Australia and the ‘New World Order’assets.cambridge.org/97805217/65879/frontmatter/... · Australia and the ‘New World Order’ From peacekeeping to peace enforcement: 1988–1991

Australia and the ‘New World Order’

From peacekeeping to peace enforcement: 1988–1991

This volume of the Official History of Australian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post-Cold WarOperations is the first comprehensive study of Australia’s role in the peacekeeping and peaceenforcement operations that developed at the end of the Cold War.

Recounting vital missions, it covers the commitment of Australian Army engineers toNamibia in 1989 to establish the election conditions for a new nation. It examines the difficultiesexperienced by Australian military observers in Iran (1988–1990) following the Iran–Iraq war,and also explains what happened to the mine clearance instructors who worked in Pakistan andAfghanistan (1989–1993). This important volume has a strong focus on Australia’s reactionto Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, including its maritime interception operations, and itscontroversial participation in the 1991 Gulf War.

With access to all relevant Australian Government records and through extensive interviewswith participants, David Horner explains the high-level political background to these activities.He analyses the conduct of the missions and in so doing, brings to life the little-known, yetremarkable stories of many individuals who took part.

Australia and the ‘New World Order’ is an authoritative, comprehensive and compelling historyof how members of the Australian Defence Force engaged with the world at a crucial time ininternational affairs.

David Horner is Professor of Australian defence history in the Strategic and Defence StudiesCentre at the Australian National University. In 2004 he was appointed the Official Historian ofAustralian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post-Cold War Operations, and in 2009 was madea Member of the Order of Australia for service to military history.

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The Official History of Australian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian andPost-Cold War Operations

(Series Editor: David Horner)

Volume II Australia and the ‘New World Order’: From Peacekeeping to Peace Enforcement: 1988–1991David Horner






THE OFFICIAL HISTORY OF AUSTRALIAN PEACEKEEPING,HUMANITARIAN AND POST-COLD WAR OPERATIONS

Australia and the‘New World Order’

From peacekeeping to peace enforcement: 1988–1991

David Horner






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National Library of Australia Cataloguing in Publication dataHorner, D. M. (David Murray), 1948–Australia and the new world order : from peacekeeping to peace enforcement: 1988–1991 / David Horner.9780521765879 (hbk.)Official history of Australian peacekeeping, humanitarian and post-cold war operations; 2.Includes index.Bibliography.Peacekeeping forces–Australia–History.Peace-building, Australian–History.Iraq-Kuwait Crisis, 1990–1991–Participation, Australian.Persian Gulf War, 1991–Participation, Australian.Australia–Armed Forces–Political activity–History.

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Contents

List of maps page xPreface xiChronology 1987–91 xixAbbreviations xxiii

PART 1 STRATEGY AND POLICY

1 Towards a ‘new world order’: Global political, strategicand peacekeeping developments: 1988–91 3

Impact of the Cold War 5End of the Cold War 7The new world order 12Revival of UN peacekeeping 15Evolution of UN peacekeeping 18Implications of the ‘new world order’ 23

2 Responding to a new world order: Australia’s policy towardsoverseas deployments and peacekeeping: 1988–91 25

The beginning of Australian peacekeeping: 1947–50 26Forward defence and peacekeeping: 1950–72 28Self-reliance and peacekeeping: 1972–82 31The Hawke Government and peacekeeping 36Developing Australia’s defence policy 39Foreign policy and peacekeeping 44

PART 2 NEW MAJOR PEACE OPERATIONS

3 An international obligation: Australia’s commitment to Namibia:1979–89 53

A sacred trust 54Australia’s initial commitment 58End of a Cold War conflict 69Australia’s final commitment 75Situation in Namibia 81

4 Establishing the force: The first UNTAG contingent: March–August1989 83

Early days 86Swapo incursion 89Operation Piddock 91Reflections on Operation Piddock 96Arrival of the main body 100Military organisation 101Untag’s mission 102Australian engineer tasks 105Working and living environment 109End of tour 117

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5 Success in Namibia: The second UNTAG contingent: September1989 – April 1990 119

Preparing for the elections 122Operation Poll Gallop 126After the election 133Working and living conditions 134Withdrawal 137Conclusion 141

6 Shadows from a distant war: Australia and the Iran–Iraq War:1980–88 144

Origins of the Iran–Iraq War 145Course of the war 147Australian policy 151Chemical warfare 153Tanker war 157Trade 169War of the cities 170United Nations peace initiatives 172

7 A mission of presence: Military observers in Iran: 1988–90 176Establishing the mission 177Early problems 182Living conditions 185The later contingents 187Observer operations 188Risks 195Working with the United Nations 197End of the mission 200Aftermath 202

8 The genesis of humanitarian demining: The UNMCTT in Pakistan:1989–91 206

Soviet occupation 207Australian policy 210Operation Salam 211Australian involvement 214First contingent: July–November 1989 217Contingents 2 to 5: 1989–91 225Changes to the program’s structure 226Changes to the Australians’ tasks 230Security concerns 231Working and living conditions 234Conclusion 236

9 Balancing the risks: Mine-clearers in Pakistan and Afghanistan:1991–93 238

Sixth contingent: March–September 1991 239Seventh contingent: September 1991 – February 1992 242Australia’s expanding role 244Eighth and ninth contingents: February 1992 – January 1993 245Cross-border operations 249Working and living conditions 254Ending the commitment 257An enduring legacy 262

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PART 3 THE FIRST GULF WAR

10 In defence of vital interests: Committing a naval force:August 1990 269

Origins of the 1991 Gulf War 271Australia–Iraq relations: July 1988–July 1990 280International and Australian reaction 288Committing a naval force 293

11 Off to the Gulf: The first deployment: August–September 1990 303The Royal Australian Navy in 1990 304Selecting the ships 306Preparing the ships 310The ships sail 311Transit to the Gulf 313Operations begin 319

12 Debate and decision: Government policy and the Gulf crisis:August–September 1990 323

Public debate 323Australians in Iraq and Kuwait 328Evacuation plans 330Parliamentary debates 331Rules of engagement 334Logistic support 335International response 337The Walls mission 340Amending the rules of engagement 342International naval conference 344Medical support 346Conclusion 348

