority of the fleet and suffered from thelimitations of their generation.To address these shortcomings in the

interim, both the C-135 and C-130E wereordered to increase MATS capabilities,even though the C-135 only had a side loading

door and could not accept large vehicles. InMay 1960, the USAF issued SpecificOperational Requirement (SOR) 182, whichwas for a jet transport capable of taking a60,000lb (27,215kg) load over 3500 nauticalmiles (6480km).This was followed in January 1961 with a

request for proposals to Boeing, Convair,Douglas and Lockheed. On March 13, theLockheed Model 300 design was declared thecompetition winner with a contract issued forfive test and development prototypes on April5. The production contract was finalised inMay 1962, the prototype, 61-2775 designatedC-141 and named StarLifter. It was built in anamazingly short time for such a large aircraft,as it was rolled out on August 22, 1963.Designed at Marietta, the Model 300 took

advantage of all the successful lessons fromthe C-130 programme, and shared many of theturboprop’s features. The high wing and mainundercarriage that retracted into fairings onthe sides of the fuselage left the cargocompartment clear from the cockpit to therear loading doors. These hydraulicallyoperated doors were of clamshell type, thetwo main rear sections opening out to thesides with the forward lower section forminga vehicle loading ramp.These doors could be opened in flight to

allow parachute drops of cargo to take place,but for paratroop missions, there were twoside doors at the rear of the cargo bay.Interestingly, when making a parachute exitfrom these side doors, you didn’t really needto throw yourself out. All you did wasapproach the door, and sort of hop.

big jetsThe

The Lockheed C-141 StarLifter and C-5 GalaxyAt the beginning of the 1960s,it became apparent that theUSAF’s Military Air TransportService was ill-equipped toserve the modern needs of theUS forces. Over the next eightyears, this led to thedevelopment of two newLockheed designs, both fast jettransports, the latter being oneof the largest aircraft ever built.

The natural metal scheme soon gave wayto the standard Military Airlift Commandgray and white scheme as on this 437th

Military Airlift Wing aircraft. Luigino Caliaro

The C-141B modification line at Marietta, note the C-130 production line in the background.Lockheed

The airflow suction around the door didthe rest, expelling you at speed into space, anexhilarating experience. The cargo floor wasset at the height of a standard truckbed, 50in(1.27m), for ease and speed in loading andunloading. The new aircraft had the samefuselage cross section with the C-130 butthere the similarities ended.

This was the first large jet aircraft to bedesigned exclusively for cargo transport,uniquely designed to meet both military andcivil certification requirements. Its main wingwas swept, mounted with 1.2º of anhedral andfitted with spoilers from the ailerons to thefuselage, while the tailplane was mounted ontop of the tail to keep the elevators clear of anyturbulence caused by the fuselage.

Four 21,000lb (9525kg) thrust Pratt andWhitney TF33-P-7 turbofans were individuallymounted in nacelles on pylons under thewings, the ease of access this provided greatlyfacilitating engine maintenance. The cargobay was impressive, 70ft (21.34m) long with acapacity of 6530.5cu ft (184.9cu m). This wasable to carry 62,717lb (28,448kg) of cargo, 10standard 463 litre pallets, 154 passengers, 123paratroops or 80 stretcher cases for medevacflights. The standard crew was between fiveand seven, depending on the role, with two

pilots and various numbers of flight engineers,navigators and loadmasters.

After ground testing, the prototype wasready to fly on the 60th anniversary of theWright Brothers’ first flight, December 17,1963. The test flying programme went well,with the first aircraft being delivered to theUSAF on October 19, 1964, being declaredoperational with the 44th Air TransportSquadron of the 1501st Air Transport Wing ofMATS on April 23, 1965. In 1966, MATS wasrenamed the Military Airlift Command (MAC).

By this time, orders for 132 C-141s hadbeen received, their entry into service beingextremely timely as the C-141s quickly foundthemselves flying transport missions to supplythe war in Vietnam. A number of the aircraftwere fitted with reduced military equipmentand strengthened airframes to enable them tocarry a complete Minuteman IntercontinentalBallistic Missile.

It was found that the safest and mostefficient way to deliver the missiles to theirlaunch sites was by air, and the C-141 wasmodified to carry the 86,207lb (39,103kg)missile in a special container. StarLifters alsoflew similar missions in support of the Geminiand Apollo space programmes, as well asdelivering other missiles and rockets to

Lockheed c-141StarLifter variantS

C-141A – 284 built in standard transportconfiguration.

NC-141A – 1 C-141A, 61-2777, used asan evaluation and test aircraft.

L300-50A – 1 C-141A as a civiliandemonstrator,N4141A,delivered toNASA as a test aircraft.

YC-141B – 1 C-141A, 66-186,modified asthe first C-141B

C-141B – 270 C-141As with stretchedfuselages and in flight refuellingreceptacles.

C-141B SOLL II – 13 C-141Bs modifiedwith the Special Operations Low Level IIpackage with improved night,navigation and defensive systems.

C-141C – 63 C-141Bs with upgradedavionics, glass cockpit displays andelectronic systems.

launch sites. The aircraft quickly proved itselfboth reliable and durable in long rangemissions across the Pacific.

USAF orders were steadily increased to284 C-141As, the last one being delivered inFebruary 1968. One of these, 61-2777, wasdesignated as an NC-141A and assigned tospecial test and evaluation duties.

One more StarLifter was built, N4141A, acivilian demonstration aircraft used byLockheed to interest commercial operators inthe type. In January 1965, the StarLifter hadcompleted the rigorous test process and hadbeen awarded a civilian FAA Type Certificate.Although two cargo airlines showed interestin the project, including a stretched version,no orders were forthcoming.

The civil StarLifter was donated to NASA,where, reregistered N714NA, it was equippedas the Kuiper Airborne Observatory at wasbased at Moffett Field, California. The militaryC-141 was quickly found to have the same➤

C-141As that had not yet been modified to C-141Bs were painted in the European One camouflagewhen they came out of programmed depot maintenance in the early 1980s. Lockheed

A production line up of Lockheed C-141AStarLifters at Marietta, note the L-300 in themiddle. Lockheed


problem as the C-130 – it was full a long timebefore it reached its maximum take off weight.At the same time, the ability to operate at

longer ranges to isolated areas, such asthe supply flights to Israel during the YomKippur War where intermediate bases werenot available became desirable, but theUSAF’s budget would not allow theacquisition of new aircraft. Instead, Lockheedproposed to solve both issues by fittingstretched fuselages to the C-141As along within flight refuelling receptacles.Two plugs were to be inserted, one of 13ft

4in (4.06m) ahead of the wing, and one of 10ft(3.05m) aft of it. This increased the capacity byalmost 75% to 11,399cu ft (322.8cu m), enablingthe stretched aircraft to carry 205 troops, 168paratroops or 103 stretcher cases on a medevacflight. In 1976, approval was given to modify C-141A 66-186 as the prototype YC-141B, the firstflight being made on March 24, 1977.Between 1977 and 1982, 270 C-141As were

converted into C-141Bs, the increase in airtransport capability for the USAF being theequivalent of buying nearly 100 new aircraft ata fraction of the cost. The first C-141B enteredservice with the 57th Military Air TransportSquadron in January 1980.During Operations Desert Shield and

Desert Storm in 1990 and 1991, C-141Bs flew8536 transport missions, forming thebackbone of the USAF supply flights into theregion. In 1994, a Special Operations versionwas produced in small numbers to enable theaircraft to be flown at night at low level.Throughout the 1990s, 63 C-141Bs were

given upgraded avionics and many of theirolder mechanical systems were replaced byelectronics, to produce the C-141C. The last C-141s were retired from the USAF onSeptember 16, 2004, but were still in use withAir Force Reserve (AFR) and Air NationalGuard (ANG) units. By 2005, only one unitwas left, the 455th Airlift Wing, which used itsaircraft in support missions into Iraq andAfghanistan between 2004 and 2006.Their last eight aircraft were retired when

C-141C 66-0177, named Hanoi Taxi, landed forthe last time at the National Museum of theUSAF at Wright Patterson Air Force Base inOhio on May 6, 2006. For a large and novelaircraft, the StarLifter had proved itself apopular, capable and reliable workhorse, butbigger things were to come.The only aircraft I have ever played football

inside started life in April 1964 when the USAFissued a request for proposals to industry forthe Cargo Experimental Heavy LogisiticsSystem (CX-HLS). This had been formulatedbecause the C-141, while expanding thetransport capability of the USAF considerably,was still not capable of carrying the largestand heaviest equipment used by the US Army.This process had begun in 1961, when

President Kennedy’s policy was to reduce thenumbers of US Armed Forces based overseas.This meant a heavy lift transport was requiredto give US based forces greater flexibility torespond to a crisis anywhere in the worldrapidly. Studies by Boeing, Douglas andLockheed were funded for the aircraft, whilePratt and Whitney and General Electricdeveloped concepts for the engine.In September 1965, the Lockheed design

was selected, to be powered by the newconcept of a high bypass turbofan fromGeneral Electric, the TF-39, which had beenselected in August. These engines areextremely fuel efficient and relatively quiet fortheir tremendous thrust. This engine was tohave a great impact on the world of

Lockheed c-5GaLaxyvariants

C-5A – 81 built from 1969 to 1973 withthe 41,100lb (18,643kg) thrust TF39-GE-1turbofans. 77 fitted with improved wingsfrom 1981 to 1987.

C-5B – 50 built between 1986 and 1989with upgraded avionics and the43,000lb (19,505kg) thrust TF39-GE-1Cturbofans.

C-5C – 2 C-5As, 68-0213 and 0216,modified with the Space CargoModification (SCM) to the cargo bay toallow the carriage of larger payloadsfor NASA and the USAF.

C-5AMP – 111 C-5s to undergo the AMPfrom 1998,with a glass cockpit,improved avionics and a new autopilot.

C-5M – 49 C-5Bs, 2 C-5Cs and one C-5Ato undergo the RERP from 2006 whichfits the 50,000lb (22,680kg) thrustGeneral Electric F-138-GE-100 highbypass turbofans, as well as upgradedavionics, undercarriage andimprovements to the airframe, skin andpressurisation system.Upgradecompletion is expected in 2016 and isknown as the Super Galaxy.

The prototype of the Lockheed C-5A Galaxy, the T-33 chase plane gives the giant transportscale.Note the long probe as part of the test equipment. Lockheed

A Lockheed C-141B in flight, showing what anelegant aircraft this was. Lockheed

The C-5 was designed to carry the large and unusual. Here the US Navy’s Avalon DeepSubmergence Rescue Vehicle is loaded under the ‘visor’ nose door. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 79

commercial aviation, as it was developed intothe CF-6 family, powering the Boeing 747 and767, McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and MD-11and the Airbus A300 and A330 among others.In December 1965, Lockheed was issued

with a contract to produce its Model 500, avery large transport of similar layout to the C-141, with a high mounted swept wing withfour underslung engines and a T tail. Thecockpit however was mounted in a bulgeabove the main cargo deck, which was fittedwith both front and rear loading doors.The clamshell rear doors were

complemented by a ‘visor’ nose that lifted upcompletely. This allowed simultaneous frontand rear loading and unloading on internallymounted vehicle ramps that extended at bothends. Behind the cockpit with its crew of fivewas a 15 seat compartment for relief crews orother personnel, and under the tail, a 75 seatpassenger compartment could be fitted.The aircraft was fitted with an air refuelling

receptacle from the beginning. The cargodeck was vast, 121ft 1.5in (36.92m) long with acapacity of 34,796cu ft (985.3cu m), capable ofcarrying loads up to 265,000lb (120,020kg). Itwas intended that the aircraft could carrysuch items as a main battle tank or a CH-47Chinook helicopter from the outset.The first aircraft, 66-8303, now designated

C-5A and named Galaxy, made its first flight inthe hands of Leo Sullivan on June 30, 1968.Development problems with weight andperformance caused cost overruns on theprogramme, deepening a financial crisisLockheed was experiencing at the timebecause of problems with the both the C-5Aand the L-1011 Tristar projects.Some of the weight development problems

with the Galaxy were caused by thestipulation that it should be able to operatefrom rough strips, necessitating a strong, butcomplex and heavy undercarriage andsupport structures. Interestingly, thiscapability was never once used, and given thecost and complexity of an asset like a C-5, itremains highly unlikely it ever will be.Once the C-5A entered service with the

437th Airlift Wing in June 1970, theseproblems were exacerbated with thediscovery of cracks in the wings of the fatiguetest airframe. Payloads and operations of

existing aircraft were restricted, despite thefitting of load alleviation systems. Cracks werealso found in the upper fuselage, whichrequired the complete redesign of thehydraulic actuation system for the nose visor.Given the load limitations and reduction in

fatigue life on the expensive aircraft, aprogramme called H-Mod was begun in 1978.An entirely new and stronger aluminium alloy,not available when the C-5As were first built,was used to construct an entirely new wing boxfrom tip to tip. The first aircraft so modified flewon August 15, 1980, and by 1987, all 77 C-5Asthen in service had the new wing. With both thefull payload and fatigue life restored, the Galaxywas at last able to prove its true capabilities.Even with its development problems,

during the 1970s the C-5A had proved itself inboth Vietnam and in supplying Israel duringthe Yom Kippur War. It was able to carryroughly 98% of the equipment the US Armythen had in service, so the fleet found itself inhigh demand in transporting heavy items totrouble spots around the world.In October 1982, these successes

led to 50 of an improved version, the C-5B,being ordered with the first being deliveredin 1986. These had more powerful versionsof the TF39 engine and upgraded avionics,along with numerous system upgrades toimprove reliability. Beginning in 1998, the

111-strong C-5 fleet is being upgraded withthe Avionics Modification Programme(AMP), which introduces glass cockpits and anew avionics suite.This was the first half of an upgrade aimed

at producing the C-5M or Super Galaxy. Thesecond half of this programme is theReliability Enhancement and Re-enginingProgramme (RERP) on 52 aircraft whichintroduces new engines and an array ofstructural, systems and avionics improvementsaimed at keeping the Galaxy in service beyond2040. The first two C-5Ms were delivered toDover Air Force Base in February 2009.The C-5 has since been used in major

conflicts, including Iraq and Afghanistan, andon humanitarian missions the world over. TheC-5M is now demonstrating a 20% increase inpayload and a 20% decrease in fuelconsumption, so its ability to reliably delivervital equipment anywhere on the planet hasbeen tremendously enhanced.In one flight from Dover AFB to Turkey on

September 13, 2009, a C-5M broke eight worldrecords and established benchmarks for 33more. Despite its troubled beginnings, the C-5has matured into a remarkable aircraft, onewhich is expected to see at least 70 years ofactive service and whose size and capabilitieswill still be impressing people even then. ■Words: Tim Callaway

The new glass cockpit of the C-5M Super Galaxy and C-5AMP began to be fitted to the fleet in1998. Lockheed

The boom operators view into the cockpit of a C-5A.Note thereceptacle is slightly offset to starboard. Luigino Caliaro

This C-5M Super Galaxy flew helicopters from Rota in Spain to Bagramand Kandahar in Afghanistan in June and July 2010. Lockheed


for a high speed executive transport for thecommercial market was evinced by themodification of a wide variety of types for suchpurposes, as well as the small number of newaircraft types that were being introduced.

While North American was to concentrateon the UTX trainer requirement, bothLockheed and McDonnell began work ontheir proposals for the UCX transport. In 1957,Kelly Johnson’s design team began detailwork on the CL-329, a swept wing, twinengined jet with a cabin capable of taking upto 14 seats or 5000lb (2268kg) of cargo. Theengines were rear mounted on the fuselage toreduce cabin noise and, since the aircraft wasrelatively small, to avoid the possibility offoreign object damage as would be morelikely with engines mounted under the wings.

The engine chosen was the 4850lb(2200kg) thrust British Bristol Orpheus,which was fitted to the first two prototypes.The US engine manufacturer Wright wasnegotiating to produce the engine underlicence at the time as the TJ37, so it wasenvisaged that production aircraft would befitted with these. The prototypes were bothbuilt at Burbank, the first aircraft, registeredN329J, making its maiden flight there onSeptember 4, 1957, only 241 days after thedesign project began.

The second aircraft, N329K, followed inMarch 1958 and differed from the firstprototype in having the optional 565 US Gallon(2139 litre) ‘slipper’ long range fuel tanks fittedto the wings. Now named JetStar, both aircraftwere used on a flight demonstration touraround the US that exhibited both the rangeand performance of the new jet.

In the early 1950s severalmarkets for new jet aircraftwere beginning to open up. TheUS Air Force had a requirementfor a new light jet aircraft in tworoles, and industry wasbeginning to realise theadvantages of fast executiveaircraft. These two separateinfluences were to result in asingle remarkable aircraft.

for a high speed executive transport for thecommercial market was evinced by themodification of a wide variety of types for suchpurposes, as well as the small number of newaircraft types that were being introduced.

While North American was to concentrateon the UTX trainer requirement, bothLockheed and McDonnell began work ontheir proposals for the UCX transport. In 1957,Kelly Johnson’s design team began detail

were beginning to open up. TheUS Air Force had a requirementfor a new light jet aircraft in tworoles, and industry wasbeginning to realise theadvantages of fast executive

The world’s firstcabin business jet

for a high speed executive transport for thecommercial market was evinced by themodification of a wide variety of types for suchpurposes, as well as the small number of new

In the early 1950s severalmarkets for new jet aircraftwere beginning to open up. The

cabin business jetThe Lockheed JetStar

T he fleet of utility transports andmulti engined crew trainers inservice with the US Air Force hadtwo things in common by 1955.They were all wartime period

piston engined designs and were all becomingincreasingly expensive to operate. What wererequired were light, efficient jet aircraft andboth the UTX and UCX specifications for anew trainer and transport had been writtenwith this in mind.

However, the funding was not available tosupport industry in developing new aircraft tofulfil these roles. At the same time, the need

The first prototype Lockheed Model329 JetStar on a test flight. Lockheed

The two Lockheed JetStar prototypes while both still twin engined aircraft.Note the slipper tanks onthe wing or N329K, the second aircraft.N329J was used as the personal transport of Kelly Johnsonfor many years,and now resides in the superb Museum of Flight in Seattle,Washington.Lockheed

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While the flight demonstrations and trialswere going on, Wright had withdrawn fromnegotiation for production rights to theOrpheus engine. Lockheed also attempted tonegotiate a licence, but when this failedN329K was re-engined with four 3000lb(1361kg) thrust Pratt and Whitney JT12A-6turbojets under the designation Model 1329.

With the success of the flight trials,Lockheed decided to offer the JetStar in bothtwin and four engined versions and to producethe aircraft at Marietta in Georgia. Severalproblems then arose, none of them anything todo with the aircraft. In 1958, the US was goingthrough a recession, which severely affectedthe domestic market for business aircraft.

While the USAF had first announced itsintent to purchase the JetStar as the T-40Acrew trainer in October 1958, this selectionwas changed to the smaller North AmericanT-39 trainer and CT-39 transport for both theUSAF and US Navy in early 1959. Despitethese setbacks, this was far from the end forthe JetStar, as a number of factors in thedesign were attracting interest from both civiland military customers.

First among these was the large cabin, theJetStar still being one of the few business jetswhere it is possible to stand up straight insidethe passenger compartment. The highcruising speed of 507mph (816kph) and longrange of 2220 miles (3570km) werecomplemented by the use of large doubleslotted flaps, leading edge slats and a speedbrake to keep the landing performancesuitable for shorter regional runways.

The four engined layout was also a safetyfactor valuable to many customers. By

February 1960 Lockheed had received 29orders for Model 1329 JetStars from privatecorporations and the Canadian Government.Later the same year, the USAF also orderedfive JetStars as the C-140A transport fitted tocalibrate military navigation aids.

The first production JetStar first flew atMarietta in June 1960, receiving it FAA TypeCertification in August 1961. Altogether 204JetStars were to be built, serving with the airforces of nine countries and as a civil aircraftin four more. These were produced in ninemajor variants, as listed here.

Two claims to fame for the aircraft are itsappearance in the James Bond film Goldfingerand the fact two were owned by Elvis Presleyas private transports, the second namedHound Dog II. Like so many Lockheedproducts, the JetStar was to prove a reliableand long lived aircraft. Many of the 731JetStars and JetStar IIs built are still flyingtoday as corporate or private jet transports.■ Words: Tim Callaway

Lockheed Jetstarvariants

JetStar 6 – 80 built with four 3000lb(1361kg) thrust Pratt & Whitney JT12A-6turbojets, permanent slipper tanks, fullde-icing system and accommodationfor two crew and 10 passengers.Supplied to the FAA (1),NASA (2), theCanadian Ministry of Transport (2), theLuftwaffe (3) and the Indonesian AirForce (3), among others.

JetStar 8 – 66 built, the last delivered in1973. From the 97th production aircraftthese were fitted with the 3300lb (1497kg)thrust Pratt & Whitney JT12A-8 turbojetswhich were also retrofitted to a numberof JetStar 6s. Supplied to the Shah of Iran(1),Kuwait Government (1) and theRoyal Saudi Air Force (2),among others.

JetStar 731 – 31 JetStar 6s and 24JetStar 8s converted with four GarrettTFE731-1 turbofans by the AiResearchAviation Company. First conversion, the11th JetStar 6 built, flew on July 10, 1974.

JetStar II – 40 built with four 3700lb(1678kg) thrust Garrett TFE731-3 turbofansand new larger external wing tanks belowand forward of the wing. First flew onAugust 18,1976,at Marietta, restartingproduction after a three year gap,the lastbeing delivered to the Iraqi Government.

FanStar – 1 aircraft converted in 1986by American Aircraft Industries by fittingtwo 9150lb (4150kg) thrust GeneralElectric CF34-1A turbofans.

C-140A – 5 JetStar 6 standard airframesdelivered to the USAF from September1961 as Flight Checkers for calibratingnavigation systems.Powered by the J60-P-5, the military version of the JT12A-6, theseaircraft were retired in the early 1990s.

