automotive spark ignition - Autelligence · 2017-05-16 · tel: +44 1280 455 705 e-mail: [email protected] web: Automotive Spark Ignition Engines: Trends and Emerging Technologies

tel: +44 1280 455 705

e-mail: [email protected]

web: www.autelligence.com

Automotive Spark IgnitionEngines: Trends and Emerging

Technologies

By Bruce Morey

Autelligence Copyright© 2014 Autelligence Limited. All rights reserved. Neither this publication nor any part of it may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording orotherwise, without the prior permission of Autelligence Limited.

The authors of Autelligence Limited Research Reports are drawn from a wide range of professional and academicdisciplines. All the information in the reports is verified to the best of the authors’ and the publisher’s ability, but neithercan accept responsibility for loss arising from decisions based on these reports.

© Autelligence Limited 2014 Automotive Spark Ignition Engines

Table of Contents

Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Chapter 2 Market - Drivers and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Fuel Economy as a Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Fuel, Engines, and System Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Practical implications - mandates and test cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Fuels and alternative fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Customer Desires -- Fuel Efficiency in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

A Note About Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Chapter 3 Gasoline SI engines Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

ICE Engines are inherently inefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Direct Drive and Variable Engine Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Pollution Control in the Engine vs. Fuel Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Fuel and Knock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Gasoline SI Engines for Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Chapter 4 Boosting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Superchargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Exhaust Gas Turbochargers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Business and Market Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Chapter 5 Engine Technology Advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Gasoline Direct Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Fuel Injectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Lean Burn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Variable Event Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

SI Gasoline Valve Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Phasing, Timing, and Lift Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Camless Actuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Displacement on Demand by Deactivating Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Miller and Atkinson cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Advances in Spark plugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Engine Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Variable compression ratio engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Chapter 6 Alternative Engine Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Opposed Piston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Split-Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Chapter 7 Fuel Efficiency in ICE - Context and Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Past Developments Redirected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Specific Technologies, Estimated Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

1

Table of Contents


Chapter 8 Major OEM Engine Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Daimler/Mercedes Benz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

General Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Ford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Chrysler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Honda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Toyota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Hyundai/Kia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Mazda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Nissan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Volkswagen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

BMW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

HEDGE and SwRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

The Future Beyond 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Chapter 9 Gasoline SI Engine Component Suppliers Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Aisin Seiki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Benteler Automotive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

BorgWarner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Delphi Automotive LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

Denso International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

KSPG AG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Linamar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Mahle Engine Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Mitsubishi Electric Corp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

Nemak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

NGK Spark Plug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

Robert Bosch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

Schaeffler AG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84

TRW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86

Valeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

APPENDIX A Select Data from National Research Council of the National Acadamies report . . . . . . . . . .90

Table of figures

Figure 2.1: Fuel economy targets, normalized to US CAFE test cycles by the International Council on Clean

Transportation (ICCT)

Figure 2.2: Normalized standards for various regulatory fuel economy requirements and CO2 emissions

world, as developed by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) (ibid)

Figure 2.3: European Union initial limit curve governing 130 g/km CO2 emissions regulations.

Figure 2.4: Listing and timing of important worldwide criteria and GHG emissions regulations.

Figure 2.5: Cars are tested using fixed dynamometers on specific schedules on rolling, or chassis,

dynamometers. Their emissions are measured over the cycles.

Figure 2.6: Examples of dynamometer-based test cycles used to perform emissions tests

Figure 2.7: The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) combines an urban simulation repeated four times

followed by a “highway” section, a test cycle previously defined as the EUDC.

Figure 2.8: Proposed worldwide, harmonized test cycle as of 2013.

2

Table of Contents


Figure 2.9: Data from BP shows a steady rise in technically recoverable oil since 1980

Figure 2.10: The U. S. Energy Information Agency (EIA) reference case projects relatively stable gasoline

prices, inflation adjusted, in its 2013 Short Term Energy Outlook.

Figure 2.11: Fuel economy concerns reflect the local price of gasoline, here shown worldwide as of 2010.

Figure 2.12: Fuel economy is most often measured as L/100 km, however the European Union is

increasingly using g/km CO2 as a unit of fuel economy.

Figure 3.1: Data from the U. S. Department of Energy shows that engine losses eat up most energy from

fuel, illustrating why making more efficient engines is so important

Figure 3.2: Knock is ignition ahead of the smooth flame front. Excessive knock can damage pistons and

reduce life of components.