13 Boarding and searching: Maritime interception in the Gulf of Oman:September–December 1990 350

Operational environment 352Operational routine 355First boarding 357Visit to Muscat 360Tadmur and Al Wasitti incidents 361Al Bahar Al Arabi incident 364Amuriyah incident 365Public information 367The Navy ‘Arab’ video 368End of the first deployment 371

14 A serious decision: Committing Australians to war:September–December 1990 375

Relieving the first task group 376Terrorist threat 377Hostages 378Options for more forces 381Prospect of hostilities 384The government’s decision 388New directive 395

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15 Into the Persian Gulf: The second naval deployment:September–December 1990 397

Preparing the ships 397Passage to the Gulf 400In the Gulf of Oman 401Into the Persian Gulf 403The Ibn Khaldoon ‘peace ship’ 404End of the interceptions 407

16 Countdown to a deadline: Preparing for war: 1–16 January 1991 410Australian diplomacy 411Criticism 415Coalition forces 418Naval preparations 420Individual Australians 424Medical teams 426Deployment of HMAS Westralia 427Air evacuation plans 429Information 430

17 A supporting role: The RAN in Desert Storm: 17 January – 24February 1991 433

Air strikes begin 433Reaction in Canberra 435Early days 438HMAS Success completes her tour 441Protest and debate 442Deploying the clearance divers 445War continues 451Managing information 452Security 455Joint facilities 457Preparing for the amphibious assault 458Moving forward 459The Faylaka ‘raid’ 461Combat search and rescue 462

18 End of the war? Into Kuwait: 24 February – May 1991 466Collateral damage 466Soviet peace proposals 468Ground offensive 473Australian role 477Ceasefire 480Continuing naval operations 482Clearance Diving Team 3’s operations 483Return of the ships 488Conclusion 490

Conclusion 499Appendix A: Australian participation in multinational peacekeeping

operations, 1947–2007 508Appendix B: Key United Nations Security Council resolutions and

statements 514

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Appendix C: Investigations into chemical warfare in the Iran–Iraq War,1984–87 by Daniel Flitton 515

Appendix D: Gulf War syndrome by Rosalind Hearder 524Appendix E: Major office bearers, 1987–96 554

Bibliography 557Index 584

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Maps

1 Southern Africa, showing the ‘Front Line states’ page A12 Southern Angola and northern Namibia A23 Northern Namibia, including Ovamboland and Kavango A24 Namibia in 1989 A35 Namibia, showing bantustans in 1988 A46 Middle East B17 Southern Iraq and Iran B28 Persian Gulf B39 Iran–Iraq border showing UN team sites B410 Afghanistan and western Pakistan C111 Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait 27012 Area of operations, Operation Damask C213 Maritime Interception Force patrol areas C314 Gulf of Oman C315 Course followed by MV Al Fao, 14 September 1990 D116 Course followed by MV Tadmur, 8 October 1990 D217 Course followed by MV Ibn Khaldoon, 26 December 1990 D318 Operation Desert Storm, 17 January 1991 D419 Operation Desert Storm, 4 February 1991 D520 Operation Desert Storm, 14 February 1991 D621 Operation Desert Storm, 24 February 1991 D722 Coalition ground operations, February 1991 47523 Operation Desert Storm, mine clearance operations D8

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In February 2004 the Cabinet authorised the researching and writing of the OfficialHistory of Australian Peacekeeping and Post–Cold War Operations, and in July 2004the Official History team began work on the five-volume series. With the inclusion ofoverseas emergency relief operations, the series was later expanded to six volumes andbecame the Official History of Australian Peacekeeping, Humanitarian and Post-ColdWar Operations.1

This is Australia’s fifth Official History series and I am its fifth Official Historian,following distinguished predecessors. Charles Bean was general editor and principalauthor of the 15-volume Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918. GavinLong was general editor of the twenty-two volumes of Australia in the War of 1939–1945. Robert O’Neill wrote most of the two volumes of Australia in the Korean War.And Peter Edwards was general editor of the nine-volume Official History of Australia’sInvolvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975.

As with the previous official histories, my team and I have been given full access toall relevant Australian Government records. There has been no censorship, except thatthe Government reserved the right to prevent publication of any material that might bedamaging to Australian national security, such as intelligence sources and informationreceived from allied countries. The excision of such material – and it has been extremelysmall – has in no way changed my conclusions or caused me to compromise the integrityof the history.

This Official History series is quite different from its predecessors.2 The first threeseries each dealt with one war, although in the case of the two world wars there wereseveral theatres of war. The fourth series covered three wars or conflicts: the MalayanEmergency, Confrontation and the Vietnam War, although these took place in thesame general area and, in the case of Confrontation and Vietnam, at the same time.By contrast, the present series covers more than fifty missions in some twenty-sevenconflicts over a period of more than sixty years and includes the activities of Australianpolice as well as military personnel. Further, it also includes more than sixty emergencyrelief operations by the Australian Defence Force. Except in a few cases, Australianmilitary personnel were not deployed on warlike operations; but their missions werearduous and demanding.3 They were truly representing Australia in its engagementwith the world.

1 The Cabinet authorised the researching and writing of the history of ‘all multi-national operationsand post–Cold War operations in which Australia has participated since 1947, excluding the recentoperations in East Timor, Afghanistan and Iraq (2003)’. It is hoped that these excluded operations,especially East Timor, Australia’s largest peacekeeping mission (and one which concluded its initialtask in 2004), will be authorised in the near future.

2 For a more extensive discussion see Horner, ‘Chronicling the peacekeepers’.

3 In 1993 Cabinet agreed that ‘warlike service’ refers to ‘those military activities where the applicationof force is authorised to pursue specific military objectives and there is an expectation of casualties’.For the definition see Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Defence and Defence Related Awards, p. 163.

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The large number of disparate missions posed particular research problems. No oneseries of government records cover all the missions and, unlike the other official histories,no previous attempt had been made to gather the records in one location; rather, wehave needed to seek our records in various government departments, thus creating ourown archive. Further, as peacekeeping missions are generally organised and managedby the United Nations, the specific activities of the Australians involved in them havenot always been recorded by Australian government departments. It has been necessaryto obtain UN records and to interview participants widely.