C-140B - 11 JetStar 6 standardairframes delivered to the USAF fromApril 1961 as utility transports, alsopowered by the J60-P-5.

VC-140B – 6 C-140B standard aircraftfitted as VIP transports, the last beingretired in 1986.

One JetStar claim to fame as a JetStar 6 is seen duringfilming of the James Bond film Goldfinger. Lockheed

One of the five C-140A JetStars purchased by the USAF as a flight checker. Lockheed

One of the six VC-140B VIP transports, now on display in the Pima Air Museum in Arizona.Constance Redgrave


When the Lockheed U-2 beganflying reconnaissancemissions over the SovietUnion on July 4, 1956, thereaction of the defences

showed these overflights were being trackedby radar. While this did not mean they couldbe intercepted by the missiles and aircraftavailable at the time, it was recognised thatsystems would soon be developed to reach theU-2’s operating altitudes. To counter this, theCIA began Project Rainbow in August 1956, anattempt to reduce the U-2s radar cross sectionand therefore electronic visibility. This attemptfailed, but did begin research into what wenow refer to as stealth technology, a fieldLockheed were later to lead.

Instead, again in late 1957, the CIAlaunched Project Gusto, aimed at developing ahigh speed aircraft to replace the U-2, whichhad been referred to internally as Angel. As afollow on to the U-2, the new project wastermed Archangel and initially called the U-3.

A series of designs were developed to studyvarious high speed and high altitudeconfigurations, beginning with the A-1 in April1958. At the same time, Convair wasdeveloping a competing secret project underthe name Kingfish, which had a lower radarcross section than Lockheed’s A-11 design,the stage the project had reached when it wasreviewed by the CIA in early 1959.

In response, Johnson and the Skunk Worksmodified the A-11 to have twin, angled finsand airframe components made of materialsother than metal. In this form, known as theA-12, the Lockheed design won thecompetition and a contract for aerodynamicand structural testing and the construction ofan engineering mock up was awarded onSeptember 14, 1959. This was followed by acontract for 12 production aircraft, issued onJanuary 26, 1960. The project was now known,very misleadingly, as Oxcart.

The A-12 was a single seat design with twolarge engines mounted in the short, delta

wing at the rear of the long fuselage. Theforward fuselage swept downwards into twostrakes, known as chines, which ran its entirelength and blended seamlessly into the wing.The engine nacelles blended into the wing in asimilar fashion; features which gave the A-12 aremarkably low radar cross section for solarge an aircraft.

The high temperatures generated byfriction at its intended Mach 3+ cruiseperformance meant the aircraft could not bebuilt of aluminium; instead, titanium alloyswould have to be used throughout. This meantnew welding, forming and manufacturingtechniques also had to be developed to dealwith the exotic material. Titanium was not onlyexpensive, it could be ruined by metallurgiccontamination or by using the wrong tools,and required distilled water to work on, aschlorine in tap water caused it to corrode.

The high temperatures had a second effect;the airframe would expand as it heated. Toallow for this, the skin had corrugations across

It’s goingHOW fast…..?The Blackbirds, Lockheed’sA-12, M-21 and SR-71

The CIA had attemptedto improve the highly successfulU-2 by reducing its radar cross

section to better avoid detection andinterception. When this failed, a new

project was begun that was to result in the fastestand highest flying operational aircraft ever built.

Lockheed test pilot Lou Schalk on anearly test flight in the as yet largelyunpainted Lockheed A-12. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 83

the wingspan and a number of gaps built inbetween some of the panels, which would onlyproperly close when the airframe reached itsoptimum temperature. This meant the aircraftleaked fuel until it performed a short highspeed run to warm up the airframe. It wouldthen slow down to refuel from a tanker, onlythen proceeding on its mission.

Engine manufacturer Pratt and Whitneywas also faced with many challenges indeveloping the J58 turbojet capable ofoperating at these speeds and producing therequired thrust. This was essentially a turbojetinside a ramjet, which required a low volatilityfuel called JP7 to be developed in order tofunction in the intended environment. Theengine nacelles were fitted with a complex inletand ejector system designed by Ben Rich, aman who will feature again in this publication.

This system ensured airflow entering theengine remained subsonic even at Mach 3,and contributed 60% of the total thrust at highspeed. Lastly, protective suits for the crew andcockpit cooling systems capable of dealingwith the high skin temperatures also had tobe developed. Once again, Lockheed wasworking far beyond the current limits ofaviation technology, but typically of the Skunk

Works, despite these difficulties, the firstprototype was constructed at Palmdale in just22 months from the contract date.

In December 1961, the first A-12, 60-6924,was completed, then moved by truck to thetop secret but now infamous Area 51 testfacility at Groom Lake on February 26, 1962.Here it was fitted with a pair of 17,000lb(7711kg) thrust Pratt and Whitney J75engines as the J58 had not yet been approvedfor flight testing. Ground and system trialsbegan, and like the U-2, the first flight cameabout during a high speed taxi check,Lockheed test pilot Lou Schalk briefly gettingairborne on April 25, 1962.

The official first flight took place five dayslater on April 30, the flight test programmeshowing the A-12 to have remarkably benignhandling at subsonic and low supersonic speedsfor such an advanced design. The J75 engineslimited the aircraft to Mach 2, but the 32,500lb(14,742kg) thrust J58 became available in July,one being fitted into the right nacelle of the testaircraft and flown on October 5.

The first flight with two J58s took place onJanuary 15, 1963, the five A-12s alreadydelivered steadily being re-engined, oneexceeding Mach 3 for the first time on July 20,

then cruising at Mach 3.2 at 83,000ft(25,298m) on February 3, 1964. With thisflight, all the design targets of Johnson’sSkunk Works team had been met and proven,an astounding achievement in such acompressed timeframe, especially as the lastof the dozen A-12s was delivered in June.

The fourth A-12, 60-6927, was completed asa two seat trainer, with an instructor’s cockpitfitted above and behind the pilot’s. Thisaircraft retained the J75 engines and wasknown as the ‘Titanium Goose’. The orderwas extended to include nine further two seataircraft with a launch control officer’s cockpitin line behind the pilot’s.

This second crewmember was to launchand monitor the ramjet powered D-21reconnaissance drone, which was carried on apylon above the rear fuselage. The doubledelta winged D-21 drone had also beendeveloped by Kelly Johnson and the SkunkWorks beginning in October 1962. The CIAand the US Air Force funded the drone in aproject called Tagboard. The D-21 was to flyits mission, then eject its avionics andreconnaissance package which could berecovered in mid air by a JC-130 Hercules orfrom the sea by ship.➤

The construction of the largely titanium alloy airframes required new metal working techniquesto be pioneered by Lockheed. Here, the Skunk Works production line is seen later in theprogramme, while producing the SR-71s for the USAF. Lockheed

Moving the secret aircraft to Groom Lake fromPalmdale called for special transportationboxes to be built, a hazard on the highwaysof California and Nevada. Lockheed

Lockheed A-12 60-6932 in flight, inspurious USAF markings and with the

all moving fins still unpainted.CIA

A premature end to a programme, theA-12s as they appeared in storage in 1968.Note the plastic pads to protect the paintedsurfaces.CIA


Four launches were conducted, the last onJuly 30, 1966, ending in disaster when the D-21 struck the launch aircraft and both werelost. The D-21 went on to be launched fromunderwing pylons on B-52s, assisted by asolid rocket booster, but their use on the A-12was discontinued. The last of the 38 D-21sbuilt were retired in 1971. The launch versionof the A-12 was designated the M-21, and onlytwo were built as factors outside theprogramme had taken a hand.One of the factors that most affected the A-

12 and M-21 programme was the shootingdown of the U-2 flown by Gary Powers overthe Soviet Union on May 1, 1960. This notonly proved the U-2 was now vulnerable toground based missiles; it also accelerated thedevelopment of the A-12 to replace it.However, there was an additional politicaldimension to this shooting down.President Eisenhower was publicly

embarrassed by the event, and ended militaryoverflights of the Soviet Union, except in anemergency. Deniable CIA run operations werestill authorised occasionally, but overflightswere now widely considered too dangerous.Additionally, rapidly developing reconnaissancesatellite technology was beginning to equalsome of the capabilities of manned flights.Essentially, the main reason for the A-12’s

existence was removed before the aircraft hadeven flown. In a meeting held on December28, 1966, the CIA decided to bring theprogramme to a close by 1968, primarily dueto budget limitations and the emergence ofthe USAF’s SR-71 programme, but the A-12was to have one final task.In a deployment called Operation Black

Shield, the CIA sent three A-12s to Kadena AirForce Base (AFB) on Okinawa in May 1967 tofly missions over Vietnam and North Korea.These missions continued until May 8, 1968,when the unit was withdrawn, the last A-12flight taking place on June 21 that year whenthe last aircraft returned to Palmdale. The A-12s were all placed in storage where theyremained for nearly 20 years before beingdistributed to museums.

Two more aircraft were to be developedfrom the A-12, the first of these in response toa USAF requirement for a high speedinterceptor to replace the Convair F-106Delta Dart. The North American XF-108Rapier had been cancelled in September 1959,just as the A-12 was beginning finaldevelopment prior to production.Kelly Johnson proposed a fighter version

of the A-12 to the USAF, who accepted,ordering three pre-production YF-12As in July1960. The seventh, eighth and ninth A-12s onthe production line were modified, the nosechanging shape to become a conical radome,the chines now starting behind this. A secondcockpit was fitted to house the weaponssystem operator. The chines provided a greatdeal of the A-12’s stability in yaw, especially athigh speed, so changing the nose shapemeant that three fins had to be added, twofixed ones under the engine cowlings, and afolding, ventral fin under the fuselage. Of thefour reconnaissance equipment bays in thechines, one now carried the fire controlsystem and radar, the others being fitted withdoors and housing three Hughes AIM-47Falcon radar and infrared guided missiles.The front of the shortened chines housedinfrared sensors, the radome containing theHughes AN/ASG-18 radar and fire controlsystem from the XF-108 project.The first YF-12A made its maiden flight at

Groom Lake on August 1, 1963, in the hands ofLockheed test pilot James Eastham, all threeaircraft being assigned to the 4786th TestSquadron at Edwards Air Force Base. PresidentJohnson announced the existence of the newfighter on February 24, 1964, so the aircraftcould act as cover for the still secret A-12.This also allowed the YF-12As to publicly

set a number of world aviation records,including a sustained altitude record of80,257.86ft (24,462.6m) and speed over a1000km course of 1,688.691mph(2,718.012kph), while USAF testing andmissile firings successfully continued. OnMay 14, 1965, the USAF ordered 93 LockheedF-12Bs, but the cost of the war in Vietnam was

Lockheed A-12,M-21 And SR-71vARiAntS

A-12 – 12 built, initially with J75 enginesand refitted with J58s as they becameavailable.

A-12 trainer – 1 built, 60-6927, secondraised cockpit behind the pilot’s andJ75 engines.

M-21 – 2 built to act as ‘mother’ launchaircraft to D-21 drones.

YF-12A – 3 built as pre-production testaircraft for the F-12B fighter programme.

YF-12C – 1 aircraft fictitiously referred toby this designation,actually an SR-71A,64-17951,with a false A-12 serialnumber, 60-6937, supplied to NASA forengine and nacelle design testing.

SR-71A – 29 built as a strategicreconnaissance aircraft for the USAF.

SR-71B – 2 built as a trainer with asecond raised cockpit behind the pilot’s.

SR-71C – 1 built from the rear fuselageof YF-12A 60-6934,damaged in alanding accident,and the forwardfuselage of the SR-71 static test airframe.Suffered yaw instability at high speeds.

A Lockheed YF-12A approaches a tanker.Thedifference in the chines around the nose canbe clearly seen,which affected the aircraft’sstability in yaw. Lockheed

Lockheed YF-12A 60-6935 in flight showing thethree fins under the engine nacelles and rearfuselage.The centre fin folded for landing.USAF

A later test flight of the M-21with the D-21 drone readyfor launching.The secondcockpit of this version of theA-12 can be seen as theaircraft approaches a tankerfor refuelling. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 85

reconnaissance asset, so in September 1994the US Congress voted to allocate funds toreactivate three of the stored SR-71As.

The first of these flew again on April 26,1995, being redelivered to the USAF in June.The reprieve was to be short lived, as thesethree were retired again in 1998, the last twoairworthy SR-71s operating as researchaircraft with NASA until 844, 61-7980, made itslast flight on October 9 1999.

The Blackbird, Habu, Sled or whichevernickname you prefer was an astounding leap intechnology and aircraft development. The highaltitude sustained supersonic performance ofthese aircraft has yet to be matched, and theirdevelopment was to stimulate research into somany other technologies, such as stealth,electro optical cameras, airframe metallurgyand construction, high speed engine andnacelle design among them.

Kelly Johnson, quite rightly, received hissecond Collier Trophy in 1964 for his work onthese aircraft, the first person ever to be giventhe award twice. Svelte and elegant, theBlackbird is remembered for many things, notjust the technology it represented, but the sheerbeauty of its design.■Words: Tim Callaway

Lockheed SR-71, 61-7980, NASA 844, made the lastflight by an SR-71 on October 9, 1999.Keith Draycott

escalating and Secretary of Defence RobertStrange McNamara would not allow thefunding, cancelling the F-12B in January 1968.

Oddly, all the specialised tooling andconstruction equipment for the whole family ofaircraft was ordered to be destroyed too, so nomore could be built. The YF-12As continued togive good service as test and evaluationaircraft for both the USAF and NASA,particularly being used for investigation ofhigh speed engine nacelle design, some ofwhich assisted in the production of theRockwell B-1 bomber. One YF-12A wasdamaged in a landing accident, one was lost toan airborne fire, the crew ejecting safely, andthe last resides in the National Museum of theUSAF, where it was delivered in 1979.

Having been impressed with theperformance of the CIA’s A-12s, the USAFordered its own version of the aircraft inDecember 1962. Initially known as the R-12,this was later amended to RS-71, to indicate itwas intended as a reconnaissance strikeaircraft. This was later changed to SR-71, toproperly reflect the strategic reconnaissancerole in July 1964.

The SR-71 differed from the A-12 in havinga longer fuselage, two seats, increasedinternal fuel and a variety of sensors beyondthe usual optical and infra-red cameras,including a sideways looking radar andsignals intelligence gathering equipment. Oneof the cameras could be aimed up to 45º fromthe aircraft’s track, another system providingstereo imagery either side of the flight pathand a third gave continuous horizon tohorizon coverage.

These systems with their wide scope andsideways looking capabilities reduced theneed for the politically sensitive overflights, agreat deal of the areas of interest being visiblefrom outside the borders of any given countryfrom the SR-71’s operational altitude.

The first SR-71 flew at Palmdale onDecember 22, 1964, entering service with the4200th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing (SRW)at Beale AFB in California in January 1966.Later redesignated the 9th SRW, their SR-71s

deployed to Kadena AFB on Okinawa onMarch 8, 1968, and began operations overSouth East Asia.

A detachment was also based at RAFMildenhall in the UK and by 1972 the fleetwas averaging one sortie a day. The Japanesenickname for the aircraft was Habu, as it wassaid the A-12 and SR-71 resembled a localspecies of viper, but more commonly the darkcoloured aircraft were known as Blackbirds.

New speed and altitude records were setby the SR-71, including a sustained altitude of85,069ft (25,929m) and a speed in a straightline of 2,193.17mph (3,529.57kph), roughlyMach 3.3. The entire SR-71 programme cameunder the codename of Senior Crown, but by1989 budget limitations forced the retirementof the fleet, the last mission being flown inOctober and the last flight taking place onMarch 6, 1990.

One of the two seat SR-71Bs, 61-7956, wasdelivered to NASA’s Dryden Flight Researchfacility as NASA 831 in July 1991 andcontinued to fly as a research aircraft untilOctober 1997. This was not the end however.The Gulf War of 1991 showed that there wasno suitable replacement for the aircraft as a

A Lockheed SR-71 in flight. Its blended wings,fuselage and engine nacelles may have had solid

aerodynamic and stealthy purposes, but they didmake for a supremely beautiful aircraft.USAF

The Lockheed YF-12A was the fighter versionof the A-12, seen here with its intendedweapon, the large Hughes AIM-47 Falconmissile. Lockheed

Oddities& one offsLesser known Lockheed projects

During its history Lockheed hasnever been afraid to work at thecutting edge of aviation as manyof its most famous aircraftamply illustrate. Among the wellknown types, there are somehighly unusual prototypes andexperimental aircraft, a few ofwhich are covered here.

LOCKHEED CL-760 ❯❯In March 1964 Lockheed proposed the CL-760as a response to a joint service requirementfor a Light Armed Reconnaissance Aircraft(LARA) for the US Air Force, Marine Corpsand Navy.The CL-760 was a twin engined, high wing,

tandem two seat design, intended to bepowered by two 600hp Garrett T76 turbopropswhich would have given the aircraft amaximum speed of 325mph (523kph).A pair of blisters on the lower fuselage

sides were to house the main undercarriageand up to four 7.62mm machine guns. Otherweapons could be carried on under wing andfuselage pylons, and for transport or assaultmissions, eight troops could be carried in thefuselage behind the cockpit.Eventually, in August 1964, the North

American OV-10 Bronco was selected to fulfilboth this and the Counter Insurgency (COIN)roles, and the CL-760 was dropped with only afull scale mock up having been built.

❮❮LOCKHEED XFV-1In military aviation, the most vulnerable part ofany aircraft to enemy attack is its airfield. Avertical take off and landing (VTOL) aircraftthat did not need a fixed operating base, couldfly from a forest clearing, urban site or a ship’sdeck. It would provide air power with bothflexibility and survivability. In 1951, the USAFand US Navy issued contracts to Convair andLockheed to develop turboprop VTOL designs,Lockheed’s response being the XFV-1.Art Flock led the design team who

produced a short winged aircraft with fourtailplanes at a 45º angle to the wing surface.Each of these had a fully castoring wheel atthe tip, as the aircraft was to sit on its tail fortakeoff and landing. As the powerful AllisonXT-40-A engine was not fully ready, atemporary fixed undercarriage was fitted toallow conventional flight testing to be carriedout, Herman ‘Fish’ Salmon making the firstflight on June 16, 1954.Although it flew numerous test flights

going from horizontal flight to vertical hovertransitions, none involved vertical takeoff orlanding. Engine delays meant the project wascancelled in June 1955, the second XFV-1never being completed. One XFV-1 is ondisplay at the Florida Air Museum inLakeland, Florida.

The Lockheed XFV-1without the temporary

undercarriage,mountedon its tail as intended,aposition that earned itthe nickname of the

‘Pogo Stick’. Lockheed

Lockheed Martin 87

LockheedVZ-10 (XV-4A)hummingbird ❯❯Early in 1961, Lockheed proposed a jetpowered VTOL research aircraft to the USArmy, based on its private venture researchwith a vertical lift test rig. This resulted in acontract for two prototypes known as the VZ-10 in September, to be powered by a pair of3000lb (1361kg) thrust Pratt and WhitneyJT12A-3LH turbojets.The engines were mounted in pods

above the wing on either side of thefuselage, and featured diverter valves ineach of the exhaust. These directed the jetefflux into a mixing chamber through 20ducts, the chamber venting throughretractable doors in the bottom of thefuselage. Doors on the top of the fuselageopened at the same time, the resultingmass of airflow providing more verticalthrust than the aircraft weighed.The mixing chamber could be angled

backwards up to 12º to provide forwardthrust, at 90mph (145kph) one engine hadits diverter valve closed to provide normalthrust, followed by the second engine at145mph (233kph). The design alsofeatured a two seat side by side cockpit andT tail, to keep the elevators out of the jetexhaust in either mode.The first conventional flight took place

on July 7, 1962, the first vertical take offbeing achieved on May 28, 1963, after anumber of modifications. Designated XV-4As, the aircraft were delivered to theArmy in February 1964, the first being lostin a crash on June 10. The second aircraftwas wind tunnel tested by NASA, thenconverted to the XV-4B by fitting six3015lb (1368kg) thrust General ElectricJ85-GE-19 turbojets, four as vertical liftengines in the fuselage.Flight tests began in August 1968, but

dwindling budgets and the crash or thesecond aircraft on March 14, 1969, endedthe programme.

Lockheed L2000Lockheed’s interest in developing asupersonic transport (SST) aircraft hadbegun as early as 1958, with several paperstudies being conducted into aircraft withcruise speeds in excess of 2000mph(3219kph). In June 1963, President John FKennedy had announced his support for a USSST, after which the FAA requested proposalsfor a 125 to 160 seat aircraft on August 15.Lockheed initially responded with the

CL-823 design, this and a Boeing conceptbeing refined through several phases ofthe FAA programme until 1966. By thistime, the Lockheed concept had becomethe L2000-7 design, an elegant deltawinged aircraft with either four GeneralElectric GE4/J5M or Pratt and WhitneyJTF17A-21L afterburning turbojetsmounted in individual nacelles under thewing which were intended to give theL2000 a cruising speed of Mach 2.7.The long nose would droop to improve

visibility on approach and a full scale mockup was produced along with several windtunnel test models. Even though theLockheed design was simpler and basedon known technology, the FAA selected theBoeing design on December 31, 1966.Technical problems and delays combinedwith rising costs combined to cancel theentire programme on May 20, 1971. ■Words: Tim Callaway

Lockheed AL-60In the late 1950s, Lockheed designer AlMooney developed a single engined highwing utility aircraft designed to operate fromundeveloped strips with a minimum of groundsupport. The rugged airframe had a tricycleundercarriage for easy conversion to skis orfloats for ‘bush’ flying. This was the AL-60,designed to take seven passengers or up to454kg (1000lb) of cargo.The first of two prototypes made its maiden

flight on September 15, 1959, with Lockheeddeciding to produce the aircraft in Mexico as ajoint venture called Lockheed-Azcarate. Thisbuilt 44 of the type called the LASA-60, 18 forthe Mexican Air Force in 1960. A small numberof AL-60s were also assembled in Argentina byKaizer as the L-402. Then, in 1961, Lockheedsigned an agreement for Aermacchi to buildthe AL-60 under licence in Italy.Two versions were produced, the AL-60B

with the original nosewheel, and the AL-60Cwith a tailwheel undercarriage, the firstaircraft flying on April 19, 1961. These provedsuccessful, particularly in the African andCanadian markets. The last variant was theAL-60C-5, which was built under licence byAtlas Aviation as the Atlas C4M Kudu. Thefirst Kudu flew in 1974 with around 40 beingbuilt for the South African Air Force.