Figure 3.3: A typical gasoline SI ICE will have a fuel efficiency that varies with load (torque) and speed in

RPM, as shown in this cartoon of a performance map.

Figure 4.1: The Twin Vortex Series from Eaton includes an four lobe rotor design with an advanced

manufacturing process that reduces NVH over previous generations.

Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of how exhaust gas turbochargers work, with a cartoon of the

turbine/compressor device

Figure 4.3: This notional diagram illustrates the general characteristics of turbos based on their physical

size.

Figure 4.4: A BorgWarner regulated 2-stage turbocharger uses two different sizes of turbines and

compressors to combine the best of both small and large turbos, through a sophisticated control system.

Figure 4.5: Using vanes in a variable geometry turbo, Bosch Mahle regulates boost pressure to prevent

overcharging the engine at higher engine speeds in its design of turbos used in Volkswagen gasoline and

diesel engines

Figure 4.6: Turbocharger manufacturers have available a variety of proven designs to improve low-end

response, lag, and increase peak power, but through increased complexity of the designs.

Figure 5.1: This is a picture of the Ford EcoBoost Gasoline Direct Injection system. Combustion chamber

design.

Figure 5.2: The new(left) and old(right) piston crowns of the General Motor’s Gen5 V8 shows the

considerable amount of engineering required to adapt an engine for GDI.

Figure 5.3: Cutaway of a typical solenoid fuel injector and how it operates.

Figure 5.4: By mapping the physical lift and timing of each valve over the two rotations of a crankshaft,

engineers have developed a convenient way of understanding and communicating more complex forms of

modifying valve lift and timing

Figure 5.:5 Adjusting the valve lift diagram by shifting (advancing or retarding), or phasing, the timing of

intake or exhaust or both is one of the simplest methods to accomplish a level of variable valve timing.

Figure 5.6: Another variation on variable valve timing is to switch the profiles of the cams entirely to

maximize a given quantity

Figure 5.7: Notional view of how Honda’s VTEC system switches between two, and only two, discrete

intake valve profiles for an engine with two intake valves.

Figure 5.8: Continuously variable valve lift mechanisms are used to optimize matching the load to the

right intake requirements.

Figure 5.9: A form of DVVL, the Fiat MultiAir, controls air through the intake valves instead of the

throttle, with 5 specific modes

Figure 5.10: The ideal cycle for engine operation is shown in this diagram, with a V8 using only half its

cylinders in cruise mode

Figure 5.11: New ACIS ignition system from Federal Mogul shows that advances in ignition systems may be

required to achieve advanced combustion schemes, such as stratified charge and high levels of cooled

EGR.

3

Table of Contents


Figure 5.12: Computer controls provide engine makers with unprecedented ability to deliver efficient

engines. Various OEMs use different sensor and logic configurations to gain an edge.

Figure 6.1: Pinnacle Engines opposed piston, valve sleeve engine is an example of how technology from

the past is being updated to enhance fuel efficiency.

Figure 6.2: The Scuderi split-cycle concept uses twice as many cylinders in a 2-stroke cycle, separating the

compression stroke in a separate cylinder from the power stroke.

Figure 7.1: Average new passenger light duty vehicle tested fuel economy by country and region.

Figure 7.2: 2013 vehicles that meet future CO2 targets, by projected sales, according to USA EPA figures.

Figure 7.3: Adjusted fuel economy trends in the USA fleet reflects both rising fuel prices and future

uncertainty about those prices.

Fig 7.4: Using data from the 2011 publication ‘Assessment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light-duty

Vehicles’, NRC of the National Acadamies, 2011 (NRC Report)

Figure 7.5: Certain technologies that the USA EPA track are improving in their penetration rates since

2007. Displacement-on-Demand and Boosting still remains low.

Figure 7.6: To put foreseeable ICE engine-only improvements in context, the 2011 NRC Report also

estimated costs for other technologies that could improve fuel economy, such as light-duty diesel and

hybrid electric vehicles.

Figure 7.7: The Compound Challenge states that as costs rise non-linearly to achieve better fuel economy,

the long term savings from reduced fuel purchases decreases.