The numerous and varied missions also created a challenge when structuring theseries. Except for the overseas emergency relief volume (Volume VI), it was not possibleto divide the volumes of the series either completely chronologically, thematically (first-generation and second-generation peacekeeping), geographically or by military service(Navy, Army or Air Force), as was the case with the earlier official histories. The seriesis therefore organised broadly on a chronological basis, with variations on the basis ofgeography and theme. As a result, the series is structured as follows:» Volume I: Missions beginning between 1947 and 1987, including Indonesia, Kash-

mir, the Middle East, Congo, Cyprus and Rhodesia/Zimbabwe» Volume II: Missions beginning between 1988 and 1990, including Namibia, Iran,

Pakistan and Afghanistan, the Persian Gulf and Kuwait» Volume III: Missions beginning in 1991 and 1992 including Iraq, Western Sahara,

Cambodia and Yugoslavia» Volume IV: Missions beginning from 1993 onwards including Somalia, Mozam-

bique, Rwanda, Haiti, Eritrea and Sierra Leone» Volume V: Missions in the Pacific region since 1980, including Bougainville,

Solomon Islands and other deployments» Volume VI: Overseas emergency relief operations, including Papua New Guinea,

Sumatra, Pakistan, Iran and various Pacific nations.Each volume has its own challenges. Volume I covers the longest period; it includes

those peacekeeping missions that began during the Cold War of 1947–87, but contin-ues their stories through to the present. These were essentially traditional observer-typemissions initiated after a peace of sorts had been negotiated between the belligerents.Volume II is concerned with Australia’s role in the operations that resulted from the endof the Cold War. The missions include observer activities, the conduct of elections andmine-clearance training. The volume also moves beyond peacekeeping to peace enforce-ment, such as the application of sanctions and even war. Volume III deals with missionsthat show the increasing complexity of peacekeeping and their overlap with sanctions,weapons inspection, humanitarian aid, election monitoring and peace enforcement inthe post-Cold War world. Volume IV describes Australia’s involvement in the missionsthat developed in the mid-1990s and were concerned with internal conflicts, some-times involving genocide, and demonstrated an ever-broadening geographic reach toareas distant from Australia. Volume V covers the sensitive operations in Australia’snear region, the South Pacific, from 1980 onwards. Volume VI deals with Australianoverseas emergency relief operations that, while not peacekeeping missions, had manyof their characteristics. They were deployed at short notice, needed to be coordinatedwith the governments and forces of other nations, involved important foreign policydecisions, were arduous and stressful, and in one instance involved the loss of Australianlives.

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We have not been too concerned about a rigid definition of peacekeeping, partlybecause our charter, with certain parameters, requires us to tell the stories of mostof Australia’s overseas military operations. Certainly, Australia’s armed forces havebeen involved in many operations that fall under the broad heading of ‘peacekeeping’.The term can be interpreted in many ways, and the understanding of it has changedconsiderably since 1991, when the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade describedit thus: ‘The use of military and civilian personnel under UN command to keep hostilefactions or countries from fighting while peacemaking efforts are pursued’.4 In 1994 theDepartment of Defence defined it as ‘non-combat operations (exclusive of self-defence),that are undertaken by outside forces with the consent of all major belligerent parties,designed to monitor and facilitate implementation of an existing truce agreement insupport of diplomatic efforts to reach a political settlement to the dispute’.5

Defence, however, also used the terms ‘peace enforcement’, ‘peace building’ and‘peace support operations’. Peace enforcement operations were ‘a form of combat, armedintervention, or the threat of armed intervention . . . to compel compliance with inter-national sanctions or resolutions – the primary purpose of which is the maintenanceor restoration of peace under conditions broadly acceptable to the international com-munity’. Peace building included diplomatic or military action to rebuild institutionsand infrastructure, while ‘peace support operations’ was an umbrella term coveringpeacekeeping, peace enforcement and preventative deployment.6 In its 1994 reportthe Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade used the term‘peacekeeping’ to encompass ‘all activities involving military operations in support ofpeace – peacemaking, peacekeeping, peace enforcement – unless specifically indicatedotherwise’.7 This seems to be a sensible approach. More recently, in 2004 the DefenceDepartment updated these definitions, but they do not alter the essence of the earlierones.8

This Official History series is different from its predecessors in ways that go beyondits focus on peacekeeping. While not ignoring strategic issues, Bean concentratedon the story of the soldiers, memorialising the ‘great-hearted men’ whose glory rose‘above the mists of ages’.9 The Second World War series was far more complex withfive substantial home front volumes. In its combat volumes the historians attemptedto balance strategy, command and the experience of individuals. By the time the first

4 Quoted in Report of the Senate Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, UnitedNations Peacekeeping and Australia, p. 9.

5 Quoted in Joint Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade, Australia’s Participationin Peacekeeping, p. 151.

6 Ibid, pp. 151–2.

7 Ibid, p. 2.

8 Peacekeeping: ‘A non-coercive instrument of diplomacy, where a legitimate international civil and/ormilitary coalition is employed with the consent of the belligerent parties, in an impartial, non-combatant manner, to implement conflict resolution arrangements or assist humanitarian aid oper-ations.’ Peace enforcement: ‘The coercive use of civil and military actions by legitimate, internationalintervention forces, to assist diplomatic efforts to restore peace between belligerents, who may notconsent to that intervention. These actions will take the form of a graduated response to the conflictresolution: from the imposition of civil sanctions, followed by military support of sanctions, mili-tary sanctions and finally collective security actions’ (Australian Defence Doctrine Publication 2004,Operations Series ADDP 3.8, Peace Operations, Glossary, pp. 1, 2).