The full size engineering mock up of theLockheed CL-760 Counter Insurgency andarmed reconnaissance aircraft. Lockheed

An early test flight by a LockheedAL-60 utility aircraft. Lockheed The first Lockheed XV-4A Hummingbird on

take off with the duct bay doors open.Lockheed

A wind tunnel model of the elegantLockheed L2000 supersonic transport.Lockheed

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Have you ever noticed an aircraftin flight in the normal course ofyour day? Chances are that ifyou have, your attention wasdrawn to it by one factor, the

noise of its engines. It was this factor thatconcerned the US Army most for operationsin a specific and unusual theatre, the nightskies of Vietnam. The guerrilla tactics of hitand fade employed by the Viet Cong wereunpredictable and difficult to countereffectively with conventional forces.

Although sensors existed that couldpenetrate the jungle canopy to detect enemymovements, their application was complicatedby their limited ranges. What was requiredwas an aircraft that could loiter, undetected,using these short range sensors to developintelligence to pass on to strike aircraft andground forces. If this were to be effective, itwould need to be nearly silent.

The Lockheed Missile and Space Company(LMSC) was formed under Willis Hawkins todevelop Lockheed’s interests in rocket andspacecraft. Based at Sunnyvale, the productsincluded a range of satellites, the Polarissubmarine launched missile and the Agenabooster rocket and target vehicle.

In 1966, the Advanced ProgrammesDivision began considering ways to develop asilent aircraft by taking an alreadyaerodynamically efficient design, such as aglider, then fitting the quietest possiblepropulsion system to it. A Schweizer SGS 2-31glider had 57hp petrol engine mountedbehind the cockpit, driving a three

bladed propeller mounted on a pylon above thenose via a long shaft. In this form, the aircraftwas known as the Quiet Thrust or QT-1. Whilethe concept was of interest to the US Army as itwas extremely quiet, what it wanted was a twoseat aircraft for a pilot and sensor operator.

Two Schweizer X-26A gliders were given tothe LSMC to build into QT-2 evaluationaircraft under the design leadership of StanleyHall. These had a 100hp Continental O-200-Afour cylinder engine with large mufflers onthe exhausts, again, mounted behind thecockpit and driving a four bladed propeller viaa long shaft that passed over the cockpit. Tofurther eliminate noise, the tips of the slowrevving propeller remained subsonic.

Under the project name of Prize Crew, thefirst of these aircraft, N2471W,

was flown at Tracy Airfield in July 1967. Thesmall agricultural airfield was chosen tomaintain secrecy, and the flight testprogrammes conducted there were extremelyencouraging, the QT-2 being almostimpossible to hear. The two aircraft werefitted with sensor packages including a NightVision Aerial Periscope (NVAP) and infraredilluminator, and airlifted to Vietnam inDecember 1967.

Here they were based at Soc Trang ArmyAirfield for evaluation, Vietnam. The twoaircraft proved particularly useful during theTet Offensive of January 1968. They werereturned to the US, where one was used bythe US Navy at its test pilot school beforebeing returned to the Army and placed on

Small & silentThe QT-2, Q-Star and YO-3A Quiet StarStealth technology is now generally accepted to mean the low observability of aircraft, ships and

vehicles to radar and other electro-magnetic systems. During the mid-1960s, the Lockheed Missilesand Space Company developed a very different approach to making aircraft less noticeable.

The second of the two QT-2s built seen in early testing. Lockheed

Lockheed YO-3As NASA 718 seenon the ground at the DrydenFlight Research Centre.NASA

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display at the US Army Aviation Museum atFort Rucker.

While these trials were under way, a thirdglider was modified with the same engine,only with the addition of a tricycleundercarriage. This aircraft, N5713S, knownas the Quiet Star, was used to test differentpropellers from three to six blades to establishthe quietest combination. In 1969, a US Navysponsored programme saw this aircraft re-engined with a 185hp Wright RC2-60 Wankelrotary engine, first flying in September.

The nose of this aircraft was distinctive asit housed a standard car-type radiator for the

engine. Various noise reduction and sensortrials were conducted with this aircraft overthe next two years before it was retired. Thesuccess of these tests and operationalevaluations meant that the US Army ordered11 of a production version of the aircraft inJuly 1968.

The Lockheed YO-3A was a verydifferent machine to the earlier designs.The wing, tailplane and rear fuselage of theglider were retained, but the wing wasmoved down to the bottom of the fuselage.The two seat cockpit was much larger andwas fitted with a tall, bubble canopy. Aconventional tailwheel undercarriage wasfitted with main wheel legs that retractedinto the wing. A 210hp Continental IO-360Dsix-cylinder air-cooled engine was fitted in thenose, again with oversize silencers which ranalmost the full length of the starboard side ofthe fuselage. The first propeller fitted to theaircraft was a six bladed unit, but this quicklygave way to a wooden three bladed constantspeed design which proved more efficient.

The YO-3As wing area was also increasedwith the addition of a trailing edge extensionover the inner half of the wingspan. The samesensors as in the QT-2 were used by theobserver in the front cockpit, the pilot flyingthe aircraft from the back seat.

The YO-3A successfully completed theUS Army’s acceptance trials in the autumn

of 1969, nine of the aircraft being shippedto Vietnam in early 1970. Three aircraftwere delivered to the 73rd SurveillanceAircraft Company of the 1st AviationBrigade based at Long Thanh North.Three more were sent to the 220thReconnaissance Aircraft Company at HuaPhu Bi and finally there was a detachedsection at Binh Thuy.

These units were extremely successfulin silently monitoring enemy movements overthe following 14 months, but the US wasalready beginning to withdraw from Vietnam,the last YO-3A operational flight taking placein August 1971. After returning from Vietnam,two of the aircraft were purchased by theLouisiana Department of Wildlife andFisheries, who used them with great effectagainst poachers.

The FBI used the YO-3A for nearly 10years on a wide variety of surveillancemissions to counter crime and espionage.In the late 1970s, NASA acquired twoYO-3As as NASA 718 and 818, usingthem in a variety of monitoring andrecording tests for the sound producedby supersonic and rotary winged aircraft.These aircraft are now based at the DrydenFlight Research Centre in California,five more YO-3As are in museums andseveral are owned privately. ■Words: Tim Callaway

AircrAft ofthe QuietStAr progrAmmeQT-1 Quiet Thrust – 1 built, theprototype single-seat gliderconversion.

QT-2 – 2 built, a two-seat version forcombat evaluation by the US Army.

Q-Star – 1 built to evaluate propellerdevelopment with a fixed tricycleundercarriage.

YO-3A – 11 quiet surveillance aircraftbuilt for the US Army.

Left & above: The only Lockheed Quiet Star built was later fitted with aWankel type rotary engine built by Wright and a distinctive car typeradiator in the nose. Lockheed

One of the nine Lockheed YO-3As sent to Vietnam seen under a protective shelter undergoingmaintenance.Note the engine muffler down the length of the fuselage. Lockheed

The second YO-3A,NASA 818, shows thetrailing edge extensions on the rear inboardhalf of the wings.NASA


A number of factors conspired tointerest Lockheed in returning tothe airliner market in the 1960s.Firstly, the Marietta facility hadgained a great deal of experience

with high bypass turbofans and large aircraftdesign with the C-5 Galaxy transport aircraft.

The company was keen to take advantageof the technologies its military projects hadeither established or developed by applyingthem to new fields. In Burbank, the companywas working on a large twin jet design as along range maritime patrol aircraft for the USNavy, but this was never produced as the P-3Orion was so successful in this role.

However, the experience of producing thisdesign was not to be wasted, as AmericanAirlines (AA) approached both Lockheed andDouglas with a requirement for an efficient,

high capacity airliner capable of economicoperations on domestic routes within the US.Interestingly, some of the routes AA specifiedwere to define the aircraft as they set certainlimitations on the range, size and weight.Most significant was the requirement tooperate from New York’s La Guardia airport,where the maximum weight permissible was270,000lb (122,470kg) and the maximumlength was limited to 185ft (56.38m).

In early 1966, a Lockheed design teamunder William M Hannan began work ondesigning a twin engined wide-bodied airlinerwith a capacity of 250 passengers. These werediscussed with the airlines, several of whomexpressed concerns over operating a twinengined aircraft on some of their trans-oceanic routes and those services thatcrossed sparsely populated or rough terrain.

The first Lockheed L-1011,N1011, resplendent in a company scheme,at the Palmdale factory.Lockheed

The lastairlinerThe Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

During the mid 1960s, Lockheed was keen to develop a new jettransport and re-enter the civil airliner market. A number offactors came together to allow this, and the large, three enginedairliner that resulted was to set new standards of passengercomfort and safety when it entered service in 1972.

Hannan and his team responded by adding athird engine in the rear fuselage, fed by anintake at the base of the fin through an ‘S’shaped duct, a layout that became known asthe L-1011 and named TriStar.

The airliner had some extremelyadvanced features in both design and itsconstruction techniques. The fuselage panelswere bonded together in what is essentially agiant autoclave, making the joints not onlyextremely strong, but also highly resistant tocorrosion. On approach to land, the rate ofdescent and speed were controlled by anautomatic wing-mounted spoiler system calledDirect Lift Control. This enabled a glideslopeto be maintained without making largechanges in pitch, thus giving passengers amuch smoother ride and allowing pilotsextremely accurate control of this criticalphase of flight.

The airliner’s avionics were similarlyadvanced, the TriStar being the first widebodyairliner to receive an FAA certificate allowingCategory IIIC automatic landings. This was

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made possible through the extremelyadvanced autopilot system which enabledcompletely blind landings to be made in zero-visibility weather, the pilots never seeing therunway until after touchdown. An advancedInertial Navigation System was also fittedwhich could be aligned simply by typing in theco-ordinates of the aircraft’s current position.

After consideration of the availableengines, Lockheed settled on the new RollsRoyce RB-211 triple-spool, high bypassturbofan for a number of reasons. The engineoffered better fuel consumption than itscompetitors, and due to its revolutionarycarbon fibre fan, lighter weight. It wasconsidered that these performanceadvantages would give the TriStar acompetitive edge over the Douglas DC-10,which had developed into a very similar threeengined design. On March 29, 1968, thepositive reaction to all of these advanceddevelopments allowed Lockheed to launch theTriStar with a healthy order book of 108 firmorders and options for 36 more. ➤

Above: The L-1011 TriStars’ cockpit wasspacious and afforded the flight crew andunparalleled view from its large windows.Lockheed

Left: An L-1011 TriStar airliner in the paint shopat Lockheed’s Palmdale,California, facility, inthe mid-1970s. Lockheed

The Palmdale factory produced all 250 LockheedL-1011 TriStars between 1968 and 1984. Lockheed


The prototype of the new airliner was rolledout at Palmdale on September 15, 1970,undergoing ground testing for the next month.On November 16, the flight test crew of pilot HB Dees, co-pilot R C Cokely, flight engineer GE Fisher and development engineer R C Bray,took the TriStar on its first flight. The handlingwas exemplary, while the RB.211-22 enginesmade the aircraft very fuel efficient andextremely quiet, which led to the name‘Whisperliner’ being applied to the TriStar inEastern Airlines’ advertising material.

At this point, development problems andcost over-runs on the RB.211 turbofan cameclose to ending the project and ruining bothRolls-Royce and Lockheed. On February 4,1971, Rolls-Royce went into receivership, andsince changing the engine would meanredesigning the rear fuselage and S duct atprohibitive cost and unacceptable delay, thefuture of the aircraft was threatened. Thiscould not have come at a worse time forLockheed, which was already struggling withthe cost over-runs and cracking problems ofthe C-5 Galaxy military transport and thecancellation of the AH-56A helicopterprogramme. For the moment, things werelooking extremely bleak for Lockheed.

In the UK, the British Government re-formed Rolls-Royce as a government ownedcompany and guaranteed the delivery of the555 RB.211 engines, after the contract wasrenegotiated by the new company, Rolls-Royce(1971) Ltd. The US Government passed theEmergency Loan Guarantee Act in August,and guaranteed the additional loans Lockheedwould need to complete the aircraft.

It is interesting to note that all of theseloans, which were from banks, not publicfunds and only guaranteed by theGovernment, were all repaid on October 14,1977, Lockheed having returned toprofitability by 1973 due to the success of theTriStar and its wide range of other aircraft andsystems. Yes, the crisis was quite real, 9000people being laid off in California, but it wasswiftly dealt with. The employees were allrehired and construction of the airlinersrestarted. Lockheed’s reputation forresponsibility with its customers andimportance as a defence contractor were partof what allowed this swift recovery, the qualityof its products and the obvious value of itsadvance order books did the rest.

Given the excellent handling of thisadvanced airliner, FAA Type Certification wasawarded on April 14, 1972, the restartedproduction line rapidly getting back up tospeed enabling the first delivery to be made toEastern Airlines on April 26. The delay hadcaused the TriStar to lose some ground to theDC-10, so test pilot Tony LeVier took theprototype on a world tour in 1972 to publicisethe TriStar to potential customers.

Operating weight and range concerns wereanswered by a number of upgrade packageswhich were offered to customers, alongsidedeveloped variants of TriStar, theseculminating in a long range version with theintroduction of the L-1011-500 model intoservice with British Airways on May 7, 1979.

On January 30, 2010,an L-1011 TriStar was refurbished from storage and cleared for one flightfrom Roswell, New Mexico, to become the newest exhibit at the Airline History Museum inKansas City,Missouri. Here, the TriStar lands at Wheeler Downtown Airport, the location of themuseum. Lockheed

One of the 216 Squadrons TriStar K1 tankertransports, ZD951, refuels a pair of Tornado F3fighters.Jack Pritchard

A fighter pilot’s view of refuelling from one ofthe RAF’s TriStar tankers,which are equippedwith twin hose and drogue drum units underthe rear fuselage.Jack Pritchard

Lockheed used the L-1011 TriStar prototype as a testbed for improvements and derivatives.TheAdvancedTriStar featured extended wings and active controls, improvements later featured on theL-1011-500 model.The aircraft is shown over the company’s facility in Palmdale in 1977.Lockheed

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Prototype L-1011-1 – 1 built, used by Lockheed fordemonstrations and development.Modified to the AdvancedTriStar with new avionics, brakes and flight managementsystems. In 1977 under a NASA Aircraft Energy Efficiency project,it was fitted with increased span wings with active ailerons, thenlater with improved engine nacelles and a fin fairing. Sold forspares in 1986.

L-1011-1 – 162 built, first delivered to Eastern Air Lines on April 5,1972. Powered by three 42,000lb (19,051kg) Rolls-Royce RB.211-22B or 22C turbofans.Crew of three and six cabin crew and upto 400 passenger seats,most fitted with 256 seats in threeclasses. 112 purchased by US airlines Delta, Eastern, PacificSouthwest and TWA, the remainder delivered to Air Canada,AllNippon Airlines, British Airways,Cathay Pacific,Court Line andLTU.A number were upgraded to later versions.

L-1011-100 – 14 built with the option for larger fuel tanks in thecentre section to increase range or the ability to carry greaterpayload through an increase in maximum take off weight of20,000lb (9072kg) to 450,000lb (201,117kg). Powered by eitherthe RB.211-22B or 43,500lb (19,731kg) thrust RB.211-22F.Newaircraft delivered to Cathay Pacific,Gulf Air, Saudia and TWAbeginning in June 1975,with L-1011-1s being upgraded to -100sfor Air Canada,Delta, Eastern, LTU and TWA.

L-1011-50 – Upgrade package to increase the maximum takeoff weight of the L-1011-1 by either 10 or 20,000lb (4536 or9072kg).

L-1011-150 – Upgrade package to the L-1011-1 to increase themaximum take off weight to 470,000lb (213,188kg). Firstupgraded aircraft delivered to Air Transat in 1989.

L-1011-200 – 24 built with the additional fuel and increasedtake off weight options as the -100,but powered by the 48,000lb(21,772kg) thrust RB.211-524 turbofans to improve performance

at hot or high airports.Also offered as the -200I (Improved)with a further increase in take off weight. Deliveries began toSaudia in 1977,with British Airways and Gulf Air also purchasingthe type.

L-1011-250 – Upgrade package for L-1011-1, -100 and -200aircraft.This increased the fuel capacity from 23,600 US gallons(89,336 litres) to 31,632 US gallons (119,740 litres) and themaximum take off weight to 510,000lb (231,332kg). Powered bythe 50,000lb (22,680kg) thrust RB.211-524B4I turbofan.Delta AirLines upgraded 6 L-1011-1 aircraft to this standard in 1986.

L-1011-500 – 50 built as a long range version.The fuselage wasshortened by 13ft 6in (4.11m) and could accommodate 246passengers in a three class layout or 300 in high densityconfiguration. Powered by the 50,000lb (22,680kg) thrustRB.211-524B turbofan, the fuel capacity was increased to31,642 US gallons (119,779 litres). Later production aircraft werefitted with the longer span wing with active ailerons from theAdvanced TriStar which reduced fuel consumption. First orderedby British Airways in 1976,deliveries were made to Air Canada,Alia, BWIA,Delta, LTU, Pan American and TAP,as well as onemodified aircraft for the Algerian Government.

TriStar K1 – 2 ex-British Airways L-1011-500s converted to tankersand personnel transports for the RAF.TriStar KC1 – 4 ex-British Airways L-1011-500s converted totankers, cargo and personnel transports for the RAF with cargodoors.

TriStar C2 – 2 ex-Pan American L-1011-500s converted topersonnel transports and aeromedical evacuation aircraft forthe RAF.

TriStar C2A – 1 ex-Pan American L-1011-500 converted as apersonnel transport and aeromedical evacuation aircraft forthe RAF. Fitted with different avionics to the C2s.

Lockheed L-1011TriSTarvarianTS

Unfortunately, the late development of thelong range TriStar had allowed the DC-10 tocapture the lion’s share of the market,this, and competition from theBoeing 747 were whateventually provedinsurmountable obstacles inacquiring further orders.

The second crisis to hitthe aircraft, the Japanese briberyscandal of 1975 which led to theresignation of both the chairman andpresident of Lockheed, did little to help in thisregard. Technically, the TriStar was superb; itjust suffered from poor timing and the effectsof crises that had nothing to do with theaircraft or its performance.

In 1981, Lockheed announced that it wouldcease production of the TriStar with thedelivery of the last aircraft then on its orderbooks in 1984. A total of 250 TriStars of allversions were built, eventually being operatedby 57 airlines and air charter operators in 24countries worldwide, as well as by thegovernments of three more nations and theUK’s Royal Air Force.

The RAF’s fleet of nine ex-airline TriStarshave been modified to act as flight refuellingtankers, cargo aircraft and troop transports in

four variants. The first of these enteredservice with 216 Squadron at RAF BrizeNorton in 1984, and they have since been animportant part of RAF operations in the GulfWar of 1991, over Kosovo in 1999, as part ofthe multi-national forces deployed toAfghanistan from 2001 and returning to Iraqin 2003.

Most recently TriStars supported RAFoperations over Libya in March 2011. Theseaircraft are due to be replaced by the AirbusMilitary A330 Voyager in 2016. Aside fromthese military aircraft, five other TriStars arestill flying today. Four are operated by twocharter airlines, Askari and Barq Aviation, thelast has a very different purpose.

Operated by the Orbital SciencesCorporation, L-1011 N140SC is used to launchPegasus H and XL rockets into space. Basedat Mojave Airport in California, the aircraft,named Stargazer, has not only successfullylaunched 36 rockets from a pylon under itsfuselage, it has also been used to supportNASA’s X-34 and X-43 programmes.