Figure 8.1: Mercedes-Benz A-Class, drive system, gasoline engines, CAMTRONIC valve lift adjustment

device, a form of profile switching between two discrete cam profiles

Figure 8.2: Active Fuel Management enables many of the V8 engines in GMC Sierra pickups and Yukon

SUVs to behave like a 4 cylinder engine when cruising under light load

Figure 8.3: Mazda’s 4-2-1 exhaust system reduces the effect of backpressure of exhaust through the

exhaust manifold.

Figure 8.4: The two gasoline engine architectures that VW will use as a basis for all worldwide gasoline

powered cars. These plus a third diesel engine will comprise 95% of all engine sales in the future.

Figure 8.5: The new BWM efficient dynamics engine family is planned around high levels of commonality

between and within diesel and gasoline engines.

Figure 8.6: SwRI’s D-EGR concept dedicates one cylinder of a GTDI engine to creating Syngas. (SwRI)

List of tables

Table 5.1: Representative list of VCR technologies.

Table 6.1: Opposed Piston Start-ups

Table 6.2: Prominent Split-Cycle engine startups

Table 6.3: Example of miscellaneous, inventive engine designs.

Table 7.1: This table shows that the OECD countries are taking fuel economy improvement quite seriously,

leading the global average.

Table 8.1: Mercedes Benz M270 engine specifications for as-installed in the A-Class line of vehicles. The

M270 line of engines is intended for A Class, B Class, CLA, and C Class vehicles.

Table 8.2: Highlights of GM’s MY 2014 new SI gasoline engine offerings.

Table 8.3: Ford EcoBoost engines and cars it is offered on.

Table 8.4: Highlights for the near-future Honda VTEC TURBO engines, possibly as early as 2015.

Table 8.5: Hyundai engines and example vehicles

Table 8.6: Summary of most notable of Nissan’s advanced engines and their applications.

Table 8.7: Volkswagen Group’s major gasoline engine and variants for its strategy.

4

Table of Contents


Chapter 2 Market - Drivers and Trends

Regulatory actions reflect popular concern over fuel supplies, global warming, and noxious emissions from

light-duty vehicles. Currently, noxious emissions are regulated in the form of USA Federal Tier-2, State of

California LEV-II, European Union Euro-5, UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) regulations, and

Japanese emissions standards. Other areas of the world tend to model regulatory actions on either

existing USA or EU regulations (typically EU.) For example, Brazil sets emissions limits based on Tier-2

regulations from the USA. The People’s Republic of China uses a combination of Euro-3, -4, and -5 (diesel).

Fuel Economy as a Regulation

The U. S. Congress first enacted that country’s Corporate Average Fuel Economy CAFE in 1975 and

modified it in 2010 for phase-in in 2011. Other countries have or are now putting into place standards, as

shown in Figure 2.1 and 2.2 below. Japan and the European Union (EU) have such standards in place now

Canada, and South Korea in the near future.

China adopted fuel consumption standards in 2004. Their initial standards required each individual vehicle

model comply with fuel consumption regulations prior to entering the market. This contrasts with policies

in the US, the EU, and Canada, which permit auto manufacturers to meet targets by averaging emissions

over their entire fleet of models. Follow-on legislation in the process of phase-in uses a corporate-average

economy standard.

Figure 2. 1 Fuel economy targets, normalized to US CAFE test cycles by the International Council on

Clean Transportation (ICCT)

(http://www.theicct.org/info-tools/global-passenger-vehicle-standards)

Australia has guidelines that are not mandatory. Mexico has proposed fuel efficiency standards that would

align it with the rest of North America, while India, Indonesia, and Thailand are drawing up regulations

during 2013, according to the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT).

7

Chapter 2 Market - Drivers and Trends


Chapter 3 Gasoline SI engines Basics

Engine designers and manufacturers are faced with competing demands. They need to make engines that

make cars responsive, use as little fuel as possible, and spew no more pollutants than regulations require.

They also need to be inexpensive enough to sell in volume. Some of the most important compromises are

discussed in this chapter, setting the stage for decisions automakers are making that are explored in later

chapters. This chapter covers the basics of gasoline SI engines.