9 Bean, The Australian Imperial Force in France During the Allied Offensive, 1918, p. 1096.

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volumes of the Official History of Australia’s Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts began toappear in 1992–93 there were claims that official histories had outlived their usefulness.For example, the historian John Murphy argued that Peter Edwards failed to provide afull portrait of Australian society and politics, and that his series consisted of books thatwere divided into specialist subdisciplines of diplomatic and military history. Murphyconcludes:

Bean and Long were both journalists, writing for a wider audience; [Ian] McNeill [whowrote the first and part of the second of the Vietnam combat volumes], and Edwardsare writing within more specialised discourses. In these senses the tradition of officialhistory seems problematic and near to exhaustion. Where before it meant an attemptto explain the social experience of war, it has been diverted into the scholarly studyof war as seen from the commanding heights of the cabinet, bureaucracy and armedforces.10

The historian Glen St J. Barclay made a similar criticism. He acknowledged thatthe official historians of both world wars had ‘set a magnificent standard’, but assertedthat ‘it could not be sustained’. It was possible, he said, ‘to write exclusively and in vastdetail about Australia’s involvement in the two World Wars because Australians hadplayed a significant part in their own right in many campaigns in both conflicts’, but,he added, ‘it would not be possible to write exclusively about Australian involvementin conflicts in which Australian units operated as marginal elements in a vastly largelyAllied operation’ without producing an account for which the audience ‘would certainlybe prone to miss the point’. Thus while Robert O’Neill’s volume Strategy and Diplomacyhad been an ‘unqualified success’, his second volume, Combat Operations, although welldone, was ‘precisely a regimental history’ that omits the larger picture.11

Murphy and Barclay were apparently arguing that O’Neill and Edwards failedbecause they did not exactly follow, or more generally because it was no longer possibleto follow, the model of previous histories. They seemed not to appreciate that an officialhistory is a record of the government’s activities, rather than ‘an attempt to explain thesocial experience of war’. This is not to say that an official history is the government’sview; rather, it is the story, told by an impartial historian, of what the government hasdone, based on its records. The experiences of individual service people are importantbecause they are acting as agents of the government and, of course, as representatives ofAustralia. But how far can we go in telling their stories? Ian McNeill correctly believedthat it was not ‘possible, and hardly desirable, to attempt to trace every operation inwhich Australian forces were engaged’ in his Vietnam combat volume.12 Similarly,Peter Dennis and Jeffrey Grey, authors of Emergency and Confrontation, felt that it wasnot part of their ‘brief to try to describe in detail at the level of the individual soldierwhat Malaya and Borneo were like for those who were not there’.13

For this present series we have tried to tell the story of the respective missions atthree levels: the strategic level, in which we have concentrated on the government’s

10 Murphy, ‘The new official history’, pp. 123–4.

11 Barclay, ‘Australian historians and the study of war, 1975–88’, pp. 240–1.

12 McNeill, To Long Tan, p. xvi.

13 Dennis and Grey, Emergency and Confrontation, pp. xv, xvi.

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decision-making process; the operational level, in which we have sought to explain howthe Australian Defence Force and other agencies planned and executed their tasks; andthe tactical or personnel level, in which we have tried to describe what the peacekeepersactually did in the field. Beyond this, we have needed to explain the broader historicaland political backgrounds for each of the missions in which Australia has been involved.We have also been conscious that, in contrast to the other conflicts and their officialhistories, it is unlikely that there will be many other books on the experience of theAustralians in their respective missions. Further, peacekeeping veterans have often beenfrustrated by the community’s lack of understanding of what they had achieved. Wehave therefore felt a special responsibility to describe the particular circumstances andconditions that Australian service personnel endured in their respective missions. Wehave remained determined to produce scholarly accounts based on official AustralianGovernment records and informed by wider research, but we have also attempted torecognise the part played by individual Australians.

❚ ❚ ❚

Researching and writing the Official History series has been a joint activity madeenjoyable by the friendship and selflessness of good colleagues. We have shared theproducts of our research, and all team members have read and commented on each other’schapters – often a painful process for the author but one that has invariably resulted in amuch better chapter. I warmly acknowledge the support and contribution of the otherauthors. Dr Peter Londey, initially at the Australian War Memorial and later at theAustralian National University, in his capacity as Deputy General Editor shoulderedmuch of the administrative burden, and was always ready to challenge us and ensurethat we had written balanced narratives. Dr John Connor, initially at the Australian WarMemorial and now at the University of New South Wales, Australian Defence ForceAcademy, could be relied upon for his perceptive and constructive criticism. Dr BobBreen of the Australian National University brought to the project a wealth of practicalexperience and research in Australian peacekeeping and other operations. Dr SteveBullard of the Australian War Memorial took up some of the Memorial administrationwhen Peter Londey moved to the university, and brought a fresh set of eyes and ideas tothe review process.

We have been blessed with very capable and loyal research assistants over a five-year period. Dr Garth Pratten, the project’s principal research officer, set up the pro-cedures for preserving our records, and his administrative task was continued withenergy and enthusiasm by Miesje de Vogel after he departed for a teaching appoint-ment at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst. Our other talented researchers, DrJean Bou, Daniel Flitton, Dr Matthew Glozier, Dr David Hay, Dr Rosalind Hearder,Miesje de Vogel (who also prepared the index) and Dr Christine Winter, contributedto this and the other volumes with their archival research, by conducting and record-ing interviews, and by contributing vigorously to the review process. Dr Hearder andMr Flitton researched and wrote appendices for this volume. Professor Joan Beau-mont, then of Deakin University, joined us for three months while, as a visitingfellow in 2007, reading draft chapters and providing wise counsel. Professor PeterDennis and Dr Hugh Smith, both of the University of New South Wales, Aus-tralian Defence Force Academy, graciously read the entire manuscript and offered wiseadvice.

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The Official History was made possible through a cooperative arrangement betweenthe Australian National University and the Australian War Memorial, with financialsupport from the Department of Defence and the Australian Research Council. Atthe Australian War Memorial I am grateful for the support of the Chairman of theCouncil, Major General Adrian Clunies Ross, and his successor, General Peter Cosgrove.The Memorial Director, Major General Steve Gower, was one of the initiators of theproject and was always willing to offer help, guidance and support. I also thank HelenWithnell, Assistant Director Public Programs, and Dr Peter Stanley and his successor,Ashley Ekins, head of the Military History Section. We received excellent help from theMemorial’s research centre, headed by Mal Booth. Madeleine Chaleyer, Bill Brassell andLenny Preston provided valuable assistance in recording interviews with participantsfrom many of the missions. Kerry Neale transcribed interviews in an efficient andtimely manner. I should also acknowledge the invaluable assistance from the Memorial’svolunteers, particularly Rod Chidgey, Bev Clarke, Edward Helgeby, Jean Magdulski andDavid Nott, who have assisted with research tasks for this volume such as transcribinginterviews, organising photographs, searching Hansard and keying records into ourcomputer database.