In service, the TriStar provedreliable, comfortable and quiet, becomingpopular with aircrews, operators andpassengers alike. I rather enjoy the ideathat such an advanced but ill-starredaircraft is still in regular use, and stillreaching for them in a very real way. ■Words: Tim Callaway

A side view of Lockheed TriStar K1 tanker transport, ZD951, in 216 Squadron markings.Keith Draycott


A fter the Second World War theUS Navy’s carrier order of battlewas in almost constant flux. OnOctober 1, 1952, the designationsCV (aircraft carrier or alternately,

attack aircraft carrier) and CVB (large or battleaircraft carrier) were both replaced with thesingle designation CVA (attack aircraft carrier).In July 1953, the designation CVS, meaningAnti Submarine Support Aircraft Carrier, wasapplied to a number of CVAs reassigned to AntiSubmarine Warfare (ASW) duty. Steamingindependently or in concert with CVAs, theCVSs fielded a Carrier Anti Submarine AirGroup (CVSG), equipped with both fixed-wingand rotary-wing ASW squadrons. By the mid-1960s, these groups consisted primarily ofvariants of the Grumman S-2 Tracker and theSikorsky SH-3 Sea King.Also in the mid-1960s, two separate, but

eventually related, ideas began to circulatewithin the upper echelons of the Navy. First,there was the need for a replacement for thevenerable Tracker. The Cold War threat fromSoviet submarines – both attack boats andballistic missile carrying boomers – was anacute concern. First deployed in March 1954,the Tracker was a proven platform, butadvances in everything from engines toelectronics meant an entirely new aircraft was

in order. The second idea generated in themid-1960s was the elimination of theCVS/CVSG, thus requiring the CVAs, and laterCVANs (nuclear-powered CVAs) to deploy withon-board protection from submarines.In 1964, the Navy began the Experimental

Carrier-Based ASW Aircraft (VSX)programme, requesting initial feedback fromindustry. In the winter of 1966 a SpecificOperational Requirement for the VSX wasreleased, before, in April 1968, the Navyissued a formal Request for Proposals. Thebasic concept called for a high speed, longendurance, turbine powered aircraft with thelatest electronic detection gear. Severalmanufactures responded, however onlyConvair – part of General Dynamics – andLockheed were asked to go ahead.Lockheed had long been an ASW expert,

but lacking experience in operating from theboat, teamed up with Ling Temco Vought(LTV). Lockheed also brought in UnivacFederal Systems – part of Sperry Rand – tohelp with the detection suite. Meanwhile,Convair had teamed with both Grumman andIBM to field their entry. A range ofconfigurations were offered by each, theone constant was the engine. Selected by theNavy, regardless of the winner, the aircraftwould be powered by the General Electric

TF34 high bypass turbofan engine. OnAugust 4, 1969, the Lockheed team wasdeclared the winner.Soon designated the S-3A Viking,

Lockheed’s design had a slightly swept, highwing and twin-engines. The crew of fourusually consisted of a pilot, a co-pilot, astactical coordinator (TACCO) and a sensoroperator (SENSO), although missionscould dictate alternative crew complements.The sensor suite, which supported both ASWand surface surveillance missions, includedradar, a forward-looking infra-red (FLIR)scanner, sonobouys, and a magnetic anomalydetector (MAD) – all coordinated andprocessed by the Univac digital computer.Weapons included homing torpedoes andnuclear depth bombs, as well as mines, ironbombs, or rocket launchers to increasemission versatility. These were carriedinternally or on two wing pylons. First flight ofthe Viking was logged on January 21, 1972,with carrier qualification starting inDecember, and fleet introduction – with theShamrocks of Antisubmarine SquadronFORTY-ONE (VS-41) – in February 1974. Atotal of 187 airframes were built serving with13 units.Also in 1974, the last CVS was

decommissioned, and on July 30, 1975, the

The Lockheed S-3 VikingFirst came the submarine, then came the submarine hunter. In the hierarchy of sea-borne targets,the High Value Target (HVT) was, and still is, the aircraft carrier. Remember Admiral MarcMitscher’s command to the aviators of Task Force 58, on June 20, 1944? Chalked on the blackboards in squadron ready rooms were his simple orders: “Get the Carriers.”

16 ES-3A Shadow Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) andelectronic reconnaissance aircraft were modified from S-3As.This VO-6 aircraft is preparing to land on the USSGeorge Washington.National Museum of Naval Aviation

Carrier based

sub hunter

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designations CVA and CVAN were replaced bythe current CV and CVN. So, the ideas of bothreplacing the Tracker and eliminating theCVS had both come to fruition. From then onthe CV/CVN would deploy with its own ASWcapability, namely the S-3 Viking and SH-3 SeaKing ASW team.

The Viking provided years of exemplaryservice, but towards the end of themillennia, Navy planners, perhapserroneously, began to discount the submarinethreat. Despite the fielding of the morecapable S-3B, all of which were upgradedfrom existing S-3A airframes, there was amission change slated for the Viking. In the1990s, the ASW mission was droppedaltogether, with the associated electronicsremoved from the airframes. The emphasiswas now primarily surface surveillance andtargeting with both the Harpoon andMaverick missiles, as well as air refuelling.Reflecting this mission change, in September1993, all Viking squadrons were re-designatedas Sea Control Squadrons, while retaining theVS prefix. It was in this guise that Viking unitsplayed a role in the conflicts in the MiddleEast. The last operational Viking squadron –the Checkmates of Sea Control SquadronTWENTY-TWO (VS-22) – was deactivated onMarch 31, 2009, after returning from a 2008land-based deployment supporting OperationIraqi Freedom.

Today, the last three S-3Bs operate with AirTest and Evaluation Squadron THIRTY (VX-30) patrolling the Pacific Missile Test Centre’sCalifornia ranges. NASA still operates a fourS-3B Vikings, out of its Glenn ResearchCenter, in Cleveland, Ohio, conducting in-flight icing and other studies.

Epilogue: Dedicated carried-based ASWassets have disappeared, or as in the case ofthe Sikorsky SH-60F Ocean Hawk, have beenreassigned alternate missions. Many higher-ups believe that with the demise of the SovietUnion, the submarine threat simply faded intohistory. Perhaps not – on October 26, 2006, a

Chinese Navy Song-class attack submarineshadowed, and then surfaced undetectedwithin weapons range of the USS Kitty Hawk(CV-63), then cruising in the Pacific Ocean.Perhaps the Chinese skipper’s orders were to:“Get the Carrier.” Is it time to build a fewmore Vikings? ■ Words: David G. Powers

YS-3A – Eight pre-production prototypes, later all designated S-3As.

S-3A – 187 production aircraft built, including the prototypes.

S-3B – 119 modified from S-3As with the Weapon SystemImprovement Programme (WSIP) in 1980.

ES-3A Shadow – 16 modified S-3As, a Signals Intelligence (SIGINT)and electronic reconnaissance aircraft, first flew in 1991. Singlepilot operation with an Electronic Warfare Combat Coordinator inthe co-pilot’s seat. Served with VQ-5 Sea Shadows and VQ-6 BlackRavens, retired in 1999.

KS-3A – 1 tanker version, BuNo 157996, the fifth YS-3A wasmodified.All ASW equipment was removed and a centrallymounted internal hose and drogue reel fitted,with extra fuel tanksin the weapons bay.Operated primarily by VS-41 until 1984 whenit was converted into a US-3A.

US-3A – Several modified as Carrier-On-board Delivery (COD)aircraft.The first, the seventh YS-3A (BuNo 157998), could carry upto six passengers or cargo, first flying on July 2, 1976.Additionalcargo could be carried in a pair of 90 cu ft (2.54cu m) oversizepods called ‘blivets’ on the wing pylons.These pods were alsooften carried by standard S-3s.

The prototype Lockheed S-3AViking,BuNo 157992,on an early test flightwith an extended air data probe.National Museum of Naval Aviation

The S-3A was capable of carrying a variety of ground attack weapons.Unusually, the S-3A of VS-28 is carrying triple ejector racks of low drag500lb bombs.National Museum of Naval Aviation

On board the USS Forrestal(CV-59) in November 1973,an S-3AViking is on thestarboard lift next to theaircraft it replaced,a C-1Trader, itself a COD versionof the S-2 Tracker.An RA-5CVigilante can be seenclimbing away.NationalMuseum of Naval Aviation

Lockheed S-3VikingVariantS

96 IN aSSoCIaTIoN WITh: LoCKheeD MarTIN – We NeVer ForGeT Who We are WorKING For

In 1925, British businessman IsidoreRich and his French wife Annie wereliving in Manila in the Philippines,where Isidore was the superintendentof a lumber mill. They had five

children, Benjamin Robert Rich being born onJune 18. The family travelled widely, thechildren developing a wide range of interests,with Ben becoming involved in the building ofa Piper Cub, his first aircraft, when only 14years old. After the Japanese attack on PearlHarbour on December 7, 1941, the familymoved to Los Angeles to avoid what wasconsidered the inevitable invasion of theislands. During the Second World War, youngBen Rich worked in a machine shop alongsidehis father, at the same time as attending atHamilton High School. This experience was to

give Ben an excellent grounding in productionengineering as well as working with people.With the end of the war, 21-year-old Benbegan his college education, his originalintent being to study medicine. However, 1949saw him graduate from the University ofCalifornia at Berkley with a degree inmechanical engineering, his interests andwork experience having shaped and changedhis interests. This was followed by a MastersDegree course at the University of California,Los Angeles (UCLA), which Ben successfullycompleted in 1950, joining Lockheed as athermodynamicist that year.At Burbank he initially worked on the late

models of the Constellation and the Neptuneamong other types, receiving a patent for aheating system based on Nichrome, an alloy

that forms a high resistance heating elementwhen a current is passed through it. In 1954,his career was to take a dramatic turn. KellyJohnson requested a thermodynamicist fromthe main plant, “preferably a smart one” as heput it, be transferred to the Skunk Works tohelp solve a particular problem. Ben Rich hadalready had some input into Skunk Worksprojects, having assisted Willis Hawkins in thedesign of the air intakes and inlet ducts of theaborted XF-90 fighter. Johnson set Rich towork on modifying the intakes and inlet ductsof the XF-104 Starfighter, a task which was tobegin a close working and personalrelationship between the two men that wouldcontinue until Johnson’s death in 1990.After working on the ducts and intakes of

the F-104, Ben Rich was given a similar task

The FaTher oF

BenjaminRobert Rich

Ben Rich was to begin work at Lockheed on the Constellation and F-104 Starfighter, followed bythe U-2 and A-12, succeeding Kelly Johnson as director of the Skunk Works, before leading the

development of Stealth Technology with a project known as ‘Have Blue’.

Denny Lombard took this photograph in 1989 of Ben Rich in front of an SR-71 ‘Blackbird’ reconnaissance aircraft. Rich,who later led the teamthat produced the F-117,was the propulsion lead for the SR-71 under Kelly Johnson. Lockheed

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on the U-2, and was one of the people involvedin the CIA’s later attempt to reduce the radarcross section of the aircraft, a project thatwould later lead to his best known creation.The replacement for the U-2 was originallymeant to be the liquid hydrogen powered CL-400, a propulsion system that had attractedJohnson’s interest from the CL-325 project.Rich began working on a hydrogenliquefaction plant to produce the fuel insufficient quantity for the aircraft, but as theprojects developed, Johnson foundinsurmountable problems with both the fueland its handling, so recommended theircancellation in 1957. Rich’s talents indesigning propulsion system infrastructuresmeant he was made responsible for thecomplex inlet designs of the A-12 and later SR-71. Interestingly, it was Rich’s abilities as athermodynamicist that led him to suggest theaircraft be painted black to help dissipate theheat, a problem Johnson was experiencingwith the designs. Johnson retorted that hewas trying to reduce the weight, not

increase it, and bet Rich a quarter he waswrong. Research proved Rich right, soJohnson handed him the coin, the first ofmany bets that built an incredible level oftrust and respect between the two greatdesign engineers. Rich went on to develop theheat management and air conditioningsystems on the Mach 3 aircraft, using the fuelas a heat sink. Most importantly, he alsoassisted in the development of materials andthe black coating on the aircraft that reducedtheir already small radar cross section. In1963, he was named as the senior engineer foradvanced programmes at Lockheed.In 1975, Johnson announced his retirement

from the Skunk Works, and recommendedBen Rich as his successor to head theAdvanced Department Projects (ADP) as itwas officially known. During the first sixmonths of his leadership, Rich begandevelopment of the XST, what would laterbecome the F-117A, under the project nameHave Blue. On seeing a model of the unusualaircraft, Johnson, who was still a Lockheed

Ben Rich’s masterpiece,the Lockheed F-117ANighthawk, commonlyknown as the StealthFighter. Lockheed

A Lockheed SR-71 in company with theaircraft it was built to replace, a TR-1 version ofthe U-2. Ben Rich had a hand in both designs,being responsible for the complete propulsionsystem on the A-12 and SR-71. Lockheed

consultant, threw Rich their traditionalquarter, with the admonition not to spend ituntil Rich saw it actually fly. Both men did in1977, Johnson exclaiming, “Well, Ben, you gotyour first airplane.” That same year, Rich alsotook over Johnson’s position as a Lockheedvice-president, and was to continue not only as‘Chief Skunk’ but also as the advocate andsales leader of the team, roles his affable andapproachable character were to excel in.In 1985, Ben Rich had begun overseeing

the development of the YF-22 from theissuance of a USAF request for proposals.This was to be the last of the over two dozenaircraft Rich was involved in producing, as hewas to retire in January 1991. His retirementdinner took place on January 17, the same dayas the first strikes were being flown by F-117As as part of Operation Desert Storm.Sadly, Ben Rich died of cancer on January 51995, but his incredible aviation legacy liveson. ■ Words: Tim Callaway

The F-104 Starfighter at high speed at high altitude, doingwhat it did best.These are F-104Gs of the Aeronautica

Militare Italiana. Ben Rich designed the intakes andducts as one of his first jobs at the Skunk Works.AMI

98 iN aSSOCiatiON with: LOCkhEED MaRtiN – wE NEVER FORgEt whO wE aRE wORkiNg FOR

T he story of the Lockheed’sremarkable development of thefirst low observable or stealthaircraft can be said to have startedin Germany in 1914. In this year,

theoretical physicist Arnold Sommerfeld washolding the chair of Applied Mathematics atAachen University, and was working withLeon Brillouin on the propagation ofelectromagnetic waves in dispersive media.This and some of his later work were toinfluence Russian mathematician Pyotr

Ufimtsev, who, in 1964, published a paperentitled Method of Edge Waves in thePhysical Theory of Diffraction while workingat the Moscow Institute for RadioEngineering. What all this meant was thatUfimtsev was able to prove that the strengthof a radar return from a given object wasentirely related to its shape, and not its size.He was able to calculate the radar crosssection (RCS) of such structures as wingswith great accuracy, but the shapes requiredto take advantage of the theory would be

completely unstable aerodynamically. Ascomputer aided stability and flight controlsystems were then in their infancy, the abilityto make the necessary shape fly was beyondthe capabilities of engineering, and there thematter ended for the time being.

However, three factors were to bring thistheoretical research into the realm of thepossible in the early 1970s. The first of thesewas the introduction of sophisticated surfaceto air defence systems during the VietnamWar, and the increasing losses these caused,

Nighthawk

From HaveBlue to the

F-117

Lockheed Martin 99

particularly among the US bomber fleet. Thisraised interest in a low observable aircraftwith Ken Perko of the Defence AdvancedResearch Projects Agency (DARPA), whoapproached five US aircraft manufacturers in1974 to produce studies on aircraft withminimal radar cross sections to avoid thesedefences. Interestingly, Lockheed was notamong them. The second factor was theincreasing capabilities of computers,especially computer based flight control andstability augmentation systems, and the last

was the re-discovery of Ufimtsev’s paper byLockheed computer engineer and analystDenys Overholser.The head of the Skunk Works, the newly

appointed Ben Rich, and Lockheed’s directorof science and engineering, Ed Martin, knewof the DARPA initiative and got permissionfrom the CIA to discuss the stealthycharacteristics of the A-12 and D-21 aircraftwith them. As a result of these revelations,Lockheed was invited to participate in thestudy, but at its own expense. Dick Scherrerwas given the task of coming up with thepreliminary designs for the new aircraft, andwas introduced to Overholser who explainedhow the aircraft needed to be made of flatpanels as far as possible. Ben Rich workedwith Overholser and mathematician BillSchroeder to produce an RCS calculationprogramme called ECHO 1. This would allowthe design of an aircraft made up entirely ofthese flat panels, the arrangement of whichwas intended to scatter as much as possible ofthe energy of a radar signal, and thereforemake the aircraft practically invisible to thedefence system. The flat panels were knownas facets, the research showing that a trianglewas the best shape for these to workeffectively.In response to the DARPA request, the

Skunk Works team considered 20 differentshapes. The final delta winged design was avery angular machine, initially given the nameof the ‘Hopeless Diamond”, due to its shapeand as a play on the name of the world famousHope Diamond. On May 5, 1975, the firstsketches of this aircraft were shown to BenRich, who had project lead aircraft designerKenneth Watson build a 10ft (3.04m) longengineering mock-up. In September, this wastested against the original mock-up of the D-21 drone, itself a relatively stealthy design,and was found to have one thousandth theRCS of the drone. Ben Rich won histraditional quarter from Kelly Johnson, whohad been briefed on the project, and hadstated that this would not be so. Things thenmoved rapidly, Lockheed and Northrop beingselected by DARPA to build full scalemockups of their designs. These weremounted on poles and tested at the RCS rangeat White Sands, New Mexico in March 1976.In April, the Skunk Works’ aircraft wasselected, a contract being issued for two 60%scale flying prototypes known asExperimental Survival Testbeds (XSTs) under

the project name Have Blue.The two prototypes had two very different

purposes, the first was to evaluate the flyingcharacteristics of the type, the second its RCS.The aircraft had an almost delta wing, with anotch taken out of the rear of each trailingedge. The twin fins were canted inwardstowards the top at about 30º and even thecanopy was a sharply raked V shape. Thewing leading edge stretched from the nose tothe wingtip in an unbroken line, swept back at72.5º. The upper half of the fins could move asrudders, and the wings had trailing edgeelevons. Spoilers were mounted above andbelow the wing and no flaps or airbrakes werefitted. The air intakes, a major source of radarreturns, were covered by a mesh-like metalgrid. A greater airflow to the engines wasneeded for take off, so retractable doors werefitted in the upper fuselage to supply this.Since time and cost were now factors, the

prototypes were made of as many existingparts possible. The flight control system wastaken from the F-16 programme, but modifiedto cope with an aircraft that was completelyunstable in all three axes. The undercarriagewas from a Northrop F-5 as was the cockpitinstrumentation and ejector seat. The enginescame from a T-2B trainer; standard GeneralElectric J85-GE-4As without afterburner.Radar absorbent materials developed byLockheed from the finishes used on the SR-71were applied, as well as a coating on thecockpit glazing that gave it the radar reflectivecharacteristics of metal. The chief technicalengineer on the project, Alan Brown, deviseda three colour, three tone camouflage schemethat concealed the facetted nature of theaircraft’s shape. The two aircraft were built,not at Palmdale as many have it, but atBurbank, the first being completed in October1977. After engine and avionics testing, thefirst XST was loaded on to a C-5 Galaxy onNovember 16 and flown to Groom Lake inNevada, where further ground testing and taxitrials were conducted.On December 1, 1977, an incredibly short

time considering the unique nature of theaircraft, Lockheed test pilot Bill Park tookHB1001 on its first flight. The serial numberwas not official, but Lockheed’s internalreference to the aircraft. Park was followedby Major Norman ‘Ken’ Dyson of the USAF ina chase aircraft, these two pilots would be theonly ones to fly the Have Blue. Flight testingwas remarkably trouble free, the engineers➤

As previously related, whenKelly Johnson retired from

the Skunk Works, he namedBen Rich as his successor.

Already conversant withstealth technologies from

his work on the U-2 and A-12, Rich took this initial

work and conceivedsomething completely new,

an aircraft with a radarcross section the size of a

ball bearing.

Eighteen of the 59 production F-117A Nighthawk aircraft built aregathered on the ramp at Holloman AFB,New Mexico, in this

photograph from about 2006. Lockheed

A low view of two F-117Asat Tonopah in Nevada in1990 show just howsharply raked the nose ofthe aircraft was. Lockheed


refining the fly by wire system as experiencewith the aircraft grew. However, on May 4,1978, Bill Park was landing from the 36thflight when the aircraft suddenly pitched up,causing a very hard touchdown. Park electedto go around, but the impact had damagedthe undercarriage, which would not fullyextend. After attempts to lower the gear andwith his fuel running out, Park had no choicebut to climb over the desert and eject,suffering a severe concussion. The secondaircraft was almost complete at the time ofthe crash, making its first flight on July 20 inthe hands of Ken Dyson. Evaluations showedthat both air and ground based radars couldonly lock on to the Have Blue at very shortranges, if at all. However, in order to achievethis, care had to be taken before each flight toensure every panel was properly sealed, andeven the screws on the airframe had to becompletely tightened. The second aircraftHB1002, was also lost in a crash on its 52ndflight, an exhaust clamp had loosened,allowing hot gasses into the engine bay whichcaused the hydraulic lines to fail and startedan engine fire.

However, despite these losses, the resultswere so encouraging that during October1977, the USAF had asked for a study into afull size operational aircraft. On November 16,1978, Tactical Air Command ordered fivedevelopment aircraft and 20 productionversions. The contract came under a newproject title, Senior Trend, the designmodified by the lessons of the Have Blueproject. The nose was shortened to improvepilot view, the tail surfaces were angledoutwards, and the wing sweep was decreasedto 67.3º to resolve a number of stability issuesthat had arisen in the original flight trials. Thenew tail design also assisted in dispersing theengine exhaust and reduced the infraredsignature. The aircraft had no radar that couldreveal its presence, instead a suite of electro-optical sensors were used to identify targetsand aim the weapons, allied to a sophisticatednavigation system. The weapons weremounted in a pair of internal bays which werebig enough to accommodate a single 2000lb(907kg) laser guided bomb or a B61 tacticalnuclear weapon. The outer wings wereremovable to allow carriage inside a C-5Galaxy, which would enable the aircraft to bedelivered in theatre covertly, in keeping withits mission. This capability was replaced inpractice by using in flight refuelling, whichenabled the aircraft to be deployed quicklyand just as quietly. It was envisaged theaircraft would only be needed in any situation

in small numbers to perform highly accuratesurgical strikes. The first five airframes in thecontract were referred to as Full ScaleDevelopment (FSD) aircraft and designatedYF-117As.

The modifications to the design tooklonger than expected with a variety ofconstruction problems arising from fitting theoperational equipment and maintaining thelow RCS. The first YF-117A, 79-0780, wasdelivered to Groom Lake in May 1981, wherefuel leaks delayed the first flight until June 18,in the hands of test pilot Harold Farley. Theflight tests resulted in larger tail fins andrudders being fitted after the tenth flight,these being retrofitted to the second aircraftand introduced on the production line fromthat point on. The intended production nosewas also fitted at this point, replacing the testitem with its air data probe. The fifth and lastYF-117A, the aircraft now unofficially namedScorpions, joined the programme with its firstflight on April 10, 1982. Problems were alsoencountered with deformation of the complexengine exhausts due to heating, which causedthe RCS to increase from some angles. Thesewere replaced by a series of sliding elementsand quartz tiles which dissipated the heatwithout changing shape. The new metal finswere again replaced with stronger graphiteunits after a fin detached from the second testaircraft in flight on September 25, 1985. PilotMajor John Beasley was initially unaware thishappened as the computer fly by wire systemautomatically compensated. After beinginformed of his problem by the chase aircraft,he landed safely, a remarkable piece of flyingand a vindication of the computer flightsystem. The new fins and rudders first flew inJuly 1990, and were retrofitted across thewhole fleet by 1992. These, and other changesrequired by the test were incorporated orretrofitted into the production aircraft, thefirst one of which was delivered in 1982.