ICE Engines are inherently inefficient

Studies show that a gasoline powered car uses only 12 – 15% of the available energy in the fuel to

actually move it. The rest is consumed in overcoming rolling resistance, drivetrain losses, wind resistance,

or engine losses. In fact, most of the fuel’s energy is lost in the engine, primarily as waste heat. Estimates

for engine losses vary anywhere from 60 – 80%, depending on the drive cycle and the engine. That is

why any discussion about improving fuel economy or reducing CO2 emissions must start with the engine

itself, and improving its thermal efficiency. Figure 3.1 shows the relative importance of losses for the USA

EPA combined city/highway driving cycle, using figures from the USA Department of Energy.

Figure 3.1 Data from the U. S. Department of Energy shows that engine losses eat up most energy

from fuel, illustrating why making more efficient engines is so important

Engineers well understand where inefficiencies exist in spark-ignition ICEs. Moving the mass of pistons,

connecting rods, and crankshafts is a parasitic loss that has been attacked for years. The friction of any

moving part rubbing against bearings and cylinder walls is another, countered by ever more effective

lubricants. There is also the considerable loss of the waste heat of the hot exhaust gases, as well as the

energy needed to pump them out of the cylinder before bringing in fresh fuel and air.

One of the major techniques for improving fuel efficiency is increasing the compression ratio, the volume

of the combustion chamber from its largest capacity to its smallest capacity. Higher compression ratios

permit the same combustion temperature to be reached with less fuel, while giving a longer expansion

cycle. This creates more mechanical power output and lowers the exhaust temperature for better efficiency.

17

Chapter 3 Gasoline SI engines Basics


Chapter 5 Engine Technology Advances

Automakers and engineers continue to improve the basic SI gasoline engine, introducing new gadgets for

squeezing more efficiency and power from smaller engines. First, engines that breathe better run better,

the motivation behind various valve train enhancements. These are called Valve Event Modulation (VEM)

in this report. Second, GDI injectors that squirt gasoline directly into the cylinder, rather than mixing air

and fuel first, also improves performance. Finally, turning off cylinders during cruise, sometimes called

Displacement-on-Demand, or Variable Displacement Engines (among other names), helps with fuel

efficiency as well. All of these techniques are employed in various degrees, even as improvement

continues.

More radical advancements are more visionary at this time, such as variable compression ratio, which will

be briefly reviewed along with progress.

Various engine manufacturers and auto OEMs are using a bewildering array of these technologies, singly

and in combination. They often given them unique names in an attempt to brand name their

combinations. The purpose of this chapter is to arm the reader with enough knowledge to understand

the basics of what and why they are doing it, and to project trends for the near term, through 2017 or so.

Gasoline Direct Injection

Gasoline direct injection (GDI) is replacing port fuel injection in many engine architectures. Port fuel

injection (PFI) mixes the air-fuel charge in the intake manifold, sending the mixed charge into the

combustion chamber via the intake valve. GDI injects fuel directly into the combustion chamber, with only

fresh air then sent in through the intake valve.

Figure 5.1 This is a picture of the Ford EcoBoost Gasoline Direct Injection system. Combustionchamber design. critical, as is the design of the fuel injection. This Bosch fuel injector system uses a6 hole injector in a bowl-in-piston design.

(© Ford Motor Company)

27

Chapter 5 Engine Technology Advances


Chapter 6 Alternative EngineArchitectures.

The basic piston, 4-stroke, water cooled, Otto-cycle ICE as outlined in chapter 3 dominates today’s

automotive world. It was the engine used on the first mass produced car, the Ford Model T, and has been

used in most engines ever since. Notable exceptions are the Wankel engine, invented in Germany and

used by Mazda for decades, and the Volkswagen Beetle air-cooled Boxer engine, powering another of the

world’s famous mass produced cars in the mid to late twentieth century.

With the spike in gasoline prices around 2008, there was incentive for a new approach to the basic 4-

stroke Otto spark-ignited engine. Many of these technologies are revisits of existing concepts that were

first proposed in the early 20th century, others are variants on these, while a few others are completely

novel concepts. As discussed in Chapter 3, the reason to revisit the basic architecture is the very poor

thermal efficiency of the basic SI gasoline engine.

Figure 6.1. Pinnacle Engines opposed piston, valve sleeve engine is an example of how technology

from the past is being updated to enhance fuel efficiency.