At the Australian National University the project was supported by Professor RobinJeffrey, Director of the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Professor HughWhite, Head of the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Anne Dowling, the Centreadministrator, and Meredith Thatcher, the Centre’s publications manager and infor-mation officer. Within the Centre I have benefited from discussions with ProfessorWhite, Professor Paul Dibb, Admiral Chris Barrie and Dr Richard Brabin-Smith, all ofwhom had first-hand knowledge of many of the events covered in this volume. ProfessorWilliam Maley of the Asia–Pacific College of Diplomacy gave me the benefit of hisvast knowledge of recent Afghan history. The ANU Cartography Unit, headed by KayDancey, and with much good work by Anthony Bright, drew the excellent maps thatappear in this volume. Darren Boyd, of the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studiesphotographic unit, skilfully copied the many photographs that were loaned to me byveterans of the peacekeeping missions.

It would not have been possible to research the history without the whole-heartedcooperation of the Department of Defence and the Australian Defence Force. GeneralPeter Cosgrove and Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, successive Chiefs of the DefenceForce, and Ric Smith and Nick Warner, successive Department Secretaries, ensuredthat we had access to the necessary records and personnel, as well as arranging forthe department to provide additional financial support. Access to departmental recordswas facilitated by the staff of the department’s Strategic Policy Branch including (thethen) Commodore James Goldrick, Air Commodore Mark Lax, Commodore RichardMenhinick, Group Captain Gary Dunbar, Marc Ablong, Ben Coleman, Cameron Hooke,Katrina McColl and Kathryn Hitchings.

Access to Navy records was organised by Dr David Stevens, John Perryman andBrett Mitchell of the RAN Seapower Centre, who made me very welcome while Iworked at the centre. Roger Lee, Head of the Australian Army History Unit, his deputyBrian Manns, and Lieutenant Colonel Bill Houston made army records available andgave other crucial assistance. The RAAF historian, Dr Chris Clark, was always ready toforward RAAF records and personnel information. Irene Wilson and Graham Wilsonof the Defence Honours and Awards Directorate provided useful lists of personnel with

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specific awards that enabled me to develop nominal rolls for some of the missions. JennyOldfield and Kim Byrnes at Defence Archives, Queanbeyan, were invariably obliging intracking down files and making them available to us. At Land Headquarters in SydneyChris Knell was always able to find the records we needed.

Much of my research into the First Gulf War was conducted in 1991 and led tothe publication of my 1992 book The Gulf Commitment. At that time, General PeterGration, Chief of the Defence Force, approved access to ADF records and personnel.For this present volume I revisited the material that I had collected for the earlierproject and built on the interviews I conducted then. The list of interviewees is in thebibliography of this present volume. For my description of the operational aspects ofthe Gulf War I have not been able to go much beyond my earlier book, for which I hadfull access to the operational records at that time. But my discussion of the politicaland policy side of the Gulf commitment has now been informed by the records of theDepartment of Foreign Affairs and Trade and by the papers of Prime Minister Hawkeand Foreign minister Evans, and it goes much beyond my earlier book.

We have relied heavily on departmental records held by the National Archives ofAustralia, where were have been ably assisted by Anne McLean, Director Access andInformation Services, David Bell, our obliging and dedicated reference officer, and theretrieval staff headed by Ritchie George. Marjorie Bly, Assistant Director Access andCommunications at the National Archives office in Perth, facilitated access to the Beazleypapers. I am grateful to the former Prime Minister, Bob Hawke, the former Defenceminister, Kim Beazley, and the former Foreign minister, Gareth Evans, for generouslymaking available their ministerial papers. Access to their papers was not covered bythe Cabinet minute setting up the project, but these former ministers appreciated theimportance of enabling us to understand how they made their decisions.

The Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Dr Ashton Calvert,and his successor, Michael L’Estrange, supported the project. Dara Williams, AssistantSecretary, Information Resources Branch, and Dr David Lee, Director of the HistoricalPublications and Information Section, helped with access to records, and we were alsoassisted by Dr Moreen Dee and Stephen Robinson. For access to UN records, JohnDauth, Australia’s Permanent Representative in New York, secured the approval of theUN Assistant Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, Hedi Annabi. At theUN Archives, Dr Hearder and Dr Pratten were assisted by the UN archivist, AngelaSchiwy, during their research visits in December 2005 and January 2006.

The Secretary of the Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet, Dr Peter Shergold,ensured that his and all other departments understood the special access granted to theOfficial Historian. Within his department, access to records was facilitated by BrendanMcDowell and Jan Wooton. I thank Peter Varghese, Director General of the Office ofNational Assessments, and Derryl Triffet, Assistant Director General Corporate andIT Services, for arranging access to ONA reports. Similarly, I thank Paul O’Sullivan,Director General of Security, for providing access to records of the Australian SecurityIntelligence Organisation.

It is important for military historians to visit areas of operations, and in this endeav-our we have been assisted by the staffs of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Tradeand the Department of Defence. In April–May 2004 I visited Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, receiving briefings at Australian and coalitionmilitary bases, and familiarising myself with the Persian Gulf region. I was capably

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Preface

escorted by Flight Lieutenant Dean Paterson for the whole tour, and I thank him forhis companionship. In Kuwait, Lieutenant Colonel Wayne Goodman arranged a visitto a Kuwaiti naval base and took me to the ‘highway of death’ and the Iraqi border. InOman I was escorted by Commander Rob Woodcock RAN. In Bahrain I was hosted byCommander Paul Barrett RAN. I spent two days aboard HMAS Stuart in the northernPersian Gulf, and I am grateful to Commander Philip Spedding RAN and his ship’scompany for their hospitability and for giving me an insight into naval operations inthe area.

In April 2005 I visited Namibia, where I was escorted by Peter Scott, from theAustralian High Commission in Pretoria, and by Dr David Robertson of the Universityof Namibia, on behalf of the New Zealand honorary consul. I was able to inspect the mainareas where Australians operated in 1989–90. A visit to Iran to look at the locations ofthe Uniimog teamsites was organised, with much difficulty, by the Australian Embassyin Tehran, but the Iranian Government cancelled it at the last minute on the groundsthat they could not guarantee my safety.