Altogether 59 production standardLockheed F-117A Night Hawks were built, thelast one being delivered on July 3, 1990. Thefirst unit, the 4450th Tactical Group (TG)achieved operational capability in October1983 and was based at the Tonopah TestRange Airport in Nevada. This was renamedthe 37th Fighter Wing in 1989, the firstoperations being flown that year when two F-117As supported the invasion of Panama withstrikes against Rio Hato airfield. The aircraftwere then extensively used in 1991 duringOperation Desert Storm to attack high risk,well defended targets. The fleet began tomove to Holloman Air Force Base in New

The first of the two Lockheed XSTs or Have Blue prototypes seen atBurbank.Note the inward angled fins and the sharply raked wingangle. Lockheed

Alan Brown, the chief technical engineer on the project, devised athree colour, three tone camouflage scheme. Lockheed

A Lockheed F-117A being loaded.Theweapons bays included winches to assist inthis process.USAF

F-117A Stealth fighter aircraft from the 37thTactical Fighter Wing line the runway at LangleyAFB inVirginia while deploying to Saudi Arabiaduring Operation Desert Shield.USAF

A head on view of a production F-117A showsthe triangular facets that make up much ofthe design,as well as the serrated edges tothe canopy and the surrounds to the forwardlooking infrared in the nose.USAF

Lockheed Martin 101

Mexico in 1991 and became the 49th FighterWing. They returned to operations in the Iraqtheatre as part of Operations Southern Watchand Desert Thunder between 1997 and 1998,before taking part in Operation Allied Forceover Serbia and Kosovo in 1999. It was duringthe latter operations that the only F-117A lostto enemy action was shot down by SA-3 ‘Goa’anti-aircraft missiles on March 27, 1999. Themissile site had apparently seen the aircraft onradar while its weapons bays were open, onemissile damaging the aircraft beyond theability of the pilot to control it. He ejected, andwas rescued by a US Marine Corps combatsearch and rescue team. F-117As were alsoused as part of Operation Enduring Freedomover Afghanistan in 2001, then in support of

the invasion of Iraq as part of Operation IraqiFreedom in 2003.The introduction of other stealth aircraft,

such as the B-2 and F-22, meant that the F-117fleet was a victim of budgetary restrictions in2005. The F-117 training unit was closed in2006 and the operational F-117As began to beretired in March 2007. These were notscrapped or put out into the Arizona desertstorage areas, but instead returned to theclimate controlled hangars of their originalhome, the Tonopah Test Range Airport,where they were carefully protected andstored. The last four flying F-117As were withthe 410th Flight Test Squadron based atPalmdale, the last two of these being retiredand flown to Tonopah on August 11, 2008.

A side view of a Lockheed F-117A 84-0825 of the Black Sheep, the 8th FighterSquadron, 49th Fighter Wing,based at Holloman AFB,New Mexico.Keith Draycott

After more than 27 years and 8000 flight test hours, the 410th Flight Test Squadron closed itshistoric chapter during an inactivation ceremony in August 2008 at the US Air Force Plant 42 inPalmdale,California,with this specially marked F-117A. Lockheed

The cockpit of the F-117A also used many off-the-shelf components, such as F/A-18displays.A complete set of standby flightinstruments is included as a backup. Plasticglareshield extensions are used to minimizeinstrument reflections on the flat canopy sidepanes. Lockheed

An unusual sight as 25 of the usually solitary F-117s fly over Holloman AFB during the SilverStealth event for the F-117’s 25th Anniversary and 250,000-hour celebrations on October 27,2006. Lockheed

The cockpit instrumentation and ejectionseat of the YF-117A were taken from that ofthe Northrop F-5 Freedon Fighter in order tohelp speed development.USAF

Four of the five YF-117As have been placed ondisplay in museums, the rest of the F-117Asremain in flying condition storage againstfuture needs.A number of variants of the F-117A were

proposed, including a larger naval variant withair to air capabilities, and a land based attackaircraft based on that, but these were notdeveloped beyond proposal stages. The F-117A was a remarkable triumph for Lockheed,proving the technologies of low observabilitythat were to go into the next generation ofcombat aircraft. Interestingly, one of thesewas the Lockheed F-22 Raptor, which replacedthe F-117 with the 49th Fighter Wingbeginning in 2008 and will be covered later inthis issue. ■ Words: Tim Callaway


In 1923, Reuben Fleet had founded theConsolidated Aircraft Corporation inBuffalo, New York. Consolidatedbegan by producing the PT-1 Trustytrainer for the US Army, which was

also produced as the NY-1 for the US Navy.These were followed by five models of civiland military flying boat before the companyestablished a new factory on the other side ofthe country in San Diego in 1935. This factoryproduced one of the most famousConsolidated aircraft, the PBY Catalina,beginning in 1936. This was followed by theprototype of the PB2Y Coronado in 1937 andthe B-24 Liberator bomber in 1939. Theseaircraft were to remain in productionthroughout the Second World War.

As Fleet was developing Consolidated,Gerard ‘Jerry’ Vultee had left Lockheed andhad founded the Airplane DevelopmentCorporation (ADC) in 1932. The Aviation

Corporation, or Avco as it was known,purchased the ADC in 1934, renaming it theAviation Manufacturing Corporation (AMC).In 1936, the AMC became an autonomoussubsidiary of Avco, and was renamed theVultee Aircraft Division. During this time,Vultee produced the V-1 six seat airliner, theeight seat V-1A and their development, the V-11 attack aircraft for the US Army Air Corps.

Sadly, Jerry Vultee and his wife were killedin 1938 when the aircraft he was flyingcrashed in a snowstorm near Sedona inArizona. His company became an independentas the Vultee Aircraft Incorporated in 1939,producing the BT-13, BT-15 and SNV Valianttrainer aircraft. Finally, the Vultee V-72Vengeance dive bomber and P-66 Vanguardwere produced in 1940 and 1941.

In 1941, Reuben Fleet sold his interest inConsolidated to the president of Avco, VictorEmanuel. Avco merged Consolidated with

Vultee in 1943 to form Consolidated – VulteeAircraft, better known by the abbreviatedform of its name, Convair. Large scalewartime production of the PBY, B-24 and B-32 was followed by the remarkable B-36Peacemaker, a six, later 10 enginedintercontinental bomber in 1946. Thefollowing year, the Convair 110 first flew, thistwin engined airliner developing into theConvair 240, several of which are still inservice today. Also in 1947, Convair waspurchased by the Atlas Corporation, aninvestment group. Convair begandevelopment of high speed delta wingedaircraft, resulting in the F-102 Delta Daggerof 1953. It also began to diversify intorockets and missiles, producing the MX-744in 1948, a precursor to the later AtlasIntercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM)and the RIM-2 Terrier surface to air navalmissile in 1951.

The aerospace giant that is today’s Lockheed Martin is an amalgamation of several famous aviationnames, two of which are obvious, but others, equally famous, are less so. The complete history of

these companies will be featured in future issues of Aviation Classics.

The aerospace giant that is today’s Lockheed Martin is an amalgamation of several famous aviation

General Dynamics and Martin Marietta join the force

Mergers for

strength

Lockheed Martin 103

To tell the next part of the mergers story, wehave to go back to the Electric Boat Company of1899. This was the company that developedJohn Holland’s designs for the first US Navysubmarines, building these vessels for a numberof countries during the First and SecondWorldWar. Looking to diversify with the reduction inmilitary contracts after the end of the SecondWorldWar, Electric Boat purchased Canadianaircraft manufacturer Canadair in 1946. Thisbuilt DC-4s, T-33s, F-86s and F-104s amongother types, the company being reorganised asGeneral Dynamics in 1952. Given the success ofthe Canadair purchase, General Dynamicspurchased Convair from the Atlas CorporationinMarch 1953.

The major production centre for Convair atthis time was Air Force Plant 4 in Fort Worth,Texas, which had been built to produce the B-24 during the Second World War and was thenproducing B-36s and F-102s. Under GeneralDynamics, Convair was to produce the F-106Delta Dart and the B-58 Hustler supersonicbomber in 1956, followed by the Model 880and 990 jet airliners in 1959 and 1961respectively. It also built the Atlas, the first US

ICBM in 1957, which developed into thecivilian booster rocket in 1959 and was used inthe Gemini and Mercury and other spaceprogrammes by NASA.

In 1961, General Dynamics ceased usingthe Convair name in relation to its aircraft,keeping this for the missile and spacecraftprojects centred in San Diego. GeneralDynamics Fort Worth went on to develop thevariable geometry F-111 bomber which firstflew in 1964. This was followed in 1974 by theprototype of the YF-16, an incredibly successfuljet fighter which is still in production today. InMarch 1993, General Dynamics decided toconcentrate on land and sea systems, so soldthe Fort Worth division along with the rights toall its products to the Lockheed Corporation,whose Aeronautics division is nowheadquartered at the Texas plant.

On August 16, 1912, Glenn Luther Martinfounded the Glenn L Martin Company, whichmerged with the Wright Company in 1916 tobecome the Wright-Martin Aircraft Company.Glenn Martin was dissatisfied with thiscompany, leaving in 1917 to form a secondGlenn L Martin Company on September 10,based in Cleveland, Ohio. This company wasto produce some remarkable aircraft, the firstmajor success being the MB-1 twin enginedbiplane bomber of 1918 for the US Army.Developments of the MB-1 were followed byflying boats for the US Navy and the licenceproduction of a number of aircraft from othercompanies, including 404 Curtiss SC-1 scoutbombers. Martin also developed some highlyinnovative aircraft, the B-10 of 1932 becomingthe first all metal monoplane bomber to servewith the US Army Air Corps. The Martin M-130 flying boats became the famous ChinaClippers, used by Pan American Airlines onroutes across the Pacific from 1935.

The Second World War saw Martinproduce bombers and flying boats, the A-22Maryland, B-26 Marauder, PBMMariner andJRMMars among its own designs. It also built531 Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, includingthe two that dropped the atomic bombs thatended the conflict, the Enola Gay and theBockscar. In the aftermath of the war, Martincontinued to produce flying boats for the USNavy with the P5MMarlin and jet poweredP6M Seamaster, along with 103 of the Martin404 twin engined transport for airlines and theUS Coastguard. In 1954 the company alsobegan producing the B-57 Canberra twin jetbomber under licence, eventually producing403 of the type and developing it into the highaltitude RB-57D and F reconnaissance aircraft.In the mid-1950s Martin began developingmissiles and booster rockets, including theTitan ICBM and the Vanguard rocket. A totalof 368 of the Titan series of missiles andboosters was built up to 2004, launchingsatellites and sending probes throughout thesolar system and beyond.

In 1961, Martin had merged with thechemical and construction materialmanufacturer American-Marietta to form theMartin Marietta Corporation. In 1995,Lockheed, the second largest defencecontractor in the US, and Martin Marietta, thethird, merged to form the Lockheed Martin

Corporation as we know it today. In 1996,Lockheed Martin purchased the defenceelectronics and system integration division ofthe Loral Corporation, and has since acquiredother companies with interests in electronicsand materials. Lockheed Martin is now thelargest company of its kind in the world, itsbusinesses operating in five divisions as willbe described later. ■ Words: Tim Callaway

The major production centre forthe Consolidated AircraftCorporation was Air Force Plant4 in Fort Worth,Texas.Construction of the plant in FortWorth was completed in lessthan a year.Assembly of thefirst of 3034 B-24 Liberatorbombers began in February1942 while parts of the facilitywere still under construction.Lockheed Martin

The same plant five years later, with theB-36 Peacemaker in production. Operatedby the United States Air Force from 1949 to1959, a total of 384 B-36s were built.Lockheed Martin

Glenn L Martin in one of his own designpusher-biplanes around 1912. Martin usedthe aircraft to deliver newspapers fromFresno to Madera to promote aviation andraise funds for his first plant. San Diego Airand Space Museum

Some 88 years later, less than a man’slifetime, a Titan IV-B rocket lifts off fromVandenberg Air Force Base on August 17,2000. Martin built 368 Titan seriesboosters. USAF

The major production centre forthe Consolidated AircraftCorporation was Air Force Plant4 in Fort Worth, Texas.Construction of the plant in FortWorth was completed in lessthan a year. Assembly of thefirst of 3034 B-24 Liberatorbombers began in February1942 while parts of the facilitywere still under construction.Lockheed Martin

T he F-16 began with a requestfor proposals for a LightweightFighter issued by the US AirForce on January 6, 1972.This was amended to include

fighter bomber capabilities and a navalvariant in the Air Combat Fighterrequirement of April 1974. After the twocompetitions, which interestingly also ledto the F-18 Hornet as the navalrequirement became a separate project,the General Dynamics aircraft wasselected for production in January 1975.Designed by a team led by Robert HWidmer, since its introduction intoservice with the US Air Force in 1980 theF-16 has been sold to 26 nations andover 4500 have been built. The quality ofthe aircraft is best summed up in the factthat 15 of these customers have chosenupgrades and later versions of the F-16 toreplace the earlier models.

Even though the capabilities of thelatest F-16s reach far beyond those of theoriginal fighter, these improvements havenot come at the cost of performance.Advances in computer and electronicstechnology have reduced the size andweight of many systems, while the enginehas increased in power from the23,830lb (10,809kg) thrust Pratt andWhitney F100-PW-200 tubofan in theBlock 1 to 20 F-16s of the 1980s to the32,500lb (14,742kg) thrust availablefrom the General Electric F110-GE-132fitted to the latest Block 60 version.These increases in thrust have beenenhanced by the use of digital enginemanagement systems that allow theengines to operate more efficiently andrespond faster, as well as increasingreliability and easing maintenance. Sinceall of this has been achieved withminimum increases in the empty weightof the airframe, the F-16 today remainsas agile as ever and has seen combat

The F-16 Fighting Falcon first flew in 1974 and since then over 4500 have been built. The latestversion incorporates a great deal of new technologies, developed since Lockheed purchased theaircraft division of General Dynamics in 1993.

Developingon success The F-16E/F

Desert Falcon

The Royal Thai Air Force celebrated itscentennial in 2012 with a specialflight demonstration team.NamedCentennial Falcon, the team operatestwo F-16 Block 15OCUs with stunningpaint schemes to commemorate theanniversary. Lockheed Martin

over Iraq, Afghanistan, Bosnia, Kososvo,Pakistan and Libya.Aside from the Fort Worth plant, the F-

16 has also been produced in Belgium,the Netherlands, Korea and Turkey, thisinternational partnership formingimportant industrial links that havebenefited other Lockheed Martinprogrammes including the latest, the F-35.A wide range of versions have beenproduced, known as Blocks, each onerepresenting a major development in theairframe, engine or systems. Many of theimprovements of later models have beenfitted as upgrades to the earlier aircraft tomaintain their capabilities. The F-16 Blocksystem is outlined in the table Opposite.The latest version of the aircraft, the F-

16 Block 60, was developed to meet theneeds of the first customer, the UnitedArab Emirates Air Force, and is knownas the Desert Falcon. Aside from the newGeneral Electric F110-GE-132 enginealready mentioned, the Block 60 has anumber of new systems and capabilitiesthat make it the most advanced version ofthe fighter yet produced. Most obvious

Lockheed Martin 105

among these are the large conformal fueltanks, originally developed in the F-16ESproject, giving the Desert Falcon atremendous increase in range. Anothernew feature is the addition of a NorthropGrumman AN/ASQ-28 IFTS (InternalForward Looking Infra Red and TargetingSystem) sensor mounted in a turret justahead of the cockpit and slightly on theport side. This removes the need to carrya separate FLIR and laser targeting podas the turret combines these and otheradvanced functions.The nose mounted radar is the

Northrop Grumman AN/APG-80 agilebeam radar with an AESA (ActiveElectronically Scanned Array) antenna.This not only offers a greatly increased

range over earlier radars, but providesmultiple simultaneous functions such asterrain following at the same time astracking multiple targets. This greatlyincreases the pilot’s situational awarenessas he is receiving continually updatedtarget and threat information. The radaris complemented by advanced electronicwarfare and self defensive aids in theform of the Northrop Grumman ‘FalconEdge’ Integrated Electronic Warfare Suite(IEWS). This includes a passive threatwarning and location system allied to anALQ-165 Airborne Self-ProtectionJammer (ASPJ) and chaff and flaredispensers. This incredible volume ofdata is handled by a high speed modularmission computer over a fibre-optic

databus, which presents theinformation to the pilot on awide angle head up displayand three advanced five byseven inch (12.7 by17.7cm) colour displaysin the all glass cockpit.The cockpit iscompatible with night-vision goggles and aHelmet MountedCueing System(HMCS) can alsobe fitted.

The missioncomputer alsointegrates the

YF-16 – 2 built, the pre-productionprototypes

F-16FSD – 8 built as full scale developmentmodels sometimes referred to as Block 0.

F-16A and B – Blocks 1 to 20, singleseat (F-16A) and two seat (F-16B) versions,1978 to 1996. 94 Block 1, 197 Block 5,312 Block 10, 983 Block 15 and 150Block 20 F-16s built.Most Block 1 and 5aircraft were upgraded to Block 10standard, 214 Block 15 aircraft built asBlock 15OCU (Operational CapabilityUpgrade) with a number of Block 10and early Block 15 upgraded to thisstandard. 325 Belgian,Danish,Dutch and

Norwegian F-16A and Bs upgradedwith the Mid-Life Upgrade (MLU)with structural strengthening andimproved avionics.

F-16C and D – Blocks 25 to 52, single seat(F-16C) and two seat (F-16D) versions,1984 to date. 244 Block 25, 733 Block30/32, 615 Block 40/42 and over 850 Block50/52 F-16s built.The Block 50/52 is still inproduction.

F-16E and F – Block 60, single seat(F-16E) and two seat (F-16F) versions, 2003to date. 80 built for the United ArabEmirates and delivered by 2010, 25 moreordered in April 2013.

F-16I – 102 Block 52 two seat F-16sdeveloped for the Israeli Air Force withIsraeli avionics in 2003.

F-16N/TF-16N – 18 Block 30 single seat andfour two seat F-16s modified as dissimilarair combat trainers for the US Navy in 1987.

Note – From the Block 30 onwards, Blocksending in a 0 have the General ElectricF110 engine, Blocks ending in a 2 the Prattand Whitney F100 engine.There are manyother upgrades and sub variants of theaircraft,mission specialisations such asreconnaissance and defence suppressionas well as test and evaluation aircraft.Onlythe major designations are listed here.

The F-16E Block 60 Desert Falcon is the most advanced yet F-16produced. Identified by its conformal tanks and IFTS turret, it is inservice with the United Arab Emirates Air Force. Lockheed Martin

The US Air Force remains thebiggest customer for the F-16,with 1245 still in service.These are F-16Cs, Block 40aircraft, from the 421st FighterSquadron at Hill AFB, Utah onJanuary 18, 2013.USAF

The F-16 Block 60 cockpit features advanced colour multifunctiondisplays and lighting compatible with night vision systems.Lockheed Martin

F-16 designations and production blocks

wide range of advanced weapons theDesert Falcon can carry, including the airto air AIM-120 and AIM-132 and air toground AGM-65G Maverick, AGM-84Harpoon, JDAM, AGM-154 JSOW andAGM-84K SLAM-ER. The flight controlcomputer has a number of automaticmodes beyond the usual autopilot functionto ease pilot workload, including anautomatic recovery system. If the pilotever becomes disorientated, he can simplypush a button which recovers the aircraftto straight and level flight. As a trainingsafety aid, this latter system is invaluable.The Block 60 has been planned for easeof maintenance with a laptop basedsystem, as well as for future growth, withmodular avionics and systems lendingthemselves to ease of upgrade.The Block 60 is a far cry from the

original F-16, with capabilities that willsee it remain in service well into the2040s. Lockheed Martin has sufficientorders to keep the aircraft in productionuntil 2017, and it is likely further interestin the type will extend that. At the 2012Singapore Air Show, Lockheed Martinannounced the F-16V, a version roughlyanalogous to the Block 60 aircraft, thecapabilities being offered as both newbuild aircraft and as an upgrade package.The incredibly sleek Fighting Falcon, orViper as it is unofficially known, will begracing the skies for many years to come.■Words: Tim Callaway


T owards the end of the 1970s,Korean Air Lines (KAL)maintenance facilities beganacting as a local engineeringdepot to support US Air Force

aircraft based in the Pacific region. Thissaved the task of rotating the airframes backto the US every time a major overhaul,inspection or modification was required. KALalso began building aircraft, assembling 68Northrop F-5E Tiger IIs for the Republic ofKorea Air Force (RoKAF).

From this beginning, the military aviationindustry of Korea has developed rapidly. Theengineering companies Daewoo, Hyundai,and Samsung all began to operate similarmaintenance facilities with Daewoodeveloping the first indigenous aircraft in1988. This was the Daewoo KT-1 Woong-Bee,turboprop trainer that first flew in 1991 andentered service with the RoKAF in 2000.Aside from maintenance, these companiesalso began to work with aircraftmanufacturers world wide, constructingairframe components and sub assemblies.

Samsung Aerospace initially became theprime contractor to Lockheed Martin for theKorean Fighter Programme (KFP), which wasaimed at establishing a production line inKorea to build the F-16 under licence. Whilethe KFP was being developed, SamsungAerospace, Daewoo Heavy Industries(Aerospace Division) and the Hyundai Spaceand Aircraft Company formed a new jointventure company, Korean AerospaceIndustries Ltd (KAI).

KAI became responsible for thedevelopment of the F-16 production line atSacheon, where Block 52 aircraft were builtunder licence under new designations to reflecttheir origin. Altogether 94 KF-16Cs and 46 KF-16Ds were built, the last being completed inAugust 2004. By this time KAI and LockheedMartin had developed an excellent workingrelationship over the F-16 programme, onewhich continues today as the KAI plant atChangwon still produces sub-assemblies forthe aircraft being built in Fort Worth.