(© Pinnacle Engines)

There is a general thought that for a radical invention to take hold, it must at least offer outstanding

improvements over the technology it is replacing. In many cases, these novel departures from the basic SI

gasoline architecture offer 20, 30, or even 50% improvements in efficiency, at least according to their owners.

Some prudence is appropriate. There is a tremendous sunk-cost in existing engine factories and supply

chains, repair shops, and engineering expertise and data around the status-quo. The question is, is there

enough of an improvement for major OEM automakers to change from their current development path?

Probably not for an existing OEM.

However, for a brand new car company, such as are emerging in Asia, especially China, there is less

incentive for them to stick with the tried-and-true and no existing investment for them to protect. In

fact, you will see in the data below some instances of this emerging fact.

Another trend that is apparent from some research is that stationary power generators are also more

inclined towards adopting some of these more radical changes to the ICE. These installations may provide

a basis for developing technology that could then migrate into transport uses, but under longer time

considerations.

38

Chapter 6 Alternative Engine Architectures.


Chapter 7 Fuel Efficiency in ICE - Contextand Progress

Illustrating how important fuel economy is in this new era, the fuel economy of new light duty vehicles

has generally improved in recent years. In fact, this is a worldwide phenomenon, starting around 2003 and

accelerating since 2008. Figure 7.1 below shows tested fuel economy in terms of g CO2/km for vehicles

sold in various countries around the world.

Figure 7.1 Average new passenger light duty vehicle tested fuel economy by country and region.

(from International Energy Agency ( IEA’s) Technology Roadmap : Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles, 2012).

The separate figures in dashed lines were from analysis from the Global Fuel Economy Initiative in a study

that covered only two distinct time frames.

Industrialized countries, such as the 34 in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) have tended to do better than those outside the organization.

Table 7.1 This table shows that the OECD countries are taking fuel economy improvement quite

seriously, leading the global average. (Units are average fuel economy in L/100km)

Countries Annual improvement rate 2005 2008 2011

OECD average - 2.4 % 8.1 7.6 7.0

Non-OECD average -0.1% 7.5 7.6 7.5

Global Average -1.8% 8.0 7.6 7.2

Source: International Comparison Of Light-Duty Vehicle Fuel Economy, (Global Fuel Economy Initiative, 2011).

Events to date have made making new cars with better fuel economy look easy. The automakers, with

some models, are already meeting the new, more stringent USA CAFE rules phasing in for 2016. “It is

striking how well the industry is doing in meeting these standards,” said Christopher Grundler, director of

the Office of Transportation and Air Quality (OTAQ) for the USA EPA at the CAR MBS 2013 conference.

43

Chapter 7 Fuel Efficiency in ICE - Context and Progress


Chapter 8 Major OEM Engine Strategies.

The cost of developing a brand new “clean sheet” engine can cost as high as $1 billion, including R&D,

testing, and factory tooling. Even for a very large automotive OEM, this is enough to make decision

makers think carefully about how much development they need to meet customer and regulatory

demands. Committing that much to engine development is a high stakes game. Fully using existing capital

weighs each decision.

The brief summaries of each major OEM’s engine strategy below shows disparity and difference between

them. Some have adopted GTDI as their main strategy while others are less willing. Displacement-on-

demand (DOD) or cylinder deactivation is a major option for some, ignored by others.

OEM management is notoriously reticent to discuss investment strategies, but the reader can surmise that

these differences in technical strategy arise from different views of efficient investment, along with

existing infrastructure and investment. Most likely, different management teams have simply arrived at

different conclusions over technologies that vary in small ways rather than large.

Daimler/Mercedes Benz

Like other automakers, Mercedes Benz is developing and deploying advanced forms of GTDI for better

fuel efficiency. They are touting three technologies in particular:

• An advanced form of GDI under the name BlueDIRECT

• An advanced, rapid multi-spark ignition system.

• A form of profile switching for VCT&L they call CAMTRONIC

BlueDIRECT was available on the company’s V6 and V8 lineups starting in 2010, BlueDIRECT takes advantage

of the ability of high-pressure injectors to time pulses into the cylinder. By changing the pulse duration and

timing as a function of engine speed and load, BlueDIRECT creates one of the most efficient combustion

mode over the speed/load range of the engine, according to Mercedes Benz.

At low loads and speeds, the BlueDIRECT injection pattern results in lean, stratified combustion with the

air/fuel mixture greatly in excess of stoichiometric. At mid-range, the combustion is characterized as

homogenous lean burn.