The Cabinet directed that I be given full access to all relevant Australian Governmentrecords, but of course it could not provide access to the records of other countries.Nonetheless, Miss Alex Ward, Head of the Army Historical Branch in the BritishMinistry of Defence, generously arranged access to British records of their missionsin Namibia and Western Sahara. Similarly, Dr Serge Bernier and Dr Steve Harris ofthe Canadian Department of National Defence’s Directorate of History and Heritage,passed on some of the fruits of their research. I also received assistance from Dr JefferyClarke, Head of the US Army’s Center of Military History, and Dr Edward Marolda andDr Gary Weir of the US Navy’s Historical Center.

In researching this volume I interviewed some 110 peacekeeping veterans and keypersonnel and also relied on records of interviews with a further dozen participantsconducted by other members of the team and Australian War Memorial staff. I amextremely grateful to all those who agreed to the interviews and to those who gaveme access to private papers and diaries. Their names are listed in the bibliography.In many cases I circulated draft chapters to the interviewees to ensure that they werecomfortable with the way I had used the information they provided. I thank them fortheir assistance with this task and for their useful comments and at times corrections tomy draft chapters.

At Cambridge University Press the project was managed by Debbie Lee, SusanHanley, Jodie Howell and Cathryn Game, and I am grateful for their expertise.

My deepest gratitude and appreciation is for my wife Sigrid, who over many yearshas been so generous in her support and forbearance.

Note on sourcesThe Official Historian and his colleagues have been granted unrestricted access toCommonwealth Government records relevant to the preparation of the Official History.Some of the primary sources cited in the Official History might not necessarily beavailable for public access.

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Chronology 1987–91

Events described in particular detail in this volume are printed in italics.

198719 March Defence White Paper, Defence of Australia 1987, presented to Parliament24–28 April HMAS Cessnock, Sydney and Wollongong provide disaster relief to

Vanuatu after Cyclone Umar14 May Coup in Fiji18 May Fijian patrol boat HMFS Kira challenges HMAS Stalwart, a supply

ship, at sea19 May Prime Minister Hawke announces the closure of the Libyan People’s

Bureau for disrupting peaceful relations in the Pacific22–23 May An Australian infantry company flies to Norfolk Island and deploys by

RAN vessels to waters off Fiji (Operation Morris Dance) as acontingency for evacuation operations

7 June Australian evacuation force deployed to the waters off Fiji back inAustralia

24 July Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade formed from thedepartments of Foreign Affairs and Trade

10 December Cabinet decides to make an RAN clearance diving team available foroperations in the Persian Gulf (Operation Sandglass)

19 December Operation Sandglass begins when RAN officers visit the Persian Gulf

198812 January Captain Peter McCarthy killed in Lebanon while serving with

UNTSO23–24 February HMAS Cessnock provides disaster relief to Vanuatu after Cyclone Anne5–12 March HMAS Cessnock provides disaster relief to Vanuatu after Cyclone Bola14 April Geneva accords signed between Afghanistan, Pakistan, USA and

USSR to allow for Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan17 May ADF troops and ships on standby to react to violence in Vanuatu

(Operation Sail Cloth)26 May ADF reverts to normal activities – end of Operation Sail Cloth7 August Bill Hayden relinquishes appointment as Foreign minister8 August Angola, Cuba and South Africa sign a protocol providing for cessation

of hostilities in Angola and Namibia9 August UN Security Council approves the implementation of the peace

process to end the Iran–Iraq War and the formation of Uniimog11 August Government announces the commitment of Australian observers to Uniimog16 August Australian observers arrive in Iran2 September Senator Gareth Evans takes up appointment as Foreign minister5 September Government reconfirms its commitment of an engineer contingent to Namibia

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25–27 November The Bougainville Crisis begins when militants use stolen explosives ina series of attacks on infrastructure at Panguna copper mine

7 December Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev addresses United Nations andspeaks of a new world order

22 December Angola, Cuba and South Africa sign an agreement aimed at allowingthe people of Namibia to vote to elect a constituent assembly

19896 January Vietnam announces it will withdraw troops from Cambodia in

September16 January UN Security Council adopts Resolution 629, allowing for a

settlement in Namibia20 January George H.W. Bush succeeds Ronald Reagan as US President6–26 February No 37 Squadron aircraft deliver an army helicopter and relief supplies

to Western Samoa and Tuvalu after Cyclone Ofa14 February Cabinet endorses Australia’s contribution to Untag in Namibia15 February Last Soviet troops depart from Afghanistan18 February Two AFP officers deploy to Thai–Cambodia border as part of Unbro11 March Australian advance party arrives in Namibia14 April Main body of Australian contingent arrives in Namibia26 June PNG government declares State of Emergency in Bougainville5 July Defence minister Kim Beazley approves despatch of mine-clearers to Pakistan

as part of UNMCTT16 July First Australian mine clearance contingent arrives in Pakistan7 August Two ADF officers visit Cambodia as part of survey team for possible

UN peacekeeping mission26 September Vietnamese complete withdrawal from Cambodia9 November Fall of Berlin Wall24 November Foreign minister Evans announces Cambodia peace proposal based

around the creation of a UN transitional authority2–3 December Gorbachev and Bush meet in Malta and declare that the Cold War has

ended6 December Foreign Affairs policy statement, Australia’s Regional Security, presented to

Parliament20 December United States forces invade Panama

19902 January DFAT establishes Cambodia Task Force to develop Evans’s proposal

into a detailed peace plan11 February Nelson Mandela released from prison in South Africa13 March International Observer Group arrives in Bougainville to monitor

withdrawal of PNG security forces and surrender of weapons byBougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA)

4 April Senator Robert Ray succeeds Beazley as Defence minister9 April Last troops of Australian contingent depart from Namibia17 May Bougainvillean militants issue a Unilateral Declaration of

Independence

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27 June UN Security Council approves plan for peacekeeping force (Minurso)in Western Sahara

12 June Boris Yeltsin elected Chairman of Supreme Soviet of Russia(effectively President of Russia; takes office 10 July)

29 July An Australian Army officer arrives in Morocco as part of the technicalsurvey mission for a UN force in Western Sahara