The RoKAF had a requirement for asupersonic trainer that would prepare

TT owards the end of the 1970s,owards the end of the 1970s,Korean Air Lines (KAL)Korean Air Lines (KAL)maintenance facilities beganmaintenance facilities began

Samsung Aerospace initially became theSamsung Aerospace initially became theprime contractor to Lockheed Martin for theprime contractor to Lockheed Martin for theKorean Fighter Programme (KFP), which wasKorean Fighter Programme (KFP), which was

Futuretrainer

The Korean AerospaceIndustries T-50 Golden Eaglesupersonic trainer wasdeveloped for the Korean AirForce requirement for a multi-role training aircraft. Theprogramme was developed inco-operation with LockheedMartin from the beginning, withelements of the designexperience from the F-16Fighting Falcon beingincorporated into the aircraft.

The LockheedMartin/KAI T-50Golden Eagle

The RoKAF aerobatic team, the Black Eagles,fly a special version of the T-50, the T-50B.Based at Wonju Air Base since December2010, the paint scheme shown here wasintroduced for the 2011 season.Lockheed Martin

Lockheed Martin 107

control system. Capable of Mach 1.5, the T-50has proved to possess excellent handling andis a powerful and reliable performer, so muchso that the aircraft has already beendeveloped into light attack and fightervariants. In service with the Korean and,shortly, the Indonesian Air Force, severalother nations, including Spain and Poland, areconsidering the type which is being jointlymarketed by both KAI and Lockheed Martin.

Lockheed Martin has also proposed the T-50 as the ideal multi-role trainer for theUSAF’s T-X competition. T-X is aimed atreplacing the USAF’s large fleet of NorthropT-38 Talons with an aircraft of similarperformance and greater capabilities.

Lockheed sees little need to change the T-50,other than in terms of avionics to meet the T-Xrequirement, as it was foreseen from thebeginning that the T-50 would make a suitablereplacement for the T-38.

Additionally, Lockheed builds the F-22 andF-35, the aircraft the T-X training programmeis meant to prepare pilots for; and its GlobalTraining and Logistics Division suppliesmilitary simulation and training systems andequipment. The T-50 solution would beextremely cost effective and efficient, itscommonality of design, handling andequipment giving the student pilot a high levelof familiarity on reaching the front lineaircraft. ■ Words: Tim Callaway

Variants oftheLockheed Martin/kait-50

T-50 – 50 built for the Republic ofKorean Air Force (RoKAF) asadvanced, lead in fighter trainers.

T-50B – 10 built for the RoKAFaerobatic team the Black Eagles asa specialised aerobatic version.

TA-50 – 22 built for the RoKAF,entering service in 2011,and 16 onorder for the Indonesian Air Force asa tactical weapons trainer and alight attack aircraft with the EltaEL/M-2032 radar.

FA-50 – 20 on order for the RoKAF asan all-weather multi-role fighterversion with an improved version ofthe Elta EL/M-2032 radar.Originallyknown as the A-50,prototype first flewin 2011.

F-50 – Projected two or single seatfighter variant under development.

students for the F-15 and F-16 aircraft it had inservice and replace the ageing fleet of CessnaA-37 Dragonfly and Northrop T-38 Talontrainers. In 1992, the Korean Government,KAI and Lockheed Martin began a jointlyfunded development of such a trainer, aproject known as the KTX-2. By 1999, thedesign had been finalised, designated T-50and named Golden Eagle. Production beganthe following year with the first KAI T-50being completed on September 14, 2001.

Powered by a 17,700lb (8028kg) GeneralElectric F404-102 turbofan, a versionproduced under licence in Korea by SamsungTechwin, the prototype made its first flight onAugust 20, 2002. Deliveries began to theRoKAF in 2005, the first students beingtrained on the aircraft in 2007.

The T-50 trainer is equipped with aLockheed Martin AN/APG-67, a multi-modepulse doppler radar and other advancedavionics, all reporting to two largemultifunction displays and the head up displayin the cockpit. The aircraft is the first trainerto feature a triple redundant fly by wire

A student pilot in the T-50 operational flighttrainer which is used primarily as aprocedures trainer and has a full cockpit anda large five-panel display. Lockheed Martin

Four RoKAF T-50 trainers in flight. Reminiscent of the F-16 fighter, the General Electric F404-GE-102 engine gives the T-50 sparkling performance. Lockheed Martin

KAI T-50s are operated by the 189th and 203rd squadrons at Gwangju Air Baseas part of the 1st Fighter Wing.The squadrons together operate 50 T-50s andtrain about 140 students per year in three classes. Lockheed Martin

T he F-15 and F-16, as alreadymentioned in this issue, areexceptional aircraft that willremain in service for many yearsto come. However, in the late

1970s, the appearance of the agile and capableMikoyan Gurevich MiG-29 and Sukhoi Su-27and their projected developments caused USAir Force planners to re-evaluate the future offighter aircraft in the face of the worldwidesales of the Russian aircraft. Studies wereinitiated into how the fast developing materialsand computer technologies could be put to usein a fighter to create, not a traditional airsuperiority fighter as those types that alreadyexisted were known, but a new idea, an airdominance fighter. An aircraft so fast, powerful,agile and well equipped that it could cope withany current or projected threat with ease.

This thinking coalesced into the ATFrequirement in 1981, which called for the useof composites and lightweight alloys, newengines and the ability to cruise supersonically,advanced radar and avionics, a computercontrolled high agility flight control system andan application of stealth technology to makethe aircraft survivable even in a modern highthreat environment. This was a tall order forthe day, integrating the often conflicting needsof speed, agility and stealth became the corechallenge of the ATF project. Aircraftmanufacturers across the US had a number ofconcepts that had been evolving since the1970s which incorporated two of the threerequirements, but none yet with all three.

In 1983, the USAF issued a request forproposals for the new engine for the ATF, withPratt and Whitney being selected to developtheir F119 design, while General Electricworked on their F120. At the same time,USAF requested proposals for the aircraft, towhich Boeing, General Dynamics, Grumman,Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, Northrop,and Rockwell responded. All seven companieswere invited to refine and explore theirconcepts, with a final request for technologydemonstration and validation proposals beingissued in September 1985. This was amendedtwice, firstly by including flying prototypes in


“It’s not A fighter,

it’s THE fighter!”The Lockheed Martin F-22 RaptorIn 1981 the US Air Force began a programme called the AdvancedTactical Fighter (ATF). This was intended to replace the excellentF-15 and counter the threats posed by the MiG-29 and Su-27, sowhatever aircraft was produced in response would have to be ofexceptional agility and capability. That is exactly what they got.

The two ATF competitors, the YF-22 andthe YF-23. Lockheed Martin

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the intended contract and secondly byencouraging teaming between the sevencompanies to make production of the winningdesign more efficient. After negotiations,Northrop and Grumman formed one team,and Lockheed Martin, Boeing and GeneralDynamics another. Grumman and Rockwelldeclined the arrangement. The agreementbetween the companies was that the winningdesign would denote which was to be the leadcompany on the project. On October 31, 1986,the two teams were requested to develop theLockheed and Northrop designs, designatedYF-22 and YF-23 respectively.The Lockheed led team met at the Skunk

Works on November 2 and an agreement wasreached that Lockheed would build thecockpit, forward fuselage and noseundercarriage as well as all of the speciallytreated airframe edge surfaces and otherstealth features. They would also provide thecentral avionics data processors and beresponsible for final assembly at Palmdale.Boeing would build the wings and rearfuselage, the fire protection, life support andauxiliary power systems, and arrestor gear.They would also build the radar, infraredsearch and track system and the missionsoftware. Lastly, Boeing would also providethe flying laboratory to develop the avionicsand take leadership in developing the trainingsystem. General Dynamics were to build thefins and tailplanes, the centre fuselage and itssubsystems, the main undercarriage and theflight controls. They were also to beresponsible for the infrared elements of theaircraft’s stealth capabilities and provide thecommunications, navigation, and identificationsystems, the electronic warfare system,inertial platform and the stores managementsystem. General Dynamics were also to takeleadership of the aircraft’s support system.Interestingly, this workshare was to prove soefficient that it has changed little on theaircraft as we know it today. Each team wasrequired to build two prototypes, one poweredby the F119 engine, the other the F120.

What followed over the next two years wasan incredibly intense series of negotiations,meetings, planning and design revisions as theaircraft was not only detailed, but prepared forproduction. The companies had to get used toworking together, and accommodate eachothers strengths and weaknesses. Not an easytask among former rivals, but regardless, thefirst set of production drawings were releasedon April 1, 1988, the first metal being cut onApril 27, a remarkable achievement by allconcerned. The three fuselage sections wereall at Palmdale on January 12, 1990, and wenttogether incredibly smoothly, the applicationof advanced computer aided designtechnology proving its worth. The firstGeneral Electric YF120 powered YF-22, PAV-1,87-0700, was completed on August 29, DavidFerguson making the first flight fromPalmdale to Edwards Air Force Base onemonth later on September 29. This wasfollowed by the Pratt and Whitney YF119engined prototype, PAV-2, 87-0701, on October30, flown for the first time by TomMorgenfeld.

Left: A remarkable diagram showing theevolution of the ATF concept of 1986 into theF-22 of today. Lockheed Martin

Above: Boeing was responsible fordeveloping the F-22 avionics flying laboratory,which was based aboard this Boeing 757Flying Test Bed. Lockheed Martin

The next three months were to see the twoaircraft perform an exacting flight testschedule, with 74 flights completing over 90hours of testing. The aircraft’s flight envelopewas explored to Mach 2, sustained 7G turnsand 60 degrees of angle of attack, as well astest firing the AIM-9 Sidewinder and AIM-120AMRAAM air to air missiles. Both prototypesdemonstrated the ability to cruisesupersonically without afterburners, PAV-1reaching Mach 1.58 and PAV-2 Mach 1.43.The thrust vectoring system enabled post-stallmanoeuvres to be flown and the large controlsurfaces demonstrated the YF-22’stremendous agility throughout the speedrange. The stealth characteristics were testedwith full scale models mounted on poles onradar ranges and found to be entirelysatisfactory. Meanwhile, the new radar andother avionics systems were rigorously testedaboard Boeing’s flying laboratory, based on aBoeing 757 airliner. Lastly, the all importantreliability, ease of maintenance and supportfunctions were tested and demonstrated,➤

On May 17, 1998, the first of the pre-production test F-22s, Raptor 01,was flown for the first timeat Edwards AFB by Lt.Col. Steve Rainey. Lockheed Martin

Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar,AN/AAR 56 Infra-Red and Ultra-VioletMAWS (Missile Approach Warning System)and the AN/ALR-94 radar warning receiver(RWR), showed the F-22 to have unparalleledelectronic capabilities to match its speed,stealth and agility. On December 15, 2005,the USAF announced that the Raptor hadreached its initial operational capability,demonstrating its superiority in no uncertainterms during Exercise Northern Edge inJune 2006 over Alaska. During the exercise,12 F-22s of the 94th Fighter Squadron shotdown 108 adversary aircraft in simulatedcombat for no losses. Minor problems withthe software and other bugs were ironedout, with the F-22 rapidly achieving theavailability and maintenance standardsrequired by contact. However, problemswith the g-suit and oxygen supply on theaircraft that affected the pilot’s health causedfirstly restrictions on long flights and highaltitude operations, then subsequently thegrounding of the fleet while the symptomsand causes were investigated. A number ofchanges were made to the oxygen systemand flight vests which resolved the problems,and all restrictions on the F-22 were lifted onApril 4, 2013.The F-22 continues to impress during

exercises and deployments with its highperformance and remarkable capabilities as acombat aircraft. A number of software andother upgrades have been made to the fleetwhich have enhanced these capabilities stillfurther. The F-22 was designed to be inservice for at least 30 years, but it is likely thatthe ongoing investigations into structuralupgrades will extend that even further. Asanyone who has seen the beautiful F-22 fly canattest, and as the unknown pilot at theFarnborough Air Show is quoted in the title ofthis article said: “It’s not A fighter, it’s THEfighter!” ■ Words: Tim Callaway

not only with the prototypes but with anumber of systems tests and demonstrationsby the three companies.On April 23, 1991, then Secretary of the Air

Force, Donald Rice, announced the YF-22 withthe Pratt and Whitney engines to be thewinner of the ATF programme. While thelarger YF-23 had proved to be both faster andstealthier, the YF-22 was more agile and haddemonstrated more of its capabilities in thetest flights. Interestingly, Rice commentedthat the combination of engine and airframe“clearly offered better capability at lower cost,thereby providing the Air Force with a truebest value.” The engineering, manufacturingand development contract called for theproduction of seven single seat F-22As andtwo two seat F-22Bs, although these werelater cancelled to reduce costs. The intentionat the time was for the USAF to acquire a totalof 650 fighters. A number of changes weremade to the design between the YF-22 and theproduction F-22. The fins were reduced in sizeand the wing leading edge sweep reducedfrom 48 degrees to 42. The shape of the wingand tailplanes were changed which improvedboth their aerodynamics and stealth qualities.The engine intakes were moved aft by 14inches (35.56cm) and the nose shape waschanged, the cockpit moving forward byseven inches (17.78cm) to improve the pilotsview. These changes resulted in the F-22being shorter than the YF-22 by two feet(0.6m), at 62 feet (18.9m) in length.On April 9, 1997, the first Lockheed Martin

F-22A was rolled out at Marietta, Georgia andofficially named Raptor in an unveilingceremony. This particular aircraft, named‘Spirit of America’ to reflect the nationwidesupplier and subcontractor base that made theaircraft possible, made its first flight onSeptember 7. Even as this was happening, thewholly remarkable F-22 programme hadbecome something of a political football, withan ever decreasing number of productionaircraft being projected as the defence budgetwas cut in the aftermath of the end of the ColdWar. Given the extremely advanced

technology embodied in the fighter, exportsales were banned, so this avenue was notavailable to Lockheed Martin to make up theshortfall in production numbers, despiteinterest from Australia and Japan. As theproduction numbers fell, unsurprisingly theunit cost increased, causing further politicalturmoil. Methods of extending the productionline were explored, including the potential fordeveloping an export version, but these sadlycame to naught. In the end, only 195 of theastounding F-22s were built, the eight testaircraft and 187 production combat versions,the last one rolling off the lines in December2011. Lockheed Martin have maintained allthe jigs and tools for the aircraft, not only tosupply spare parts to the fleet, but against theday it may be required to re-enter production.Flight testing of the F-22 and its

powerful avionics, including the advancedNorthrop Grumman AN/APG-77 Active

The power and the glory.An F-22performs at Point Mugu Airshow

in 2007. Lockheed Martin

In Memoriam. Lockheed test pilot Dave Ferguson,who flew the first flight and the initialairworthiness tests on the YF-22 prototype in 1990,died on August 10, 2011. Lockheed Martin

112 IN ASSOCIATION WITH: LOCKHEED MARTIN – WE NEVER FORGET WHOWE ARE WORKING FOR

T he story of the wholly remarkableF-35 can be said to have started in1983, when the Defence AdvancedResearch Projects Agency(DARPA) began investigating the

technologies then available that would allowthe development of a replacement for theAV-8 Harrier. Known as the Advanced ShortTake Off and Vertical Landing (ASTOVL)project, this became a joint programmebetween the US and the UK, but it becameapparent that a supersonic aircraft of this typewas beyond the reach of technology for themoment. DARPA had approached the SkunkWorks during this project, which wasintrigued by the idea. Work began to developthe concept further, to mature the technologythat would eventually be required to makesuch an aircraft a reality.With the assistance of NASA’s Ames

Research Centre in California, the SkunkWorks also began investigating the STOVLStrike Fighter (SSF) concept beginning in1987. This was a ‘black’ or secret project,aimed at producing a stealthy supersonicstrike aircraft and used the ASTOVL projectas cover for these activities. At this pointLockheed Martin designer and engineer PaulBevilaqua comes to the fore. Not only did heand fellow Skunk Works engineer Paul

Shumpert conceive and design the lift fan forwhat is now the F-35, in 1992 it was he whopersuaded the USAF that the ASTOVL/SSFconcept would be the ideal strike aircraft toteam with the F-22 Raptor that was thentaking shape. All that would be required wasto remove the vertical lift element of USMC’sconcept to cheaply and quickly produce amodern strike aircraft to replace the F-16 anda number of other types. Bevilaqua showedthat the data from both the ASTOVL and SSFprojects suggested that a common aircraftwould not only be possible, but in terms ofdevelopment time and cost, eminentlydesirable. The USAF and USMC agreed,signing a joint development agreement,known as the Common AffordableLightweight Fighter (CALF).The CALF project was aimed at developing

strike aircraft technologies in support ofASTOVL. Customers included the USAF andUSMC, as well as the UK’s RAF and RoyalNavy (RN), and the aircraft would be availableas both a STOVL version as a Harrierreplacement and as a conventional aircraft. Anumber of other programmes, the USAF’sMulti-Role Fighter (MRF) to replace the F-16,the US Navy’s Advanced Tactical Aircraft(ATA), Naval Advanced Tactical Fighter(NATF), the Advanced Attack (A-X) and

Advanced Fighter/Attack (A/F-X) were allcancelled between 1991 and 1993. Instead, theJoint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST)programme was begun in 1993 to replace allof those projects and develop the airframes,weapons and sensor technologies such anaircraft would require. The JAST office wasestablished on January 27, 1994 andcomprised many of the personnel from the USNavy’s A/F-X project. The US Congresspassed budget legislation in October 1994 tomerge JAST and ASTOVL, as it was clear thetwo projects had common goals. In November1995, the UK became a partner in the JASTprogramme with an agreement to pay 10% ofthe development costs of the technologydemonstrators. Initially, three designs fromLockheed Martin, Boeing and McDonnellDouglas were considered for the programme.On November 16, 1996, contracts to developprototypes were issued to Lockheed Martinand Boeing. With the beginning of thisConcept Demonstration Phase (CDP), theproject name officially changed to the JointStrike Fighter (JSF).

The futureof air power

The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II

While these pages have contained many astounding achievements far ahead of their time, thisaircraft is in a league of its own. That so many capabilities have been fitted into a single designfor such a wide range of customers is amazing enough. That it has been done with such a degreeof demonstrated success is a tribute to the courage and vision of the people who conceived the

aircraft, and the skills of those who are now building and operating it.

Above:Where it all started, the two competitorsfor the JSF contract, the Boeing X-32 andLockheed Martin X-35.Lockheed Martin

Lockheed Martin 113

The two contracts called for prototypesthat would demonstrate the three intendedversions of the aircraft, the Conventional TakeOff and Landing (CTOL or A model), theShort Take Off and Vertical Landing (STOVLor B model) and the Carrier Take Off andLanding (CV or C model). As work began,international developments saw Canada jointhe programme in 1997, while in the UK, theFuture Carrier Borne Aircraft (FCBA) projectbegan to finalise the choice of aircraft to equipthe two new aircraft carriers ordered for theRN. The 1998 rationalisation of the UK RAFand RN Harrier units into Joint Force Harrierrevised the FCBA into including a Harrierreplacement for the RAF as well, resulting inthe renaming of the competition as the JointCombat Aircraft (JCA). On January 17, 2001,the UK announced that the JSF had won, withthe government confirming that it would be afull partner in the programme.

In response to the contracts, bothLockheed Martin and Boeing produced twoaircraft, the Boeing design being theunconventional delta winged X-32A andSTOVL X-32B. The X-32B model had twovectored thrust ducts that bled air from theforward mounted turbine and vented throughtwo doors under the fuselage, combined with a2D thrust vectoring nozzle that directed the

engine exhaust downwards to provide verticallift. The X-32A would be used to demonstratethe designs’ abilities as both the CTOL and CVversion of the aircraft and first flew onSeptember 18, 2000. The Lockheed Martinentry was more conventional in appearance,taking a number of design features from the F-22 and indeed resembling a smaller singleengined version of that fighter. The X-35 wasalso built in two versions, the X-35A CTOL andthe X-35C CV variant, the carrier based aircrafthaving a larger wing. Both aircraft first flewfrom Palmdale, the X-35A on October 24, 2000and the X-35C on December 16. The X-35Acompleted the CTOL elements of theprogramme successfully on November 22 withall its targets met. It was then converted intothe X-35B by the addition of the Rolls Roycebuilt vertical lift fan behind the cockpit and thethrust vectoring engine exhaust to enable it todemonstrate the STOVL part of theperformance requirement. On June 23, 2001,the newly modified X-35B lifted vertically forthe first time, the first ever lift off by a liftingfan powered aircraft in aviation history. Thecomplete programme of CTOL, STOVL andCV tests required by the competition werecarried out by both the X-32s and X-35s, theformer making its last flight on July 28, 2001,the latter on August 6. All four of the

During the trials, the X-35A was converted into the X-35B with theaddition of the lift fan and the STOVL flight system. Lockheed Martin

Another key to the success of the X-35 was the Diverterless SupersonicInlet (DSI) which was tested on a Block 30 F-16. Lockheed Martin

The Pratt and Whitney F135 engine forthe F-35 on a test rig. Lockheed Martin

The cockpit interior of the F-35 is remarkablyuncluttered and features a single largemultifunction display.Note the lack of a headup display. Lockheed Martin

demonstrator aircraft have been preservedand now reside in museums around the US.