At higher loads and speeds, the combustion is the typical stoichiometric. (Apparently, Mercedes Benz has

engineered a way for the lean burn with its excess oxygen in the emissions to not adversely affect the

subsequent three-way catalyst.) Piezo-electric injectors and “rapid multi-spark ignition” (MSI) are key

ingredients in BlueDIRECT, according to the company.

The MSI system enables up to four sparks to be discharged in rapid succession within one millisecond,

creating a plasma with a larger spatial expansion, according to the company.

To date, these engines have featured variable valve timing (but not lift control) as well as selective use of

turbocharging on most, but not all, engines. Variable valve timing with discrete variable valve lift is in

the future.

49

Chapter 8 Major OEM Engine Strategies


Chapter 9 Gasoline SI Engine ComponentSuppliers Profiles

Aisin Seiki

Aisin Seiki is a Japanese manufacturer of automotive components in the areas of drivetrain, body, brake

and chassis, engine and information technology-related components. The company was established in

1965 with the merger of two auto parts manufacturing companies, Aichi Kogyo and Shinkawa Kogyo.

Aisin Seiki is a part of the Aisin group, which - apart from Aisin Seiki - has five more core companies and

178 overall. The core companies are:

1. Aisin Takaoka Co: This is Japan’s leading manufacturer of cast automotive parts, Aisin Takaoka

produces steel and stainless steel parts for engines, brakes, etc.

2. Aisin Chemical Co: The company develops and manufactures chemical products such as automotive

coatings, adhesives and damping materials, as well as brake pads and friction materials for clutches.

3. Aisin AW Co: This company in the Aisin group is a leading manufacturer of automatic transmissions and

car navigation systems.

4. Aisin AI Co: The company is a leading manufacturer of manual transmissions.

5. ADVICS Co: ADVICS is a supplier of brake systems.

Aisin Seiki has now expanded interests in lifestyle- and energy-related products (sewing machines, beds,

gas heat pump products, etc.), and wellness-related products, apart from automotive components.

As of March 2013, Aisin Seiki had a global headcount of nearly 88,000 employees. The company has

manufacturing operations in Japan, Thailand, India, China, Taiwan, Turkey, UK, Czech Republic, Australia,

Brazil and USA.

Aisin Seiki supplies to many automotive OEMs including Toyota, Daihatsu, Fuji, Suzuki, Mitsubishi, Mazda,

Isuzu, Honda and Nissan in Japan. Outside the country, Aisin Seiki supplies to General Motors, Ford,

Chrysler, Volvo, BMW, Renault, Daimler and Hyundai.

Aisin Seiki manufactures the following automotive parts:

• Drivetrain: Automatic transmissions for both passenger and commercial vehicles, plus manual

transmissions, clutches, and flywheels for engines.

• Brake & Chassis: Aisin manufactures various components like Brake Master Cylinder with Brake Assist,

ABS Modulator, ESC Modulator, Hydraulic Booster, Disc Brake Caliper, Brake Pad, Disc Brake Rotor

(Brake Discs) and High Carbon Disc Rotor.

• Engine: The Engine Related Products Business group produces water pumps, oil pumps, variable valve

timing systems, exhaust manifolds, and cooling fans.

• Information: The Information Related Products Business develops products such as Intelligent Parking

Assist that employs car navigation systems and image processing technologies.

• Body: The Body Related Products Business manufactures power sliding doors, power seats, door

latches, sunroofs and door beams.

• Aftermarket: Aisin also supplies to the aftermarket.

In FY 2013, Aisin Seiki had sales of US$ 24.32 billion. Out of this, Engine related products accounted for

9.7% of the total sales, Information related products accounted for 5.0%, Body related products

accounted for 17.0%, Wellness & Life related products for 3.6%, Drivetrain products 44.0% and Brake

63

Chapter 9 Gasoline SI Engine Component Suppliers Profiles

Autelligence Limited

tel: +44 1280 455 705

e-mail: [email protected]

web: www.autelligence.com

Documents

automotive spark ignition - Autelligence · 2017-05-16 · tel: +44 1280 455 705 e-mail: [email protected] web: Automotive Spark Ignition Engines: Trends and Emerging Technologies