2August Iraq invades Kuwait2 August UN Security Council adopts Resolution 660 condemning Iraq and

demanding its withdrawal from Kuwait5 August PNG government and BRA sign the Endeavour Accord6 August Australian Government imposes sanctions on Iraq6 August UN Security Council adopts Resolution 661 imposing mandatory

sanctions on Iraq10 August Prime Minister Bob Hawke announces the commitment of Australian

warships to sanctions operations13 August Two Australian frigates depart Sydney for the Persian Gulf3 September Australian task group enters area of operations in Gulf of Oman3 October Reunification of Germany29 November UN Security Council adopts Resolution 678, authorising the use of

force to eject Iraq from Kuwait3 December First Australian naval task group is relieved by the second task group on the

edge of the Gulf of Oman operational area4 December Prime Minister Hawke announces that Australia would make its naval task

force available for operations to eject Iraq from Kuwait7 December Last Australian Uniimog observers depart from Iran16 December Australian naval task group enters the Persian Gulf

199117 January Coalition air strikes begin against Iraq23 January PNG government and BRA delegations sign the Honiara Declaration24 February Coalition ground campaign begins against Iraq28 February Ceasefire in Gulf War15 March Australian mine-clearers permitted to enter Afghanistan26 March Australian combat ships depart from the Persian Gulf3 April UN Security Council adopts Resolution 687, setting out terms for the

ceasefire to end the Gulf War5 April UN Security Council adopts Resolution 688, demanding access to

Kurds in northern Iraq10 April Australian Government agrees to provide inspectors to Unscom16 April Prime Minister Hawke announces provision of inspectors to Unscom30 April Cabinet approves the commitment of medical and support personnel

to Operation Habitat in northern Iraq30 April Cabinet approves the commitment of signallers to Western Sahara8 May Australian advance party arrives in southern Turkey13 May Cabinet approves the deployment of a frigate as part of the

Multinational Naval Force (MNF) to apply sanctions against Iraq14 May First Australian official takes part in weapons inspection in Iraq

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24 May Australian contingent arrives in northern Iraq29 May HMAS Westralia departs from the Persian Gulf17 June Last Australians of Operation Habitat depart from northern Iraq17 June HMAS Darwin enters Persian Gulf as part of the MNF1 July Warsaw Pact is dissolved1 July First members of Operation Blazer (weapons inspectors) arrive in

Bahrain10 July Government announces the commitment of signallers to Western

Sahara18 August An attempted coup in USSR by communist hardliners fails and leads

to break-up of Soviet Union5 September Australian advance party arrives in Western Sahara5 September HMAS Darwin departs the Persian Gulf5–12 September HMAS Swan and Westralia provide disaster relief after Mount

Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines5–14 September No 37 Squadron aircraft deliver relief supplies after flooding in

Cambodia19 September Main body of Australian contingent arrives in Western Sahara24 September Cabinet endorses Australian contribution to Unamic5 October HMAS Sydney arrives in northern Red Sea as part of MNF16 October UN Security Council adopts Resolution 717, establishing Unamic in

Cambodia23 October Cambodia peace agreement signed in Paris31 October UN Security Council adopts Resolution 718, establishing Untac in

Cambodia8 November Australian signallers depart for Cambodia as part of Unamic

(Operation Goodwill)11–18 December No 37 Squadron aircraft deliver army helicopters and relief supplies to

Western Samoa after Cyclone Val20 December Paul Keating succeeds Hawke as Prime Minister21 December Former republics of USSR form the Commonwealth of Independent

States25 December Gorbachev resigns as USSR president31 December USSR ceases to exist

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Abbreviations

ABC Australian Broadcasting CorporationACMO Assistant Chief Military ObserverACOPS Assistant Chief of the Defence Force (Operations)ACPOL Assistant Chief of the Defence Force (Policy)ADF Australian Defence ForceAEC Australian Electoral CommissionAFP Australian Federal PoliceAG Administrator General (Namibia)AHU Army History UnitAIDS acquired immune deficiency syndromeAIF Australian Imperial ForceAir Cdre Air CommodoreALP Australian Labor PartyAnzus Australia, New Zealand and United States treatyAP assembly pointARA Australian Regular ArmyAS Assistant SecretaryASC Australian (Services) Contingent or ComponentAsean Association of South-East Asian NationsASIO Australian Security Intelligence OrganisationATC Afghan Technical ConsultantsAVM Air Vice-MarshalAWACS Airborne Warning and Control SystemAWM Australian War MemorialBrig BrigadierCapt CaptainCBW Chemical and biological warfareCCB Civil Cooperation BureauCDF Chief of the Defence ForceCDFS Chief of the Defence Force StaffCdr CommanderCdre CommodoreCDT Clearance Diving TeamCentcom Central Command (United States)CGS Chief of the General StaffCIA Central Intelligence Agency (United States)CIS Commonwealth of Independent StatesCivpol United Nations civilian policeCIWS Close In Weapons SystemCJOP Chief of Joint Operations and PlansCMF Citizen Military Forces, also Commonwealth Monitoring Force

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Abbreviations

CMO Chief Military ObserverCMTTU Commonwealth Military Training Team – UgandaCNN Cable News NetworkCNS Chief of Naval StaffCO Commanding OfficerCol ColonelCol (OA) Colonel (Operations Analyst)COMUSNAVCENT Commander US Naval Forces Central CommandCPD Commonwealth Parliamentary DebatesCpl CorporalCPO Chief Petty OfficerCSAR Combat Search and RescueCTO Compensatory time offDOA87 The Defence of Australia 1987 (Government Defence White

Paper)DFA Department of Foreign AffairsDFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and TradeDGI Directorate General of Intelligence (Iraq)DIO Defence Intelligence OrganisationDPKO (United Nations) Department of Peacekeeping OperationsDSTO Defence Science and Technology OrganisationDTA Democratic Turnhalle AllianceDU depleted uraniumDVA Department of Veterans’ AffairsEOD explosive ordnance disposalFapla People’s Armed Forces for the Liberation of AngolaFAS First Assistant SecretaryFDA Food and Drug AdministrationFFG Guided missile frigate (Australia)FPDA Five Power Defence ArrangementsGDP Gross Domestic ProductGen GeneralGp Capt Group CaptainGPS Global Positioning SystemH of R House of RepresentativesHalo Hazardous Areas Life-support OrganisationHIV human immunodeficiency virusHMAS Her Majesty’s Australian ShipHMCS Her Majesty’s Canadian ShipHMS Her Majesty’s ShipHMZS Her Majesty’s New Zealand ShipHNLMS Her Netherlands Majesty’s ShipHQ HeadquartersHQADF Headquarters Australian Defence ForceICJ International Court of JusticeICRC International Committee of the Red CrossINF Intermediate Nuclear Force