During the competition, the Boeing X-32Bhad achieved all of the goals, but had done soin separate flights, the aircraft requiring re-configuring for supersonic or STOVLoperation. While it was understood that thiswas a facet of the prototypes only, that thetailed production aircraft would be able toachieve all of the design goals, the LockheedMartin X-35B had demonstrated a short takeoff, supersonic flight and a vertical landing ina single sortie. Despite the fact that someobservers considered the X-35s lifting fanconcept a greater risk than the X-32s vectoredthrust, on October 26, 2001 the X-35 wasannounced as the winner of the JSFcompetition. A great deal of developmentwork had already been done to secure thissuccess. Mention has already been made ofthe lifting fan concept, essentially a turbopropon its side encased in a duct just aft of thecockpit, driven via a shaft and gearbox fromthe main engine. Roll control in the hover isprovided by two ‘posts’ which divert bypass➤

air from the engine to controllable exhaustvents under each wing. Pitch control isachieved by balancing the thrust of the mainengine nozzle and the lifting fan.Conceived and designed at the Skunk

Works, the lifting fan was a key to the X-35ssuccess in the competition as the cold air fromthe fan did less damage to airfields andcarrier decks, and the system did not sufferfrom ingesting the hot air of its own exhaustand thus a reduction in thrust and efficiency.The weight of the fan and gearbox is offset bythe fact that the system is more efficient thantraditional vectored thrust techniques on suchaircraft as the Harrier, and its lifting forceallows a greater payload to be carried on takeoff or very short take offs to be made. Asidefrom the lifting fan, the Lockheed Martin hadinitiated design studies into an entirely newform of engine air inlet. Known as theDiverterless Supersonic Inlet (DSI), this hadbeen flown on a Block 30 F-16 testbedbetween December 11 and 20, 1996. The DSIdesign team used Computational FluidDynamics (CFD) to model the airflow tocreate a truly remarkable piece ofaerodynamics. This is an engine inlet thatmanages the subsonic flow at the engine facewithout ramps, doors or other compressiondevices such as shock cones. It also preventsthe majority of boundary layer air fromentering the intake by the use of what isknown as a ‘bump’ instead of diverters,splitter plate or bleed systems, all the while

maintaining good stealth properties. Thisimpressively ingenious development savesboth weight and complexity by doing awaywith the mechanical systems usuallyassociated with inlets. So revolutionary wasthis work that two patents were issued tocover it, both granted in 1998. These inletswere featured on the X-35 and proved entirelysuccessful, another of the keys to the types’success in the JSF competition.Having proven these and other technologies

in the X-35, with the award of the SystemDevelopment and Demonstration phase workbegan to turn the prototype design into anaircraft ready for production. The full avionicsfit required the fuselage to grow in length byfive inches (12.7cm) as well as become an inch(2.54cm) deeper. The tailplanes were movedbackwards by 2in (5.08cm) to balance thelonger fuselage. The fuselage was alsomodified to accommodate the weapons bays,which had not been fitted to the X-35. Toproduce the aircraft and its systems, a teamsimilar to that developed for the F-22 had beenannounced in 1997. This broke the worksharedown in a similar way to the F-22, withLockheed Martin building the forwardfuselage, wings, flight control system, AAQ-40Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) andmission system, as well as being responsiblefor final assembly and overall systemintegration. Northrop Grumman build thecentre fuselage, weapons bay and its attendantsystems as well as the arrestor gear. It also

provided its AN/APG-81 Active ElectronicallyScanned Array (AESA) radar, and the powerfulAN/AAQ-37 electro-optical DistributedAperture System (DAS) missile and threatwarning system as well as the AN/ASQ-242Communications, Navigation and Identification(CNI) equipment. This includes the currentstandard Link 16 datalink, but adds a newMultifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL),which enables secure transmission of a widevariety of sensor data, greatly improving thesituational awareness of the pilots. BAESystems builds the rear fuselage, fins andtailplanes, as well as the fuel and life supportsystems and the health monitoring andmanagement system. The company alsoprovides its AN/ASQ-239 Barracudaelectronic warfare system. Martin Baker issubcontracted to BAE to provide the US16Eejection seat. To test these advanced avionics, aBoeing 737-300 was modified to become theCooperative Avionics Testbed (CATB) orCatbird as it is widely known. This has an F-35snose and canard foreplanes externally, whileinternally it carries racks of avionics and acomplete F-35 cockpit. Modified by BAESystems at Mojave Airport, the Catbird firstflew on January 23, 2007. As with the F-22programme and its Boeing 757, the F-35sCatbird had proved invaluable in testingsystems and software in the air.The engine used in the X-35 was a modified

version of the Pratt and Whitney F100 turbofancore that powers the F-16. This had been

On March 18, 2010, F-35B BF-1completed the first vertical

landing by a production F-35.Lockheed Martin

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developed by Pratt and Whitney at the requestof Paul Bevilaqua to produce the verticalthrust components the design required, andhad been built from elements of both theirF100 and F119 turbofans. The productionengine used the core of the F119 but with thedrive shaft and thrust vectoring nozzle for theF-35 and had been designated as the F135.Like the airframe, the engine systems areconstructed by a team, comprising Pratt andWhitney, who build the main engine and areresponsible for systems integration; Rolls-Royce, who build the vertical lift fan system;Hamilton Sundstrand, who build the gearbox,the electronic engine control, actuator andhealth monitoring systems and finallyWoodward, who build the fuel system.

The engine is produced in three versions asyou would expect, all of which produce43,000lb (19,505kg) of thrust in afterburner.The F135-PW-100 and -400 are the versions forthe F-35A and C respectively, the onlydifference being the extensive use of saltcorrosion proof materials in the -400 to surviveextended carrier based operations. The F-35Bis powered by the F135-PW-600 version of theengine, with the ‘roll posts’ that extend into thewings, the vectoring nozzle and the driveelements for the lift fan. In dry thrust with thenozzle in the down position, the engineproduces 18,000lb (8165kg) of thrust, whilethe lift fan produces a further 20,000lb(9072kg) and the two roll posts 1950lb (885kg)

each. Altogether, the engine in vertical liftmode is producing 41,900lb (19,006kg) ofthrust, almost as much as the engine does inafterburner, but without the damaging heatand the profligate fuel use that system entails.This amazing piece of technology means thatwhile in vertical lift mode, the F135 isoperating simultaneously as a turbojet,turboshaft and turbofan engine. An alternativeengine, the F136, had been proposed by ateam of General Electric and Rolls Royce andbegan testing in July 2004, producing almostexactly the same thrust as the F135. The USDepartment of Defence funded this in August2005, but in 2011 it was decided that the F135would be the only engine produced for the F-35 and the F136 was cancelled in April.

There are a number of other novel featuresin the F-35 programme, not least being thelack of development of a two seat trainerversion of the aircraft. This has been deemedunnecessary given the quality of modern flightsimulator systems. Students training to fly theF-35 do receive flight time in the F-16 afterqualifying on the T-38 at the moment, but theintroduction of the T-X aircraft will eliminatethis step. The extensive use of composites andstealth materials in the airframe havebenefited from the latest developments inthese, the F-35 being far harder wearing andeasier to maintain than previous stealth aircraftas a result. When looking into the cockpit ofthe F-35, the first thing you notice is the➤

The Boeing 737-300 modified to become the Cooperative AvionicsTestbed (CATB) or Catbird for the F-35 programme. Lockheed Martin

The F-35 production line with the first F-35C under assembly nearestthe camera. Lockheed Martin

RAF Sqn Ldr Jim Schofield became the 33rdpilot to fly the F-35 and is seen here onFebruary 1, 2012,wearing the Generation IIhelmet.The helmet-mounted display systemhas replaced the need for a head up displayand features some remarkable day and nightcapabilities, including the ability to see‘through’ the aircraft. Lockheed Martin

The first F-35A on a test flight with the weapons bay doors open.Lockheed Martin

CF-01, the first of the larger winged naval version, the F-35C,made itsfirst flight on June 7, 2010. Lockheed Martin


single, very large 20 by 8in (50.8 by 20.3cm)multifunction display that takes up most of theinstrument panel. This is touchscreentechnology and is complemented by a DirectVoice Input (DVI) speech recognition system.Together, these have almost eliminated theneed for traditional switches, meaning thecockpit is clear and uncluttered the pilot betterable to focus on his mission. Speaking ofwhich, it is only after you have sat in the F-35for a moment that you realise what is missing.There is no traditional Head Up Display in thecockpit. Instead, this information is displayeddirectly on the pilots’ helmet visor so is visibleregardless of where the pilot is looking. Asidefrom displaying flight information, the manysensors of the F-35 all feed target informationand location into the visor too, allowing thepilot to engage targets away from where hisaircraft is orientated.

One fascinating capability of this system isthe link to cameras mounted around theaircraft. For example, when the pilot looksdown, the visor displays the image from acamera under the cockpit, enabling the pilotto see ‘through’ the aircraft. This has obviousapplications in approaching a carrier deck toland at night, particularly vertical landings,and includes a 360º day and night vision viewof the world around the aircraft. Initialproblems with this system regarding the nightvision capability, vibration and jitter have beenaddressed by manufacturer, Vision SystemsInternational, and night flying tests of thesecond generation of helmet have provedextremely positive. The fact that all of theaircraft’s sensors, active and passive, feedtarget and threat data to the pilot in this waygives the F-35 an incredible advantage, as thepilot is not so much situationally aware assituationally immersed. His response timesare reduced and his focus is on the mission,not the aircraft.

As the programme grew, more customernations joined as supply partners. The

Netherlands and Italy also became worksharepartners, with a Final Assembly and CheckOut (FACO) facility being built at Cameriairfield, an Italian Air Force fighter andengineering base, where Alenia Aermacchiwill assemble the F-35s destined for allEuropean customers except the UK andTurkey. Canada’s interest in the F-35 began in1997 as already noted, and it was joined byAustralia, Denmark, Norway and Turkey, withover 110 companies in these eight countriessupplying parts, systems or services to the F-35 programme. In the Memorandum ofUnderstanding signed between the partnernations on November 10, 2009, the order bookfor the F-35 stood at 3173 aircraft, althoughbudget cuts and rising costs have caused areduction in some of the initial orders.However, both Israel and Singapore havesince become Security Cooperative Partners(SCPs) and will be purchasing the F-35.

F-35A test aircraft AF-1 made the first aerial release of an AIM-120 AMRAAM.US Air Force MajorMatthew Phillips dropped the test AIM-120 over the Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Divisiontest range at China Lake,California on October 19, 2012. Lockheed Martin

Furthermore, on December 19, 2011, Japanannounced its intention to purchase 42 F-35sto replace its ageing fleet of Japan Air SelfDefence Force F-4 Phantom IIs, and has aninterest in building the aircraft under licence.

As the design was finalised and the weaponbays and systems were added to the airframe, anumber of issues regarding weight, especiallyof the F-35B variant, needed to be addressed.Redesigns of the fuselage immediately behindthe cockpit, the electrical system, airframestructural members and the wing joints, alongwith a reduction in the size of the fins and theweapons bay successfully addressed this, in factresulted in an overall lighter aircraft. Thesechanges were implemented in all three variantsto maintain the vital commonality of parts andconstruction, but caused an 18 month delay inthe project. The first LockheedMartin F-35A,AA-1, was rolled out at Fort Worth on February19, 2006. On July 7, the US Air Force officially

The programme matures.The 58th AircraftMaintenance Unit produced their first four-turn-four for the 58th Fighter Squadron at Eglin AFB,Florida, on January 31, 2013. The pilots flew

four F-35As in the morning.After landing,maintainers performed routine maintenancefor airworthiness.Then the four aircraft were

flown again in the afternoon. Lockheed Martin

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named the F-35 the Lightning II, a tribute to thehistoric Lockheed P-38 and English ElectricLightning fighters. Engine trials began inSeptember and the first flight took place onDecember 16. The F-35A was followed by thefirst F-35B on June 11, 2008, which made itsfirst hover transition onMarch 17, 2010 and itsfirst vertical landing onMarch 18.

Finally, the first of the larger winged navalversion, the F-35C, made its first flight on June7 the same year. Since then, the flight test andtraining programme has expanded theaircraft’s envelope to its maximum speed ofMach 1.6 and up to 43,000ft (13,105m).Weapons drops and missile firing have beenconducted from all three versions anddeliveries have been made to the US Air Force,US Navy, US Marine Corps, RAF and the RoyalNetherlands Air Force, although all the F-35scurrently remain in the United States astraining and evaluation continue. The aircraft isin a Low Rate of Initial Production (LRIP) whilethe testing and development phase is carriedout, but by July 25, 2013, the 100th F-35, AF-41,an A model for the US Air Force, was in the laststage of assembly, with an additional 26 aircraftin various stages of production. In September2012, the USAF began an operational utilityevaluation which examined the whole F-35Asystem, including logistical support andmaintenance, maintenance training, pilottraining, and mission execution which wassuccessfully completed on November 14. Theproduction system, like the training, flighttesting and maintenance of the F-35 is reachingmaturity, and many lessons are being learnedand incorporated into this astounding aircraft.Its performance as an easy to fly and maintainaircraft has resulted in many positivecomments from pilots and engineers alike.

The F-35 is the most complex and costlymilitary aircraft programme ever undertaken.It has had its problems, of that there is nodoubt, but given the cutting edge nature ofmany of the technologies involved this shouldsurprise no one. Engineers are engineers, notclairvoyants, and problems arising in such

extreme developments are to be met andsolved, which they have consistently achieved.In the light of reduced military budgets in thepost Cold War era, numbers have been cutand deliveries delayed, which, whencombined with the requirements to fix theproblems as they are encountered have led toan increase in unit cost of the aircraft.However, having studied this programmefrom its very beginnings, I feel I can say thatwhat Lockheed Martin has achieved here isnothing short of astounding. A great deal ofthe criticism thrown at the programme hasbeen both inaccurate and unfair, much of itcoming from people with their own agendas.It interests me that the F-35 has beencriticised for being available in three versions,that the STOVL F-35B has increased the costsof the project as a whole. The obvious reply to

such accusations is that how else was theaircraft to fulfil all of its design requirementsfor all of its various customers? Anothercriticism has been the increase in cost, aneasy target in these days of reduced budgets,to which Lockheed Martin have responded bytaking responsibility for a proportion of theseincreases. However, this aircraft, with itscommonality of spares, maintenance, trainingand operation has a fighting chance ofreducing the overall lifetime costs to thecustomers as the system matures. What hasbeen created here is an aircraft that will servein many roles for many years, itself aremarkable achievement. Its qualities arealready apparent to those operating andmaintaining the aircraft. In time, thesequalities and capabilities will prove the F-35 tothe whole world. ■ Words: Tim Callaway

The second F-35A,AF-2,undertook the firstrefuelling trials for the aircraft.Lockheed Martin

100 not out. On July 25, 2013, the 100th F-35,A model AF-41 for the US Air Force, was in the laststage of assembly. Lockheed Martin

Marine Corps test pilot Maj. C. R. Clift completed the first shipboard verticallanding at night for an F-35B on August 14, 2013.The landing occurredduring developmental tests aboard the USS Wasp (LHD-1). Lockheed Martin


A s Lockheed aircraft and theirsystems became more complex,and the needs of customersgrew, the company had todevelop technologies and

diversify to meet those needs. Lockheed begandeveloping subsidiary companies, which havenow become the five divisions and a subsidiaryof the aerospace and defence giant.

aeronauticSThe original heart of the company, LockheedMartin Aeronautics is the division that buildsaircraft and provides engine and structuralmodification, maintenance, repair andoverhaul (MMRO) services. More than 25,000people are employed across the US, from theheadquarters in Fort Worth, Texas, throughseven production and operations facilitiesfrom Florida to California. There are alsooffices throughout the world, supportingcustomers in over 65 countries globally.

inforMation SySteMSand GLobaL SoLutionSFrom IT and telecommunications to air trafficcontrol management solutions, LockheedMartin Information Systems & GlobalSolutions (IS&GS) provides advancedtechnology systems to a broad spectrum ofcustomers. Healthcare, defence, informationmanagement and IT security are just a few ofthe division’s areas of expertise. Employing28,000 skilled professionals across the US,IS&GS has an international customer baseranging from governments to individualhospitals and companies of every type and size.

MiSSiLeS and fire controLAvionics, sensors, weapons and controlsystems are all a vital part of modern defencecapabilities, all of which are at the core ofLockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Control(MFC). The division develops, manufacturesand supports advanced combat, missile,rocket, manned and unmanned systems for allof the US armed forces and NASA, as well ofthe militaries of over 50 countries worldwide.

MiSSion SySteMSandtraininGLockheedMartinMission Systems and Training(MST) provides engineering, softwaredevelopment, complex programmanagement,supply chain solutions and logistics, and trainingand simulation technologies for defence, security,civil and commercial customers. Applicationsrange from transport customers such as railways,through to the command and control systems forthe latest US Coastguard vessels.Withmore than

18,000 employees across the globe,MST deliversa wide range of technologies to assistorganisations in completing their missions and intraining their personnel.

Space SySteMSThe Space Systems division of LockheedMartin designs, develops, tests, manufacturesand operates an incredibly wide range ofadvanced-technology systems; includinghuman space flight, global communicationssystems, commercial space, sensing andexploration systems, missile defence systems,strategic missiles, commercial launchsystems, surveillance and navigation systemsand special programmes. Their major centresare based in Denver, Colorado and where it allbegan, in Sunnyvale, California.

Lockheed MartinGLobaL inc.A wholly owned subsidiary of theLockheed Martin Corporation, LockheedMartin Global Inc (LMGI) has beenresponsible for delivering and supporting theproducts of its parent corporation worldwidesince it was formed in 1975. The LockheedMartin International organization isheadquartered in both London andWashington, D.C., but also has offices acrossthe globe. Aside from supporting militaryand commercial customers, the companyalso seeks to develop partnerships withglobal industries and customers, enablingLockheed Martin to deliver solutions whichspecifically meet their needs.■ Words: Tim Callaway

The original Lockheed Aircraft Corporation bears little resemblance to the multi faceted company oftoday, which has diversified into every element of modern aviation and defence and beyond.

The Interface Region Imaging Spectograph(IRIS) satellite at Lockheed Martin SpaceSystems Company in Sunnyvale, California.Scientists will use IRIS to study energy andplasma movement near the sun’s surface.Lockheed Martin

Sectors of successThe modern Lockheed Martin – an overview

Lockheed Martin Aeronautics builds longlived aircraft.The C-130J Hercules, this one anMC-130J Commando II, is still in productionover 50 years after it began, and the C-5MGalaxy, the latest upgrade to the giantairlifter, will see it remain in service for over 70years in total. Lockheed Martin

The NexGen Cyber Innovation andTechnology Center is a world-class centre forcyber research and development, customerand partner collaboration and innovation. Itis the latest addition to Lockheed Martin’sportfolio of research, development, andtesting facilities. Lockheed Martin

The Full Mission Simulator (FMS) for the F-35Lightning II includes a high-fidelity 360ºvisual display system and a reconfigurablecockpit that simulates all three aircraftvariants for US and international partnerservices. Lockheed Martin

the X-55 advancedcompoSite cargo aircraftIn the mid-1990s, the Air Force ResearchLaboratory (AFRL) began investigating theuse of composite materials in large airframestructures for three main reasons. Firstly,many composite materials are now strongerthan their metal equivalents.

Secondly, weight reductions meana composite airframe can carry morepayload, making it more efficient. Lastly,composite structures do not suffer fromfatiguing or corrosion in the same way asmetal alloys, increasing the useful life of theaircraft. The AFRL began the CompositesAffordability Initiative (CAI) to evaluate theproblems of building large compositestructures on an industrial scale. Newmethods of working would have to bedeveloped, an undertaking not without riskor cost. This 10-year investigation resulted inthe Advanced Composite Cargo Aircraft(ACCA) project.

This project was aimed at rapidlyproducing a test aircraft for the minimum costand risk. The X-55, as it is now known, madeits first flight only 25 months after the projectbegan in April 2007. The Skunk Works basedthe X-55 on a Dornier Do 328 twin jet regionalairliner. The wing, cockpit, undercarriage andtailplane were retained, but the entire fuselageand fin were replaced.

New techniques of building largecomposite structures were explored, such asthe low temperature curing of bondedcomponents that did not require the largehigh temperature autoclaves requiredby earlier bonding methods. The newfuselage was built in two halves, upper andlower, which were joined by the use of

Quiet SuperSonictranSport(QSSt)The Defence Advanced Research ProjectsAgency (DARPA) began experiments with amodified F-5 Tiger II in August 2003. This wasthe Shaped Sonic Boom Demonstrator(SSBD), part of the Quiet Supersonic Platformprogramme of 2001. This was a successfulattempt to reduce supersonic shock waves or‘booms’ at ground level by shaping the aircraftproducing them.

Since then, the Skunk Works has produceda number of design studies for a QuietSupersonic Transport (QSST). Most recently,in April 2010, Lockheed Martin presented anumber of concepts to NASA’s AeronauticsResearch Mission Directorate in response toits advanced aircraft study, aimed atproducing such an aircraft between 2030 and2035. ■ Words: Tim Callaway

Although Lockheed has not produced a new transport aircraft since the C-5 and an airliner since theTriStar, the future development of these aircraft continues to be explored by the company.

Transports of delightTransports of delightThe future, the X-55 and the quiet SST

The X-55 first flew at Palmdale on June 2, 2009,the 87 minute flight testing the control and

handling of the new aircraft. Lockheed Martin

adhesives and overlays of composite to createa strong seam. The structural and laboursavings were immediately evident, the newfuselage had only 300 parts, instead of the3000 in the original, and the number offasteners was reduced to 10% of what hadbeen required.

On June 2, 2009, Lockheed Martintest pilots Rob Rowe and Joe Biviano madethe X-55’s first flight at Palmdale. Since then,Lockheed Martin, NASA and the AFRLhave been jointly working to develop theX-55 into a testbed for new technologies,such as energy efficiency and advancedaerodynamics, as well as composite structureperformance. The X-55 has already provedthat aircraft development and manufacturingcosts can be significantly reduced, and iscontinuing to demonstrate that its efficiencyreduces operating costs as well.

The quiet supersonic transport conceptfrom Lockheed Martin, one of thedesigns presented to NASA in 2010.Theadvanced design and technologies areaimed at reducing the impact of sonicbooms at ground level and emissions,as well as producing a long range andefficient aircraft. Lockheed Martin


lockHeeD MQM-105 AQuilAIn 1972, the Advanced Research ProjectsAgency (DARPA) began a project to develop abattlefield drone for the US Army. Lockheedwon the contract in 1975, with flight trialsstarting in December. The success of theseled to a US Army order in 1979 for 22 MQM-105s, tests beginning in December 1983.Lockheed funded the modifications requiredby the tests, the second trials being conductedbetween February and May 1986. The USArmy requested the system be approved forfull production, but the Department ofDefence cancelled the programme in 1987due to budget limitations.