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Abbreviations

Inmarsat International Marine Satellite (radio)IRGN Iranian Revolutionary Guard NavyISI Inter-service Intelligence (Pakistan)JIO Joint Intelligence OrganisationJIPC Joint Imagery Production ComplexJOTS Joint Operational Tactical SystemJstars Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar SystemL Cpl Lance CorporalLedet Law Enforcement DetachmentLeut Lieutenant (Navy)LHQ Land HeadquartersLO Liaison officerLSE Logistic Support ElementLSF Logistic Support ForceLSG Logistic Support GroupLt Lieutenant (Army)Lt Cdr Lieutenant CommanderLt Col Lieutenant ColonelLt Gen Lieutenant GeneralMaj MajorMaj Gen Major GeneralMCPA Mine Clearance Planning AgencyMFO Multinational Force and ObserversMIF Maritime Interception ForceMinurso United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western SaharaMNF Multinational Naval forceMOIR (Iranian) Military Organisation for the Implementation of

Resolution 598MOU memorandum of understandingMP Military PoliceMPLA Popular Movement for the Liberation of AngolaMSA mission subsistence allowanceMSF Medecins Sans Frontieres (Doctors Without Borders)MV Motor VesselNAA National Archives of AustraliaNAPS Nerve Agent Pre-Treatment SetNato North Atlantic Treaty OrganisationNBC nuclear, biological and chemicalNBCD nuclear, biological and chemical defenceNCO non-commissioned officerNGO non-government organisationOAU Organisation of African UnityOECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentOFOESA Office of Field Operational and External Support ActivitiesOMA Organisation for Mine AwarenessOMAR Organisation for Mine Clearance and Afghan RehabilitationONA Office of National Assessments

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Abbreviations

Onuc United Nations Operation in the Congo (Organisation des NationsUnies au Congo)

Onuca United Nations Observer Group in Central AmericaOnumoz United Nations Operation in MozambiqueOnusal United Nations Observer Mission in El SalvadorOPCW Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical WeaponsOpec Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting CountriesOSPA (United Nations) Office for Special Political AffairsPLAN People’s Liberation Army of NamibiaPM&C Prime Minister and Cabinet (Department)PNG Papua New GuineaPolisario Polisario Front, or Frente Polisario, from the Spanish

abbreviation of Frente Popular de Liberacion de Saguıa el Hamra yRıo de Oro (Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamraand Rio de Oro)

Pte PrivatePTSD post-traumatic stress disorderR Adm Rear AdmiralRAAF Royal Australian Air ForceRAM radar absorbent materialRAN Royal Australian NavyRAR Royal Australian RegimentRHIB rigid hull inflatable boatRimpac Rim of the PacificROE rules of engagementRSM Regimental Sergeant MajorSADF South African Defence ForceSAS Special Air Service (Regiment)SBS Special Broadcasting ServiceSCR Security Council ResolutionSeal sea air land (US Navy special warfare operators)Seato South-East Asia Treaty OrganisationSgt SergeantSME School of Military EngineeringSMO Senior Medical OfficerSMOIL smoke and oil (pollutant)SNCO senior non-commisioned officerSO1 Staff Officer Grade 1SPC-A Sea Power Centre – AustraliaSpr SapperSRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-GeneralStart Strategic Arms Reduction TreatySwaad South West Afghanistan Agency for DeminingSwapo South West Africa People’s OrganisationSwapol South West Africa PoliceSwataf South West Africa Territorial ForceTGMSE Task Group Medical Support Element

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Abbreviations

UK United KingdomUN United Nations (Organisation)Unamic United Nations Advance Mission in CambodiaUnavem United Nations Angola Verification MissionUncip United Nations Commission for India and PakistanUncok United Nations Commission on KoreaUndof United Nations Disengagement Observer ForceUnef United Nations Emergency ForceUnficyp United Nations Peacekeeping Force in CyprusUngoc United Nations Committee of Good OfficesUngomap United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and

PakistanUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUnifil United Nations Interim Force in LebanonUniimog United Nations Iran–Iraq Military Observer GroupUnikom United Nations Iraq–Kuwait Observation MissionUnipom United Nations India–Pakistan Observer MissionUnita National Union for the Total Independence of AngolaUNMCTT United Nations Mine Clearance Training TeamUnmo United Nations Military ObserverUnmogip United Nations Military Observer Group on India and PakistanUnmovic United Nations Monitoring and Verification Inspection

CommissionUnoca Office for the Coordination of United Nations Humanitarian

and Economic Assistance Programmes Relating to Afghanistan,sometimes shortened to United Nations Office for theCoordinator Afghanistan

Unocha United Nations Office for the Coordination of HumanitarianAssistance to Afghanistan

Unogil United Nations Observer Group in LebanonUnscob United Nations Special Commission on the BalkansUnscom United Nations Special Commission (on Iraq)UNSCR United Nations Security Council ResolutionUntac United Nations Transitional Authority in CambodiaUntag United Nations Transition Assistance GroupUntcok United Nations Temporary Commission on KoreaUntea United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (West New

Guinea)Untso United Nations Truce Supervision OrganisationUnyom United Nations Yemen Observation MissionUS United States (of America)USAF United States Air ForceUSN United States NavyUSNS United States Naval Ship (a non-commisioned, civilian-manned

vessel operated by the US Navy)USS United States ShipUSSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

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Abbreviations

V Adm Vice-AdmiralVCDF Vice Chief of the Defence ForceWEU Western European UnionWMD Weapons of Mass Destruction (nuclear, biological and chemical

weapons)WO1 Warrant Officer Class 1WO2 Warrant Officer Class 2

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Documents

Australia and the ‘New World Order’assets.cambridge.org/97805217/65879/frontmatter/... · Australia and the ‘New World Order’ From peacekeeping to peace enforcement: 1988–1991