RQ-3A DARkSTARAn advanced project to produce a completelyautonomous, high altitude, long endurancereconnaissance UAV was begun in the early1990s. Intended as a stealth aircraft from theoutset, it was to be able to operate indefended airspace. The thin forwardfuselage blended into the 69ft (21.3m) span,straight wing mounted at the rear of theaircraft, the jet exhaust shielded from theground to prevent infrared detection. Theprototype RQ-3 first flew on March 29, 1996,followed by the first of three of the improvedRQ-3A versions on June 29, 1998. Budgetlimitations caused the cancellation of theproject in 1999, the three aircraft beingdonated to museums in December.

DeSeRT HAwkThe Desert Hawk is a small, 52in (1.32m)span aircraft, launched by a bungee cord andmade of a toughened form of styrofoam. Thecontract to produce this Force ProtectionAirborne Surveillance System (FPASS) wassigned in February 2002, the first two aircraftbeing delivered in July. Powered by a smallelectric motor, the Desert Hawk is extremelyquiet and can carry a 1lb (0.45kg) payloadfor up to an hour. Pre-programmed beforelaunch, the operator can monitor the sensorsand change the aircraft’s flight profile via alaptop based ground station and a remotevideo terminal. The latest version, the DesertHawk III, features modular sensor payloads,and can carry colour or low light black andwhite video cameras, an infrared imager, asignals intelligence sensor or a new 360ºinfrared or video camera. Desert Hawks arecurrently used by both the US and Britishforces in Afghanistan.

FAlcon HTV-2Two HTV-2s were built and flown as part ofDARPA’s Hypersonic Cruise Vehicleprogramme, which began in 2003, HTVstanding for Hypersonic Technology Vehicle.The first flight took place on April 22, 2010,launched by a Minotaur IV rocket fromVandenburg Air Force Base. The HTV-2 flew at

speeds between Mach 20 and Mach 10 fornearly 10 minutes, before the flight wasterminated by the onboard safety systems. Thesecond aircraft flew on August 11, 2011, andagain the flight was terminated early. However,DARPA was able to gather a rich harvest ofhypersonic and aerodynamic data, so a plannedthird flight was deemed unnecessary.

PTDS /TARSTethered balloons, or aerostats as they aremore properly known, have been a used forobservation and reconnaissance since thedawn of aviation. Lockheed Martin offer arange of aerostats, from 8000 to 660,000cu ft(226 to 18,690cu m) in size. Two systems arecurrently in daily use. The US Air Forceoperates the Tethered Aerostat Radar System(TARS) 420K models equipped with theLockheed Martin L-88 radar, along thesouthern border of the United States. The USArmy has purchased over 60 of the 74KPersistent Threat Detection System (PTDS)since 2004. These can carry a wide variety ofsensors, providing long duration surveillance,and act as communications relays inmountainous terrain and collect data fromother ground and airborne sensor systems.Based on a truck mounted platform, thePTDS has been successfully used in both Iraqand Afghanistan.

UNMANNEDSySTEMSThe eyes in the skyLockheed Martin has produced a wide range of UnmannedAerial Vehicles, from complex long endurance systems toman-portable local reconnaissance aircraft.

The Lockheed MQM-105 Aquilawas extensively and successfullytested by the US Army. Lockheed

The futuristic Lockheed Martin RQ-3ADarkStar was eventually cancelled in 1999.Lockheed Martin

The Lockheed Martin Desert Hawk, seen herewithout its sensor payload, is in service withthe US and British forces. Lockheed Martin

An artists impression of the hypersonic HTV-2Falcon,built largely of titanium and compositesfor heat protection.Lockheed Martin

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HigHaltitUde aiRSHiP / Hale-dThe High Altitude Airship (HAA) concept firstproposed in 2008 is intended to provide thelong duration reconnaissance, communicationsand surveillance capabilities of a satellite at afraction of the cost. Fully autonomous, the HAAwill launch itself, take up a pre-programmedgeo-stationary position above the jet streamwinds and recover itself after anything up to amonth. To demonstrate this technology,Lockheed Martin built the High Altitude LongEndurance Demonstrator (HALE-D) for the USArmy, launched on July 27, 2011. This is fittedwith solar power arrays to provide electricalpower and is intended for operations up to60,000ft. HALE-D is intended as the first step inthe development of much larger craft.

indagoThe Indago is a small, quiet, four rotor, verticaltake off and landing UAV capable of carryingelectro optical or infrared sensors. Only 32in(0.8m) across, the aircraft can be quickly foldedfor carriage in a protective case. Controlled by asmall, wireless pad, the operator can use theIndago in situations where a fixed wing UAVwould be impossible, such as to monitor a largecrowd in a city street. Intended for both militaryand civil applications, the Indago has a durationof up to 45 minutes.

k-MaX UaSDeveloped jointly by Lockheed Martin andKaman from their K-Max twin intermeshingrotor heavy lift helicopter, the K-MaxUnmanned Aircraft System (UAS) is abattlefield cargo and resupply aircraft now inuse by the US Marine Corps. The helicoptercan deliver payloads to multiple destinations,and allows operations at night and into hostileareas without risk to life. Initially demonstratedin 2008, two aircraft were ordered by the USNavy in December 2010. These have been usedin Afghanistan for cargo flights for the USMarine Corps since November 2011. Longrange tanks have now been fitted, extendingthe range of the K-Max UAS which can lift upto 4500lb (2040kg) of cargo per sortie. Over30,000 hours of flying on more then 1000missions have delivered over three millionpounds (1,360,777kg) of supplies. In March2013, the US Marine Corps extended theirintended use of the system indefinitely. OnJune 5, one K-Max UAS crashed, operationsbeing suspended until August, while the causewas determined. The second aircraft has sincereturned to regular supply missions.

StalkeR / StalkeR XeDeveloped in 2006, the Stalker is a small UASwith a wingspan of 10ft (3.05m). Initiallypowered by batteries which gave it anendurance of two hours, the Stalker hassince been upgraded with a propane fuel cellwhich increases that to eight hours. TheStalker XE has since been developed with alarger cell, which extends the endurance to13 hours. Most recently, a Stalker was usedto demonstrate the ability to power theaircraft via a laser in both a 48 hour windtunnel test then field trials in July 2012. Thesensor package of either day or low lightcameras or an infrared imager can beremoved and replaced with a droppablepayload of up to 3lb (1.36kg). Spare batteries,rations or ammunition can therefore besilently delivered to deployed US SpecialForces personnel, who have been using theStalker since 2006.

One of the US Army’s PTDS aerostats on itstruck launch and recovery system.Lockheed Martin

The Lockheed Martin High Altitude LongEndurance Demonstrator (HALE-D) for theUS Army, seen here on July 27, 2011.Lockheed Martin

The Lockheed Martin Indago is a small verticaltake off and landing UAV. Lockheed Martin

The K-Max UAS has been a reliable workhorsefor the US Marine Corps in Afghanistan,averaging six missions a day.Lockheed Martin

The Lockheed Martin Stalker UAS has been inservice with US Special Forces since 2006.Lockheed Martin

P-175 PolecatThe Lockheed Martin P-175 Polecat UAV was a privately funded UAV and stealth technologydemonstrator developed in 2005 and unveiled in 2006. The 90ft (27.44m) wingspan UAV waspowered by a pair of Williams FJ44 turbofans. The sole prototype crashed on December 18,2006, when the automatic fail safe system terminated the flight.

RQ-170 SentinelOfficially announced by the USAF on December 4, 2009, the Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinelis a low observable or stealth UAS operated by the 30th Reconnaissance Squadron at Tonopah inNevada. No official images have yet been released. ■ Tim Callaway

The Lockheed Martin P-175 Polecat UAV seen in flight in 2006. Lockheed Martin

122 in aSSOCiaTiOn WiTH: LOCKHeed MaRTin – We neVeR FORgeT WHO We aRe WORKing FOR

A s has already been seen,Lockheed Martin is exploringand proving new technologies todevelop both military airliftersand civil airliners. On top of

these, there are a number of projects andexperimental aircraft which are leading toinnovations in aircraft structures, two ofwhich are based on a concept from the dawnof manned flight, the airship.

HybrId AIrSHIpIn 1990, the Skunk Works began investigatingthe use of helium airships for commercialfreight, filling the gap between the fast butcostly air freighter and the cheap but slowsurface vessel. In 1999 these studies resultedin the AeroCraft, a hybrid airship thatcombined the lifting force of the helium thatfilled it with aerodynamic lift created by itsshape. In order to fly, the shaped airshipneeds about 12kts (22kph) of airflow over theenvelope. Control is provided by thrusters,moveable engine and propeller combinations,as well as the more usual rudders andelevators. This gives the pilot much greatercontrol and means the hybrid airship does nothave to land into wind like the early airships,and can operate with a minimum of groundcrew. Operability is enhanced by the AirCushion Landing System (ACLS). Fourhovercraft pads with an inner and outer ringallow the airship to land on water or

unprepared surfaces. On the ground, theairflow in the inner ring is reversed, forming alow pressure ‘suction cup’ that prevents theairship from being moved by any wind. A 123ft(37.5m) long demonstrator called the P-791was built in 2005, making its first flight onJanuary 31, 2006 in the hands of Lockheedtest pilot Eric Hansen. The airship is made ofVectran, similar to Kevlar, with all the systemson the outside of the envelope, which is builtwith three lobes containing two ballonets tomaintain the internal pressure. The fourthrusters give the P-791 a maximum speed ofabout 30kts (55.5kph), flight trials showingthe craft to be reliable and adaptable. AviationCapital Enterprises of Canada teamed with

Lockheed Martin in 2011 to develop threeheavy lift hybrid airships. These are the 290ft(88.3m) SkyTug and the 400ft (122m)SkyFreighter capable of lifting 70 tons ofcargo, both of these being powered by dieselengines. Lastly, the 800ft (244m) SkyLiner isintended to carry 500 tons of cargo and will bepowered by six turboprops.

ISIS projectIn 2004, the Defence Advanced ResearchProjects Agency (DARPA) began a project todevelop an astounding system, known as theIntegrated Sensor Is Structure (ISIS). At themoment, keeping track of air and groundthreats takes a variety of manned and

Given that Lockheed Martin has traditionally walked at the very cutting edge of aviation technology,it is no surprise some of its future projects continue to do so. What is more surprising is two newdevelopments take the company back to the very beginnings of aviation.

Leadinginto the future

The story continues, and this is almost where we came in.

The P-791 hybrid airship demonstrator made its first flight on January 31, 2006. Lockheed Martin

The Transformerconcept includes bothVTOL air lift elementand cargo,personnelor medical pods...Lockheed Martin

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unmanned systems, as well ascommunications and informationmanagement systems to handle the data. Touse these systems effectively, supportpersonnel also need to be deployed, alongwith their necessary equipment andinfrastructure. ISIS is aimed at producing asingle, vast sensor array that can cover a hugearea in detail, replacing the need for manyexisting systems and requiring no localsupport facilities or personnel. Based on ahelium filled airship, this is intended to stayon station for between three and 12 years, asolar power array on the upper surfaces of thevehicle and hydrogen cell technologyproviding power to the radar and the airshipssystems and engines. ISIS will take up a geo-stationary position at 70,000ft (21,336m), andfrom there will track airborne targets up to372 miles (600km) and ground targets up to186 miles (300km) from the vehicle. Raytheonis developing the radar with Lockheed Martinbuilding the airship and managing thesystems integration. DARPA issued a contractto both companies in April 2009 to develop aone third scale version of both the vehicle andthe radar, to be followed by full scale versionsas the project continues. The demonstrationISIS is a 450ft (137m) long airship with amassive 6460sq ft (600sq m) low powerphased array radar forming part of thestructure in the centre of the vehicle. Theenvelope is made of a composite laminatecalled Dyneema SK78, which is also used inthe sails of racing yachts, and the ship isbeing assembled in the historic airship dockat Akron in Ohio.

X-56aFlutter is a condition that has plagued aircraftdesigners from the beginning of flight. Anyflexibility in a structure, especially a wing, canresult in uncontrollable vibrations, a result ofthe action of the airflow over the wing couplingwith the motion of the structure. Turbulence orgusts also represent a hazard to lightweightstructures; the resultant forces can be ofsufficient strength to destroy them. Wingshave traditionally been made stiff enough toprevent flutter, but this has a penalty inincreasing the weight of the airframe. Theability to build lightweight ‘aeroelastic’structures requires an active control responsesystem that allows the control surfaces toimmediately respond to, and therefore nullifythese forces. This would enable lighter andmore efficient airframes to be constructed, withthe obvious benefits in payload and range. Toinvestigate these possibilities, LockheedMartin’s SkunkWorks has developed the X-56A. The tailless swept wing aircraft has a 28ft(8.53m) wingspan and is powered by two 52lb(23.58kg) thrust JetCat P200-SX turbineengines which give the X-56A a maximumspeed of 150kts (278kph). The aim is to test acontrol system that detects the onset of flutterthrough accelerometers built into the structure.These then send commands to the flightcontrols that damp out the vibrations, a systemthat also works in countering gusts orturbulence. The initial flights were conducted byLockheedMartin, the first taking place on July26, 2013. These will be followed by flights for theUS Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL)before the aircraft is taken over by NASA.

TransformerRecent conflicts have highlighted the need tomove troops, supplies and vehicles rapidly indifficult terrain where threats exist on roadsor other conventional transport routes. Toaddress this, DARPA has begun theTransformer programme, aimed atproducing a high speed, vertical take off andlanding (VTOL) delivery system. Initiallyintended to produce an air and groundvehicle that could carry four personnel byroad or by air, the project has been redefinedto develop a common compact lift and flightelement able to carry different payloadmodules for use in a variety of missions.These modules can be cargo or medicalpods, a ground vehicle, a troop carrier or anarmed scout with reconnaissance and strikecapabilities. Using rotating ducted fans, thevehicle will be faster than a helicopter andrequire smaller landing areas, as well asbeing safer to operate. The liftingelement of the system is to be able to flyautomatically to deliver its pod orvehicle to where they are needed andthen return to base. The small size of thesystem was originally dictated by the need tobe able to drive the vehicle element on a onelane road, but this also means it can fitinto a C-130. To develop the system, theSkunk Works teamed with the PiaseckiAircraft Corporation and Ricardo, Inc in2010, winning a contract for the third phaseof the design project in 2012. After anassessment, the decision to go ahead with aprototype will be made with a view to flying itin 2015. ■ Words:Tim Callaway

…or ground vehicles... Lockheed Martin

…or a reconnaissance or strike module.Lockheed Martin

An artists impression of ISIS in its high altitude geo-stationary position. Lockheed Martin

The X-56A in flight over Edwards Air Force Base. Lockheed Martin

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T he major difficulty in producingthis issue of Aviation Classics hasbeen not what to put in, but whatto leave out. This section is a casein point, if I were to list all of the

surviving Lockheed Martin aircraft on displayaround the world, then the list wouldcomfortably fill every page. We will be doingan individual issue on many of the aircraftfeatured in these pages, and will include a fulllist of the survivors of each type in those.What I have chosen to do in this issue is to puttogether a scrapbook of some of the rarer andmore interesting types in flight or on display,to give you a feel for what is out there. All ofthe photographs in this section were capturedby Constance Redgrave on her travels aroundmany of the museums of Europe and theUnited States, with a few exceptions as notedin the captions. ■Words: Tim Callaway

T

SurvivorsLockheed Martin aircraft on display

The scope of Lockheed Martin’saeronautical activities coversalmost the entire history ofaviation. In this time they haveproduced ground-breaking andremarkable aircraft, many ofwhich are still on display orflying today.

The Lockheed Vega 5B in the San Diego Airand Space Museum.Constance Redgrave

The Houston Wing of the Commemorative Air Force still fly this LockheedC-60 Lodestar,maintained in immaculate condition. Luigino Caliaro

An immaculately restored Lockheed PV-2 Harpoon named ‘The Battling BurbankTwins’ at the Palm Springs Air Museum inCalifornia.Constance Redgrave A Lockheed P-80A Shooting Star in the US Air Force

Armament Museum at Eglin in Florida.Constance Redgrave

One of 210 Lockheed T-33 Shooting Stars builtunder licence by Kawasaki in Japan, now ondisplay at the Planes of Fame Museum atValle,Arizona.Constance Redgrave

Lockheed Martin 127

A Lockheed T2V-1 Sea Star at thePima Air and Space Museum inArizona.Constance Redgrave

A Lockheed F-94C Starfire at the Pima Air andSpace Museum in Arizona.Constance Redgrave

Lockheed Martin keep a numberof historic airframes at their facilityat Marietta in Georgia, includingthe JetStar with the original slippertanks.Constance Redgrave

One of the first three VC-121As, 48-614, named Columbine and used byGeneral Eisenhower. Photographedon display at the Pima Air and SpaceMuseum.Constance Redgrave

VC-121A, 48-613, named Bataan andused by General MacArthur is on displayat the Planes of Fame Museum at Vallein Arizona.Constance Redgrave

This Lockheed L-1049 SuperConstellation is operated by theSuper Constellation Flyers Association,sponsored by Breitling and based atBasel in Switzerland. Luigino Caliaro

This ex-TWA Lockheed L-049 Constellationis on display at the Pima Air and SpaceMuseum in Arizona.Constance Redgrave

In the gate area at Hurlburt Air Force Base, Florida, is a collection of superbly preservedaircraft.These include two Lockheed C-130 Hercules, a rare AC-130A gunship with threebladed propellers, named ‘The Ultimate End’, and an even rarer MC-130E CombatTalon I with the Fulton STAR equipment mounted on the nose.Constance Redgrave

A Lockheed AC-130E Spectre at theUS Air Force Armament Museum atEglin in Florida.Constance Redgrave

The Lockheed SR-71A on display at the March Field Air Museum inCalifornia is complemented by a D-21 drone.Constance Redgrave


This Lockheed S-3B Viking is preserved atthe Lockheed Martin facility at Mariettain Georgia.Constance Redgrave

An ex-Luftwaffe Lockheed F-104G Starfighterat the Musee de l’Air at Le Bourget on theoutskirts of Paris.Constance Redgrave

A hidden treasure at Battleship Park inMobile,Alabama, is this Lockheed A-12, the original single seat version ofthe Blackbird.Constance Redgrave

The National Museum of Naval Aviation atPensacola, Florida has some superblyrestored aircraft, including this mirror likeLockheed TV-2.Constance Redgrave

The Lockheed F-104C Starfighter named‘Smoke II’ is on display at the March Field AirMuseum in California.Constance Redgrave

Awaiting restoration in the parking areabehind the National Museum of NavalAviation at Pensacola, Florida, is thisLockheed P-3C Orion.Constance Redgrave

Retired Lockheed Neptunes found manynew roles, including that of fire bomberwith an extended bomb bay, such as onthis aircraft now on display in the PimaAir Museum.Constance Redgrave

Lockheed P2V-1, 89082,“The Truculent Turtle” in the superb NationalMuseum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida.Constance Redgrave

A Lockheed C-141B StarLifter atthe March Field Air Museum inCalifornia.Constance Redgrave

Next to a lake halfway between Brewtonand Evergreen in Alabama, sits thisLockheed T-33 Shooting Star,wellpreserved and obviously looked after.Anyone know why? Constance Redgrave

This Lockheed S-3B Viking was theaircraft that brought President GeorgeW Bush aboard the USS AbrahamLincoln.Constance Redgrave

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The next issue of Aviation Classics recounts the history ofone of the most important transport aircraft of all time, anaircraft Winston Churchill described as one of theweapons that won the war. Starting life as an airliner in1935, the DC-3 was to find fame as a cargo and trooptransport and as a glider tug throughout the Second WorldWar as the C-47 and C-53. Postwar, the surplus aircraftwere to form the backbone of the airline industry for manyyears, in fact, a census of airlines in 1972 showed the DC-3 and its derivatives to still be the most numerous type inservice.The transport also continued in military servicethroughout the world, serving on the Berlin Airlift amongother major operations. Later, it was to be modified into awide variety of roles, including as one of the first gunshipsduring the VietnamWar, the last not being retired fromtraining and other secondary operations until the 1980s.

Interestingly no one man can be said to beresponsible for the design of the DC-3, derived as it wasfrom the earlier DC-1 of 1933 and DC-2 of 1934.The listof the great names directly involved with the programmereads like a who’s who of aviation engineering.The firsttwo aircraft were designed under the leadership of thenDouglas chief designer James“Dutch” Kindelberger and

his assistant chief designer Arthur E Raymond. However,the multispar and multicellular wing was a product of thefertile mind of John Knudsen ‘Jack’ Northrop, who inJanuary 1932 had formed the Northrop Corporation as awholly owned Douglas subsidiary. The requirement forthe family of aircraft were prompted at the insistence ofJack Frye of TWA.

The story continued with the development of the twoearlier aircraft into the DC-3, led by Arthur Raymond whohad become chief designer.The layout of the new widerfuselage and slimmer wing was designed by Ed Burton,while the stress analysis of the new aircraft was providedby Lee Atwood, who would later find fame with the P-51, F-100, X-15 and Apollo programmes. None of this successwould have been possible without George Mead and theteam at Pratt and Whitney, who developed their Waspengine into one of the most efficient and reliable aeroengines of all time, the R-1830 Twin Wasp two-row 14cylinder radial.

On December 17, 1935, Carl Cover, Ed Stineman andFrank Collbohm took the prototype of what was called theDouglas Sleeper Transport into the air for the first timeand a legend was born.

The DouglasDC-3/C-47 DakotaDC-3/C-47 Dakot

Originally built as a DouglasC-53D Skytrooper and

delivered to the USAAF as42-68823 in 1943, this aircraft

is now registered LN-WND andkept flying by the Dakota

Norway association. Editor

Documents

Aviation Classics September 2013